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Wind Power Plant Grounding, Overvoltage


Protection, and Insulation Coordination
IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group

Contributing Members: E.H. Camm, M. R. Behnke, O. Bolado, M. Bollen, M. Bradt, C. Brooks, W. Dilling,
M. Edds, W. J. Hejdak, D. Houseman, S. Klein, F. Li, J. Li, P. Maibach, T. Nicolai, J. Patiño, S. V. Pasupulati,
N. Samaan, S. Saylors, T. Siebert, T. Smith, M. Starke, R. Walling

or more phases and ground. The severity of temporary


Abstract-- Proper insulation coordination is critical to overvoltages during faults is closely associated with the
achieving expected life from wind plant equipment. The collector degree of system grounding provided to a circuit, and thus
systems of large wind plants require the application of surge system grounding is the term relevant to the insulation
arresters to protect the equipment insulation from transient
coordination process.
overvoltages. The application of surge arresters is constrained by
maximum operating and temporary overvoltage levels. This In this paper, system grounding will be addressed first, as an
paper provides a tutorial description of the process of selecting inherent part of the insulation coordination process. For
and applying surge arresters to wind plant medium voltage completeness, the subject of equipment grounding, or
collector systems, with emphasis on the peculiar properties of this bonding, is addressed at the end of the paper.
application.
II. WIND PLANT VOLTAGE ENVIRONMENT
Index Terms-- Overvoltage protection, arresters, wind power
generation. A. Continuous Operating Voltage
I. INTRODUCTION Wind plant collector systems tend to operate over a wide
voltage range. In addition to the voltage range of the
P ROPER grounding, overvoltage protection, and insulation
coordination are essential to protecting valuable wind
power plant equipment from damaging overvoltages and to
transmission system to which the wind plant is
interconnected, there is additional voltage range caused by the
real and reactive power flows within the plant. The MV
facilitate cost-effective collection system design. This paper cables tend to have a large resistive component of impedance,
has been developed by the Wind Plant Collector System resulting in significant voltage rise with increasing real power
Design Working Group as a summary of technical output from the wind turbine generators. Thus, the remote
considerations related to these subjects. ends of wind plant feeders may tend to operate with a high
The word “grounding” is used in two very different voltage when grid voltage is high and the wind plant power
technical terms, and this has been the source of considerable output is high. Detailed load flow studies are needed to
misunderstanding. One usage is “equipment grounding”, or determine worst-case voltages on the collector system. These
bonding. The purpose of equipment grounding is to provide a voltages establish a constraint on the minimum arrester
low impedance path between the exposed parts and casing of MCOV that can be selected.
equipment, including the wind turbine tower itself, and other
equipment not normally electrified (e.g., blades, turbine gear B. Temporary Overvoltages
trains, etc.), and local ground. Equipment grounding is There are situations that can occur in wind plants that
primarily concerned with personnel safety and the protection produce far more severe TOV than is normally encountered in
of equipment from external sources of electrification. typical MV utility distribution systems. These TOVs are a
The other usage is the term “system grounding” which has critical factor in wind plant insulation coordination. There are
a purpose quite different from apparatus grounding [1]. several causes for these overvoltages.
System grounding pertains to providing a reference point for 1) Ground Faults
the voltages on the three electrical phases with respect to In a three-phase system, a ground fault on one phase will
ground. Stated differently, system grounding provides a zero- cause the unfaulted phase voltages to rise if the X0/X1 ratio at
sequence source impedance sufficiently low to meet system the fault location is greater than one. Typical practice is to
design objectives. System grounding defines the currents and provide effective grounding (X0/X1 < +3) within the collector
voltages obtained in case of a fault (short-circuit) between one system. Attention needs to be given to ensure that this ratio
threshold is achieved throughout the collector system,

978-1-4244-4241-6/09/$25.00 ©2009 IEEE


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including remote ends of feeders. With effective grounding, Another consequence of the “capacitive grounding” of a
TOV from ground faults tends to be within the capability of nominally ungrounded feeder is the fact that the fault arc can
arresters selected based on the MCOV. However, some clear itself, due to the very low fault current present once the
plants have been designed with impedance grounding that feeder is isolated, and then restrike. The restrike triggers a
intentionally results in a higher X0/X1 ratio. Maximum voltage oscillation and the arc may again interrupt at a current
unfaulted phase voltages need to be calculated at each arrester zero, trapping an even higher voltage. This process can
location for any ground fault, as well as expected duration of repeat, escalating the voltage to higher and higher levels.
the fault. This establishes a constraint on the minimum TOV To avoid these TOVs, many wind plants are constructed
capability of the applied arresters. with dedicated grounding transformers on each wind plant
2) Loss of Ground Reference feeder. This eliminates the possibility of ungrounded
Typically, neither wind turbine generators (WTGs), nor operation due to feeder isolation. The sizing of the grounding
their unit step-up transformers, provide neutral grounding for transformers must consider the rating of the WTGs connected
the wind plant MV system. The wind plant substation to the feeder, the WTG characteristics, and the amount of
provides the normal source of grounding for the collector cable charging capacitance. In some cases, the WTG
feeders. If a ground fault should occur, and a collector feeder behavior for such a feeder isolation condition is sufficiently
is tripped but the wind turbine generators continue to operate, complex to preclude simple calculation of grounding
the feeder becomes isolated without a ground source but with transformer impedance requirements. In such a case, detailed
one phase connected to ground. As a result, unfaulted phase simulations are necessary.
voltages will rise greatly, typically to 1.73 times pre-fault
voltage or more as shown in Figure 1.
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Field experience has shown that WTGs may continue to

Unfaulted phase-to-ground voltage


2.8
energize an isolated feeder for seconds. The probability that
2.6
WTGs will not trip in response to the fault, but keep
2.4
operating, is greatly enhanced by recent low-voltage ride 2.2
through requirements that have been imposed on wind plants
(p.u.)

2
by grid operators. 1.8
1.6
C B 1.4
1.2
1
N
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Feet of 500 kcmil 34.5 kV cable per MVA of WTG

1 p.u.
1 p.u. Figure 2 – Increase of TOV due to feeder capacitance for an isolated feeder
1.73 p.u.
cable with a ground fault applied.

A 3) Self-Excitation
WTGs, when isolated from the grid, can produce
temporary overvoltages due to various phenomena, including
Figure 1 – Illustration of TOV due to a single-phase fault in an ungrounded
system.
the phenomenon known as self-excitation. Induction
generators, which have no direct means of voltage control,
The actual TOV can be significantly more severe than the can interact with system capacitance to create high voltages
173% value, due to the capacitance of the isolated feeder. [2]. This occurs when there is capacitive compensation in
The “ungrounded” feeder is not actually ungrounded, but is excess of the magnetizing VARs required by the generator.
grounded via the capacitance of the feeder cables. The Excess compensation can occur when all but one turbine trips
negative reactance of the capacitance results in a negative on a feeder that becomes isolated, and the feeder has a large
X0/X1 ratio, that will further increase unfaulted phase voltage. amount of cable footage, resulting in a high ratio of capacitive
Figure 2 relates TOV to the amount of feeder capacitance, susceptance relative to generator rating.
assuming the WTG is a synchronous source. Note that a fault 4) Transformer Saturation Interaction
may cause some WTGs to trip and not others, allowing the Transformers may become saturated during TOV.
ratio of total cable charging capacitance to the connected However, in contrast to common expectation, saturation does
wind turbine capacity to become much greater than that of the not always limit overvoltage peaks. Peak voltages can be
feeder with all WTGs connected. Because the series increased because saturated transformers inject large amounts
impedance of the collector cable is very small compared to of harmonic current into the system. The system, dominated
the shunt impedance of the cable capacitance, the voltages by generator and transformer inductances and cable
shown in Figure 2 are insensitive to location on the feeder. capacitances, are often resonant near the low-order harmonic
frequencies at which transformer exciting current is injected.
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The interaction of the injected harmonic currents, and the padmounted unit transformers. Some collector systems have
high harmonic impedance caused by resonance, can result in a mix of overhead and underground line sections. In these
very large harmonic voltage superimposed on the voltage systems, lightning can enter the MV system by direct strikes
waveform. Sometimes this is called “ferroresonance”, but to the overhead line.
this is not an appropriate use of this term. Lightning is generally considered to be a current source,
5) Ferroresonance and the lightning current rise time can be less than one
True ferroresonance involves a capacitance in series with a microsecond. The fast rise of the current, and the resulting
nonlinear inductance, such as the excitation impedance of an voltage, imposes arrester location considerations due to the
unloaded transformer. Ferroresonance typically occurs as the traveling wave effects.
result of having one or two phases open. A stuck pole on a
collector feeder breaker (open or closed) can result in III. INSULATION COORDINATION
ferroresonance that produces voltage several times normal IEEE Standard 1313.1 defines insulation coordination as
magnitude on the open phases. This overvoltage is due to the “The selection of insulation strength consistent with expected
interaction between the feeder cable capacitance and the overvoltages to obtain an acceptable risk of failure.”[3]
magnetic cores of WTG unit transformers, particularly when Overvoltage protective devices, invariably metal-oxide surge
the WTGs are not connected. Switching unloaded WTG unit arresters, are applied to constrain transient overvoltages, but
transformers phase-by-phase by operating load break elbows these same devices are vulnerable to failure from extended-
or single-phase disconnect switches can also result in duration temporary overvoltages. System grounding plays an
ferroresonance. In this case, the winding capacitance of the important role in minimizing temporary overvoltages. Thus,
unit transformers may alone be sufficient, particularly when the selection of surge arrester, equipment insulation, and
combined with delta-primary transformers or transformers system grounding requirements are inexorably intertwined.
with low core loss.
Ferroresonance is dealt with by avoiding the conditions A. Surge Arrester Characteristics
creating the phenomenon. Breaker failure protection schemes Virtually all surge arresters for MV system application use
avoid continued energization of feeders with one or two metal-oxide varistor (MOV) technology. The MOV is a
phases open. Use of three-phase switches (e.g., internal highly nonlinear resistance, with the current through the MOV
transformer under-oil switches) to energize or deenergize a function of the voltage raised to a very high exponent.
WTG unit transformers, or performing switching operations Under normal operating voltages, the MOV conducts only a
with the feeder deenergized, avoids single-unit very small current, on the order of microamps. This current
ferroresonance. has no significance to the system, but it does have
significance to the arrester because this current causes
C. Switching Transients
heating. One key rating parameter of an arrester is the
Switching of system elements such as cables, lines, and maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV), and this
capacitor banks, can create transient overvoltages. In a wind relates to the allowable steady-state temperature rise of the
plant, most switching transients are of inadequate severity to arrester.
be either a concern for equipment insulation protection, or a At voltages on the order of twice the maximum peak
concern for surge arrester duty. Typically, the only type of operating voltage, the arrester conducts significant current,
switching event that may be significant is restrike of a sufficient to effectively “clamp” the overvoltage condition. It
capacitor bank switch or breaker during deenergization. is this clamping effect that is employed to protect equipment.
Modern switchgear is designed to make such an event a very A key parameter of the arrester is its voltage protective level,
infrequent occurrence. If a restrike should occur, the which is defined at a specified current, typically 5 kA or
resulting energy duty may exceed the capability of a surge 10 kA. However, for current variations over a considerable
arrester. Transient studies are necessary to determine the range around these current levels, the voltage protective level
energy duty produced by restriking. However, it is not does not change greatly. For the same peak current level, the
common to consider this event as a MV collector system peak discharge voltage of the arrester varies according to the
design constraint. rise time of the applied surge, with higher discharge voltages
D. Lightning Transients for faster rise times.
The dominant risk to equipment insulation is impulsive At currents of this magnitude, the arrester conducts enough
transients due to lightning. Even if a collector system has no current to heat the arrester very rapidly. Another application
overhead lines, it is prudent to consider lightning surge characteristic of an arrester is its energy rating, which defines
protection for equipment. Lightning transients may enter the its ability to withstand transient current discharges without
MV system by various means, including coupling through the excessive overheating or otherwise damaging the MOV
substation power transformer from exposed HV lines, direct elements.
strikes to open-air substation equipment, and from the wind Between the MCOV, and the voltage levels where arrester
turbines via ground potential rise and coupling through the current is sufficient to clamp the voltage, is a range of
voltages where the arrester discharges too much current to
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withstand the situation for an extended period, but not so overhead line.
much current that the interaction of the current with the 2) Separation Effects
system impedance causes the applied voltage to be modified. Voltage changes propagate as traveling waves, at near the
These overvoltages can be withstood for a period that is a speed of light in overhead lines and bus work, and at
function of the applied voltage magnitude. Thus, the ability approximately 40% of the speed of light in underground
of surge arresters to withstand voltages in this range is defined cable. For lower frequency phenomena, such as TOV and
as the “temporary overvoltage” (TOV) rating. It is important capacitor switching surges in a collector system, the traveling
to emphasize that, except in very specialized applications, a wave effects are not significant because the propagation time
surge arrester cannot be considered as a means to reduce is a small fraction of the voltage rise time. For lightning
TOV, but rather the arrester must be able to survive the TOV transients, however, the propagation times even within a
to which it is subjected. Thus, TOV conditions in a system substation can be significant compared to the rise time of the
establish a constraint on the minimum arrester voltage rating current. As a result, the lightning transient voltages at an
that can be applied. Sometimes, other means allow the TOV arrester are not the same as that at a piece of equipment that is
to be avoided or minimized, so the unmitigated TOV is not some distance away. Voltages at the equipment can be
always a firm constraint to the overall insulation coordination considerably greater due to the separation effect. In a wind
process. plant substation, arresters are typically installed adjacent to
Surge arrester manufacturers provide a TOV curve that the terminals of the most critical and vulnerable piece of
defines as a function of the duration of exposure the equipment, the substation transformer. Separation effects are
magnitude of sinusoidal fundamental-frequency voltage that considered to coordinate the overvoltage protection of other
can be applied to the arrester without causing failure. This equipment in the substation such as breakers, PTs, etc.
TOV capability is defined in terms of a root-mean-square Reference [4] provides simplified methods for calculating
(rms) voltage magnitude, as a matter of documenting the test separation effects. Alternatively, transient simulations, with
conditions applied. However, it must be emphasized that the the substation bus work modeled as “transmission lines”, can
rms magnitude of a distorted voltage waveform should not be be performed.
used as the basis for comparing the ability of an arrester to 3) Open End Reflection Voltages
survive the distorted TOV. Metal-oxide surge arrester When voltage waves reach the open end of a line, they
conduction is a function of the voltage raised to a very high reflect causing a doubling of the voltage at the end.
exponent, thus thermal duty is overwhelmingly dominated by Reflections also occur when voltage waves reach a
the peaks of the applied voltage. A far better means to discontinuity in line surge impedance, such as a transition
evaluate a distorted TOV is to compare the recurring peak between overhead line and underground cable. Cables have a
magnitude of the distorted voltage to the equivalent peak low surge impedance, and lines have a high surge impedance.
magnitude of the arrester TOV test rms voltage documented Because of voltage doubling, surge arresters located in a
by the manufacturer (sqrt(2)×rms). It should also be noted wind plant substation do not provide good overvoltage
that the published TOV curves describe the duration that a protection for equipment along the collector feeders, even if
particular TOV magnitude can be endured, followed by a the surges only can enter the collector system via the
voltage less than or equal to the MCOV. Although the substation. For this reason, it is highly desirable to locate
arrester TOV curve plots as a voltage magnitude decreasing surge arresters at the ends of each feeder. If a feeder is
with increasing exposure duration, it is incorrect to interpret bifurcated, and thus has many ends, arresters should be
the curve as an envelope of acceptable voltage; the arrester is located at each open point.
not designed to endure a voltage of decreasing magnitude that
follows along the TOV curve line. C. Insulation Coordination Steps
B. Arrester Installation Considerations In the conventional approach described in IEEE C62.22
1) Arrester Lead Length [4], insulation coordination is performed in the following
The rate of lightning current rise (dI/dt) is very large. steps:
Arrester leads, both on the hot end and ground end, create an 1. Select the surge arrester to be used, considering the
inductance proportional to their length. The dI/dt, multiplied maximum continuous operating voltage (MCOV) and
by a few microhenries of lead inductance result in many kV of temporary overvoltage (TOV) constraints, as well as
voltage which must be added to the discharge voltage of surge the type of arrester. The duration of TOV caused by
arresters. For MV arresters, this added lead-length voltage wind plant feeder isolation is difficult to determine
can be a significant increase in the voltage protective level. with accuracy, and can extend for seconds. A common
practice is to coordinate assuming a ten second
For this reason, it is desirable to keep arrester lead lengths as
duration.
short as practical, particularly for arresters at the interface
2. Determine the protective level of this surge arrester at
between overhead and underground sections of hybrid
a “coordinating current” which is the presumed arrester
collector systems that are exposed to the high lightning
discharge current for an impulsive (lightning) transient.
current magnitudes possible from direct strikes to the
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3. Determine where the surge arrester is to be located transmission connection, but does not provide complete zero-
with respect to the protected equipment. Voltage wave sequence isolation. Some transmission operators demand that
behavior can cause voltages to be significantly greater a grounded-wye (HV) delta (MV) transformer be used to
as distance from the arrester is increased. totally isolate the grid from wind plant zero-sequence
4. Determine the voltage at the terminals of the protected currents. A separate grounding transformer is needed on the
equipment. MV bus to provide some degree of system grounding to avoid
5. Select equipment insulation level. extreme TOV. However, a very large grounding transformer
6. Evaluate voltage protection margins. A minimum 20% is necessary to provide an effectively grounded MV system.
margin is desirable. The ground source at the wind plant MV bus typically
7. If margins are inadequate, consider alternatives such as provides effective grounding for the entire MV collector
different arrester placement, higher insulation level,
system, as long as the collector feeders remain connected to
etc.
the bus. Severe TOV can potentially occur on a feeder, if the
For wind plants, a modification of this conventional
feeder should become isolated from the MV bus with the
approach is usually necessary from a practical standpoint.
WTGs remaining in operation, due to loss of ground and
Wind plant collector systems have similarity in topology and
possible self-excitation. There are several strategies
voltage level with primary distribution systems. Commodity
described below for mitigating feeder TOVs related to feeder
distribution-grade equipment is usually much less expensive
islanding.
than substation-grade equipment, and is thus favored for wind
plant collector system design. For example, WTG unit step- A. Grounding Transformer Application
up transformers are usually large three-phase padmounted Application of grounding transformers on each collector
distribution transformers. The insulation level choices feeder can reduce TOV due to the loss of ground reference
available for commodity distribution transformers are limited. phenomenon in the event that the feeder becomes isolated
Therefore, the usual insulation coordination process for wind from the substation bus, and the wind turbines continue to
plants is to select the available insulation level of commodity generate. A grounding transformer will stabilize a ground
distribution transformers, select the arresters needed to fault arc, by increasing its magnitude, and thus avoid the
protect that insulation level, and then determine amount of repetitive fault arc restriking that can lead to extremely
TOV that can be withstood. Using this knowledge, design escalated overvoltages in a system that is not intentionally
steps are taken to avoid or mitigate the TOV, such that the grounded (and thus grounded unintentionally via capacitance).
desired arrester voltage rating can be applied. In some cases, The impedance of the grounding transformer must be chosen
the designers of wind plant collector systems have chosen to so that the unfaulted phase voltages during a ground fault, and
ignore the TOV constraints, with the expectation that TOV subsequent cable isolation, are within the temporary
events are rare. However, some of these wind plants have overvoltage capability of the surge arresters. With
experienced numerous surge arrester failures, with synchronous generators, this grounding transformer
consequential generation unavailability due to the failures. impedance can be easily calculated. However, direct
There are also risks to equipment and personnel from ignoring calculation is not adequate for wind generation. This is due to
TOV, as explained later in this paper. the complexities of self-excitation, in the case of induction
wind generators, and interactions between controls, power
IV. MITIGATION OF TOV electronics, and the isolated system in the case of doubly-fed
Mitigation of TOV in wind plants allows surge arresters to and full-conversion wind generators. Detailed transient
be applied that provide adequate surge protection margins for simulations studies (using EMTP or equivalent tools), with
equipment with economically preferable insulation levels, detailed representation of any power electronic converters and
while avoiding undue risk of arrester failure. associated controls, are essential to defining the necessary
For the HV bus of the wind plant collector substation, a grounding transformer impedance and current capacity.
design that provides an effectively grounded system, under all Grounding transformers provide no mitigation in the event
circumstances, is desirable to avoid excessive TOV. While of a feeder islanding event where there is no permanent
the transmission grid might provide effective grounding to the ground fault on the feeder, and overvoltages are produced by
HV bus when the wind power plant is connected to the grid, self-excitation or interaction of the wind turbine generators
isolation (islanding) of the plant could remove this source of with the abnormal system impedance.
grounding. Therefore, the substation design should provide a Installation of a grounding transformer on a feeder
local source of grounding to the HV bus. eliminates the risk of ferroresonant overvoltages due to one or
The MV bus of the collector substation is generally two feeder breaker phases stuck open or closed.
effectively grounded as well. A substation power transformer When grounding transformers are located on the feeder
winding configuration providing ground sources to both the side of the breaker, the reverse ground current contribution to
HV and MV buses is the grounded-wye grounded-wye, with adjacent feeder faults should be considered. This may require
delta tertiary, connection. This winding configuration reduces directionality of the feeder breaker ground relay due to
zero-sequence coupling between the collector system and the coordination issues with adjacent feeders.
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A grounding transformer is rated the neutral or ground 3) Wye-Broken Delta Grounding Transformers
current that the transformer is designed to carry under fault A variation of the grounded-wye delta grounding
conditions for a specified time, and the normal line-to-neutral transformer is one where the delta secondary is “broken” to
voltage. A one-minute-duration current rating is often used for allow insertion of an external impedance (typically
grounding transformers, though other ratings can be specified resistance). This allows the zero-sequence impedance to be
depending upon the probable duty to be imposed on the unit increased above the leakage impedance of the transformer
in service. The grounding transformer is continuously rated without inserting a resistor between the neutral of the wye
for a specific current at rated phase-neutral voltage, without primary and ground. This approach has application where it
exceeding the temperature rise of the insulation class as is desired to make a direct connection from the wye point to
specified in ANSI/IEEE Std. 32 [5]. For example, the ground, while increasing the zero-sequence impedance (such
standard requires, for a 1-minute rated unit, a continuous as to limit the magnitude of ground fault current). The
rating of 7% of maximum thermal current. resistance in the broken delta has a lower voltage rating and
For the same short circuit level, the zig-zag transformer will cost less than the higher voltage grounding resistance in
will have a smaller physical size in comparison to the wye- the wye-delta grounding transformer.
delta transformer. The zig-zag transformer is a custom-made
transformer. As a result, the procurement lead time for a B. Transfer Tripping
zig-zag transformer is usually much longer than the lead time Wind turbine generator tripping to remove all sources of
for procurement of a wye-delta grounding transformer. A generation from an isolated collector cable is a means to avoid
brief explanation of different types of grounding transformers overvoltages on islanded collector feeders. Because
is given in the next subsections [6-9]. overvoltages can be severe, and the ability of normally-rated
surge arresters to survive these overvoltages is very limited, it
1) Zig-Zag Grounding Transformer is important that the generators cease to energize the isolated
Each core leg of the zig-zag transformer has two coils
system by the time that the circuit breaker at the substation
wound on it. One coil is the outer coil and the other is the
interrupts. Thus, it is generally not a feasible solution to
inner coil. Each coil has the same number of windings turns
detect the isolation at each wind turbine through local voltage
but they are wound in opposite directions. Each phase has two
or current measurements, such as in an anti-islanding relay,
coils, which are wound on different core legs. Each of the
and then execute generator tripping. To do so exposes the
inner coils are connected together at one end to form the
system to a potentially severe overvoltage condition for the
neutral which is tied to ground either directly or through a
entire detection time plus the time to effect the deenergization
grounding resistor. A zig-zag grounding transformer can
(e.g., wind turbine generator breaker interruption time).
either be dry type or oil-filled.
A transfer trip scheme, with high-speed communications
Under normal system operation, with only positive
between the substation protection system and the individual
sequence voltage applied, the outer and inner coil windings’
wind turbine generators, is usually necessary to implement a
magnetic flux will cancel each other and only negligible
tripping solution. The transfer trip signal needs to be initiated
current will flow in the neutral of the zig–zag transformer.
by the protective relays causing the collector cable circuit
Application of zero sequence voltage, as during a ground
breaker to trip. The communication delay, plus the time
fault, the zig-zag transformer’s coils magnetic fluxes are no
needed to interrupt energization by the generators must be
longer in balance allowing zero sequence current to flow.
less than or equal to the interruption time of the collector
2) Wye-Delta Grounding Transformer cable circuit breaker to avoid isolation prior to deenergization.
A grounded-wye delta transformer will provide grounding In many cases, the trip signal to the collector cable circuit
functionally equivalent to a zig-zag transformer. The breakers at the substation may need to be intentionally
grounding function is independent of whether any load is delayed in order to coordinate generator tripping with
applied to the delta. Therefore, in a pure grounding collector cable isolation. The communication means used to
application, the delta winding need not have connection implement transfer tripping is typically fiber optic or radio,
terminals. but also power line carrier and hard-wired communication is
The neutral terminal of the wye winding is connected to also used.
ground either directly or through a neutral grounding resistor
C. High-Speed Grounding Switches
or reactor (i.e., impedance grounded).
An unloaded wye-delta grounding transformer provides A means to avoid TOV on an islanded feeder is to simply
high impedance to positive or negative sequence voltage apply a three-phase fault to the feeder with a high-speed
excitation, with only a small magnetizing current flow. grounding switch. This switch can be located at the
Application of zero-sequence voltage causes a current to substation and operated whenever the feeder breaker opens.
circulate in the delta, thus allowing current flow in the Reliable synchronization of the feeder breaker interruption
grounded wye winding. and the grounding switch closing is essential to minimize the
duration of any TOV due to islanding. Poor synchronization,
where the grounding switch closes before the breaker
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interrupts, exposes the WTGs on other feeders, and the grid, the failed metal-oxide varistor disks out of the circuit.
to unnecessary fault transients and can expose the crowbar This can leave the protected equipment exposed to
switch to very high momentary currents. Interlocking of the future overvoltage events, and may leave the
breaker and grounding switch actions is desirable. On the equipment exposed to the TOV event causing the
other hand, any delay in closing of the grounding switch arrester failure if the short-circuit current available
exposes arresters and other equipment to overvoltages, and during feeder isolation is sufficiently small such that
thus the time between feeder interruption and ground switch the arrester failure fault self-extinguishes.
closing needs to be coordinated with surge arrester TOV Surge arresters failing due to TOV often do not
withstand capability. present readily visible evidence of failure, particularly
If the grounding switch is located within a bus differential prior to re-energization of the feeder from a strong
zone, to avoid misoperation of the differential protection short-circuit source (i.e., substation). After an
when the feeder breaker is open, current transformers will be isolation event of a feeder without TOV mitigation
needed for subtraction of grounding switch currents from the means, all arresters should be removed from service
differential current circuits. Otherwise, if these crowbar and tested, or alternatively all arresters should be
switch currents cannot be subtracted from the differential, the replaced.
differential current transformers will need to be located on the
bus side of this type of feeder breaker. This can significantly V. SYSTEM GROUNDING AT THE SUBSTATION
extend the feeder breaker failure clearing time, typically from The prior discussions of system grounding pertain to the
nine to fifteen cycles. collector feeders, with the assumption that the normal source
Closing a grounding switch on an islanded feeder does not grounding in the MV collection system is provided from the
make a significant step in real power, and thus does not substation bus. The selection of the wind plant’s main power
introduce a significant torque transient to the wind turbine transformer(s) winding configuration is critical to system
generator mechanical systems. Torque is associated with real neutral grounding. Assuming the utility transmission system
power and the only real power delivered by the WTGs after is effectively grounded, a grounded-wye-wye transformer will
ground switch closing is to supply I2R losses in the generator pass through the grid’s ground source to the MV level. If,
windings, transformers, and cables. The fault current is however, the wind plant becomes disconnected from the grid,
primarily limited by the inductive reactance (X) of the the source of grounding is lost. A delta (HV) grounded-wye
generators and transformers, and the resistive component of (MV) power transformer provides good system grounding for
total impedance is small. Thus, the positive torque step the MV system. However, in the event of separation from the
caused by applying the grounding switch is much smaller than grid, the HV side is not grounded. The solution used in most
the negative step caused by isolating the feeder. current wind power plants is to use a grounded-wye-wye
D. Do Nothing – Accept Failures transformer with a delta tertiary. The delta tertiary provides a
ground source to both the MV and HV levels.
A strategy used by some wind plant designers is to
Some utilities demand that wind plants use a grounded-wye
purposely do nothing about the TOV caused by feeder
(HV) delta (MV) transformer, identical to the connection
isolation and to accept the equipment failures that may result.
typically used for conventional power plants. This connection
Surge arresters are the most equipment most vulnerable to
provides no grounding for the MV system. If grounding
TOV, and the expected failure mode of arresters is to become
transformers are connected to the individual feeders, these
a low shunt impedance or short circuit, thus sacrificially
transformers together will provide some degree of grounding
protecting other equipment. Distribution-class surge arresters
for the MV bus, only to the degree that the feeders are
are relatively low-cost equipment, particularly when
connected. If all feeders are disconnected, the MV bus will
compared to the costs of the various options for limiting
not be grounded at all. If the feeder grounding transformers
TOV.
are sized for the purpose of providing grounding to control
There are some potential pitfalls with this strategy,
TOV during feeder isolation events, their zero-sequence
however:
admittance will be much too small to provide effective
Surge arresters are designed and tested to fail in a
grounding when the power transformer is connected to the
manner specified by IEEE Standard C62.11 [10]. The
strong short-circuit source of the grid. Therefore, where a
conditions of the standard test do not reflect all the
grounded-wye delta power transformer is mandated by the
conditions of TOV failure that may occur in the field.
utility, a very large and expensive grounding transformer is
Failure of arresters, particularly delayed failure that
needed on the MV bus if effective grounding is desired. It
may occur after an islanded feeder is reconnected to
may be possible to design the MV system to have acceptable
the substation, can be eventful and is not without risks
insulation coordination with a high-impedance ground using a
of personal injury and consequential damage.
smaller grounding transformer. This can be very challenging
A surge arrester, particularly a distribution class
where a 34.5 kV collector voltage is used because of the
arrester, may fail to an open circuit condition due to
unavailability of distribution-grade equipment that has
excess TOV that causes the housing to fail and drop
8

sufficient insulation levels (BIL). step potentials around the WTG tower base, due to lightning
and MV ground fault currents.
VI. APPARATUS GROUNDING WTG grounding systems typically consist of a perimeter
ring of bare copper with driven rods that serve as the
A. Collector Substation grounding electrode. A specified maximum resistance to earth
The grounding, or earth bonding, of the collector is typically specified by WTG manufacturers, usually 1 to 10
substation is essential for control of step and touch potentials ohms.
resulting from ground faults, due to the very high fault current A new approach to grounding design eliminates the WTG
capacity present. Substation grounding design for a wind grounding ring, replacing it with designs that utilize the
plant is identical to the practices used for utility and industrial turbine’s foundation metal and concrete as a grounding
substations. electrode. To ensure mechanical and electrical continuity
connections between the foundation ground conductor require
B. Wind Turbine Generator
specific clamps that are rated for grounding purposes; and any
Providing an adequate equipment grounding, or bonding, place where the conductor crosses rebar in the foundation it is
system within the design of the WTGs is critical for secured with wire ties to make sure it does not shift when the
protection of personnel, equipment and buildings, as well as concrete is poured.
the reduction of electrical noise, proper operation of electrical Some grounding designs also include bare ground
and electronic communication and control equipment, and conductors interconnecting the WTGs in the wind plant. If
protective circuit breakers and fuses. Apparatus grounding these interconnecting cables share a common trench with the
within a WTG is part of the WTG design and installation, and power cables, voltages across the cable jacket are reduced.
is not a collector system design issue. Otherwise, these interconnections provide limited benefit for
The apparatus grounding issue germane to collector design lightning surges, due to surge propagation effects.
is the bonding of the WTG to the earth. A good earth
electrode design provides a path for lightning current, and a VII. REFERENCE
path for MV-system ground fault currents. (The LV system at
[1] IEEE Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Electrical
the wind turbine generator is typically a “locally derived” Utility Systems—Part I: Introduction, IEEE Standard C62.92.1-2000,
system using a delta (MV) grounded-wye (LV) unit April 4, 2001.
transformer winding connection. Any LV ground fault [2] W. E. Feero and W. B. Gish, “Overvoltages Caused by DSG Operation:
Synchronous and Induction Generators,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery,
currents stay locally within the confines of the WTG and vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 258 - 264 Jan. 1986.
transformer.) Large earth electrode impedance will cause [3] IEEE Standard for Insulation Coordination—Definitions, Principles, and
elevation of the potential of the electrode, and the WTG Rules, IEEE Standard 1313.1-1996, Oct. 2, 1996.
[4] Guide for the Application of Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for
structure bonded to it, in the event of a lighting strike to the
Alternating-Current Systems, IEEE Standard C62.22-1997, July 17, 1998.
WTG. The earth connection impedance, however, has little [5] IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Procedure for
impact on voltage differences at the WTG, and thus does not Neutral Grounding Devices, ANSI/IEEE Standard 32-1972 (Reaffirmed
directly affect insulation levels or surge arrester requirements. 1990).
[6] E. W. Bogins, Industrial Power Systems GER-2659 Grounding
Some manufacturers, however, tie LV surge arrester Transformers.
requirements to the resistance of the WTG earth electrode. [7] Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, ABB, 1997.
A poor earth electrode, however, will cause large surge [8] E. R. Detjen and K. R. Shah, “Grounding Transformer Applications and
Associated Protection Schemes,” IEEE Trans. Industrial Applications,
currents to pass through the concentric neutral conductors of vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 788-796, Jul.-Aug. 1992.
the MV collector cables. Insulated-jacket cable is commonly [9] iGard, Neutral Grounding Resistors Technical Information Application
used, and these surges can cause large potential differences Guide, available online at: http://www.i-gard.com/appguides.htm
[10] IEEE Standard for Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters for AC Power Circuits
between the cable neutral and local ground at locations (> 1 kV), IEEE Standard C62.11-2005.
remote from the WTG where a lightning strike occurs. This
can cause breakdown of the jacket insulation, and a flashover
from the neutral to the local soil. Compromise of the cable
jacket does not have an immediate impact on operation of the
cable. The piercing of the jacket, however, can allow a path
for moisture ingress, possibly leading to long-term breakdown
of the cable’s major insulation (core to neutral) and corrosion
of the neutral strands. A poor earth connection will also cause
surge currents to propagate over any metallic communication
wires connecting the WTG to remote facilities. This can
cause damaging voltage surges at the remote facilities. For
this reason, the use of fiber communication links to WTGs is
common.
A poor earth electrode design can also result in increased

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