University of Zimbabwe

Linear Algebra and Probability for Engineering

Chapter 1
Author: Department:
A. Mhlanga Mathematics
August 31, 2018

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 Abstract

This course highlights various types of mathematical thinking including direct, indirect and induc-
tive proofs, with careful treatment of quantified statements. Topics include set theory, introduction
to probability, vectors and geometry in space, matrices and determinants, complex numbers and
differential equations. This course, which is mostly about algebraic ideas and compliments the
material in MT104, introduces and develops concepts (including complex numbers and the algebra
of polynomials) necessary for a first course in algebra. Our goal is the elementary theory of vectors,
matrices and determinants, and their applications to solving systems of linear equations.
Chapter 1

Vectors and the Geometry of Space

A vector is a quantity that is characterized by magnitude and direction. We also use the term
length for magnitude. A scalar, on the other hand, is a quantity which has magnitude only. To
differentiate the types of quantities, let’s consider a typical vector, displacement or change of
position. In order to specify displacement, we need to know two things: how far? and in what
direction? In other words, we need to specify distance and the direction. Thus we see that
distance is a scalar whereas displacement is a vector.

Consider the following two situations:

1. A complete stranger to Zimbabwe is in Harare and wants to travel to Masvingo. Is it sufficient

to simply tell them that Masvingo is 350 kilometers from Harare?

2. A well-informed Zimbabwean wants to travel from Harare to Masvingo. Will it be sufficient

to tell them that Masvingo is 350 kilometers from Harare?

Clearly, the information in the first case is not sufficient as the stranger would also want to know
the direction in which to travel. However, in the second case, it is assumed that the person already
has some idea of the location of Masvingo relative to Harare and so specifying only distance would
suffice.

The following are examples of vectors: force, displacement, acceleration, momentum and velocity .
However, the following quantities are scalars and not vectors: area, volume, distance, speed, energy,
work, electrical resistance, temperature, mass and time.

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1.1 Basic Definitions and Notation

−→
Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow OP defining the direction, the magnitude of the
vector being indicated by the length of the arrow. The tail end O of the arrow is called the origin
or initial point of the vector, and the head P is called the terminal point or terminus. This arrow
−→
representing the vector is called a directed line segment. The length |OP | is the magnitude of the
line segment from O to P .
Q terminal point
3

initial point
P

Figure 1.1: Directed line segment

Vectors can be represented in text by bold-case letters, such as A, B, C and so on or lower-case

boldface letters such as a, b, c and so on. When written by hand, however, vectors are often
→
−
denoted by letters with arrows above them, such as → −
a , b and so on or a bar above, such as a, b
and so on or a bar below, such as a, b and so on. When the initial point of the vector is fixed, it is
called a fixed or localized vector, otherwise, it is a free vector.

1.2 Unit Vectors

A unit vector is a vector of unit length. A unit vector is sometimes denoted by eb or b

e . Therefore,

|b
e| = 1.

Any vector can be made into a unit vector by dividing it by its length, that is,
u
e= .
|u|
b

u
So is a unit vector in the direction of the vector u.
|u|

2
In three-dimensional space R3 , we denote the unit vectors in the positive x -axis, positive y-axis and
positive z -axis by i, j, k respectively. Thus the position vector of a point (x, y, z) is
xi + yj + zk.
In a similar way, the position vector r of a point (x, y) in two-dimensional space R2 is
xi + yj.
In the notation above, the numbers x, y, z are the components of the vectors.

We also denote vectors

  in R3 and R2 using column vectors. For example the vector xi + yj + zk
x  
3 2 x
in R is denoted by y  and the vector xi + yj in R is denoted by .
y
z

1.3 Magnitude or Length of a Vector

The magnitude or length of a vector r is denoted by |r|. If a vector r = xi + yj + zk, then it can
be easily shown by use of Pythagoras’ theorem that
p
|r| = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
p √ √
For example if r = i − 2j + 2k, then the magnitude |r| = 12 + (−2)2 + 22 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 9 = 3.
Example 1.3.1. Given A = 3i − 2j + k, B = 2i − 4j − 3k and C = −i + 2j + 2k, find the magnitudes
of (i) C, (ii) A + B + C and (iii) 2A − 2B − 5C.
p
Solution: (i) |C| = | − i + 2j + 2k| = (−1)2 + 22 + 22 = 3.
(ii) A + B + C = 3i − 2j + k + 2i − 4j − 3k − i + 2j + 2k
p = (3 + 2 − 1)i +
√(−2 − 4√+ 2)j + (1 − 3 + 2)k =
2 2
4i − 4j + 0k. Then |A + B + C| = |4i − 4j + 0k| = 4 + (−4) = 32 = 4 2.
(iii) 2A − 3B − 5C = 2(3i − 2j +pk) − 3(2i − 4j − 3k) √ − 5(−i + 2j + 2k) = 5i − 2j + k. Then
|2A − 2B − 5C| = |5i − 2j + k| = 52 + (−2)2 + 12 = 30.
Example 1.3.2. Find the component form and magnitude of the vector A having initial point
(−2, 3, 1) and terminal point (0, −4, 4). Then find a unit vector in the direction of A.

Solution: The component form of A is

A = (0 − (−2), −4 − 3, 4 − 1) = (2, −7, 3)
which implies that its magnitude is
p √
|A| = 22 + (−7)2 + 32 = 62.
The unit vector in the direction of A is
 
A 1 2 −7 3
U= = √ (2, −7, 3) = √ ,√ ,√ .
|A| 62 62 62 62

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1.4 Parallel Vectors

Two non-zero vectors A ans B are parallel if there is some scalar c such that A = cB.

Example 1.4.1. Vector A has initial point (2, −1, 3) and terminal point (−4, 7, 5). Which of the
following vectors is parallel to A? (i) B = (3, −4, −1) and (ii) C = (12, −16, 4).

Solution: Writing A in component form

A = (−4 − 2, 7 − (−1), 5 − 3) = (−6, 8, 2).

(i) Because B = (3, −4, −1) = − 12 (−6, 8, 2) = − 21 A, then B is parallel to A.

(ii) In this case, you want to find a scalar c such that

(12, −16, 4) = c(−6, 8, 2)

12 = −6c ⇒ c = −2
−16 = 8c ⇒ c = −2
4 = 2c ⇒ c = 2.

Because there is no c for which the equation has a solution, the vectors are not parallel.

Definition
Two or more vectors are said to be collinear vectors, when they are along the same lines or parallel
lines.

Theorem 1.4.1. Let a and b be non-zero and non-collinear vectors. Then xa + yb = 0 implies
that x = y = 0.

Proof. Suppose xa + yb = 0 where x 6= 0. This means that a = −( xy )b. Thus the vectors a and
b are parallel. In other words they are parallel to the same line or are collinear. Contradiction.
Hence x must be equal to zero and so yb = 0. Therefore y = 0 as b 6= 0.

Theorem 1.4.2. Let a and b be non-zero and non-collinear vectors. Then x1 a + y1 b = x2 a + y2 b

implies that x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

The proof of this theorem is left as an exercise for you.

1.5 Laws of Vector Algebra

If A, B and C are vectors and m and n are scalars, then

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 (i) A + B = B + A Commutative Law for Addition.

(ii) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C Associative Law of Addition.

(iii) m(nA) = mnA = n(mA) Associative Law for Multiplication.

(iv) (m + n)A = mA + nA Distributive Law.

(v) m(A + B) = mA + mB Distributive Law.

1.6 The Dot or Scalar Product

So far we have studied two operations with vectors, vector addition and multiplication by a scalar,
each of which yield another vector. In this section you will study a third vector operation, called
the dot product, this product yields a scalar, rather than a vector.

The dot or scalar product of two vectors A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k and B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k, denoted

by A · B (read A dot B) is defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of
the angle θ between them, that is,

A · B = |A||B| cos θ = A1 B1 + A2 B2 + A3 B3

where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

Example 1.6.1. Given A = 2i + 4j + 6k and B = i − 3j + 2k. Compute the scalar product of A

and B.

Solution: From the definition, the scalar product is given by

A · B = (2) · (1) + (4) · (−3) + (6)(2) = 2 − 12 + 12 = 2.

The following laws are valid

(i) A · B = B · A Commutative Law for Dot Products.

(ii) A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C Distributive Law.

(iii) m(A · B) = (mA) · B = A · (mB) = (A · B)m, where m is a scalar.

(iv) i · i = j · j = k · k = 1, i · j = j · k = k · i = 0.

(v) If A · B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are perpendicular.

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1.6.1 Angle Between Two Vectors

If θ is the angle between two non-zero vectors A and B, then

A·B
cos θ = .
|A||B|

9
θ
-
B

Figure 1.2: The angle between two vectors

1.6.2 Definition of Orthogonal Vectors

The vectors A and B are orthogonal if A · B = 0. Two non-zero vectors are orthogonal if and
π
only if the angle between them is θ = .
2
Example 1.6.2. For A = 3i − j + 2k, B = −4i + 2k, C = i − j − 2k and D = 2i − k, find the angles
between the following pairs of vectors. (i) A and B (ii) A and C (iii) B and D.

Solution:
A·B −12 + 4 −8 −4
(i) cos θ = = √ √ = √ √ = √ . Because A · B < 0,
 |A||B|
 14 20 2 14 5 70
−4
θ = cos−1 √ = 2.069radians.
70
A·C 3+1−4 0
(ii) cos θ = = √ √ = √ = 0. Because A · C = 0, A and C are orthogonal.
|A||C| 14 6 84
π
Furthermore, θ = .
2
B·D −8 + 0 − 2 −10
(iii) cos θ = = √ √ =√ = −1. Consequently, θ = π.
|B||D| 20 5 100

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Exercise
Prove that a parallelogram ABCD is a rhombus if and only if its diagonals are orthogonal.

1.7 The Cross or Vector Product

Many applications in physics, engineering and geometry involve finding a vector in space that is
orthogonal to two given vectors. In this section we will study a product that will yield such a vector.
The cross or vector product of A and B is a vector C = A × B (read A cross B),
A × B = |A||B| sin θn,
where θ is the angle between the vectors, and the unit vector n is perpendicular to both A and B,
with A, B and n forming a right-handed system.

The following laws are valid.

(i) A × B = −B × A Anticommutative Law.

(ii) A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C Distributive Law.
(iii) m(A × B) = (mA) × B = A × (mB) = (A × B)m, where m is a scalar.
(iv) i × i = j × j = k × k = 0, i × j = k, j × k = i, k × i = j.
(v) If A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k and B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k, then
 
 i j k 
 
A × B = A1 A2 A3  .
B1 B2 B3 

(vi) The magnitude of A × B is the same as the area of a parallelogram with sides A and B.
(vii) If A × B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are parallel.

Example 1.7.1. Given A = i − 2j + k and B = 3i + j − 2k, find the following. (i) A × B

(ii) B × A (iii) B × B.

Solution:
(i)  
i j k       
 −2 1  1 1  1 −2
A × B = 1 −2 1  =  i − 
3 −2 j + 3 1  k = 3i + 5j + 7k.
  
3 1 −2 1 −2

(ii)  
i j k       
   1 −2 3 −2 3 1 
B × A = 3 1 −2 =  i − 
1 1  j + 1 −2 k = −3i − 5j − 7k.
  
1 −2 1  −2 1 

7
 

B
|B| sin θ

y θ
-
A

Figure 1.3: The vectors A and B form adjacent sides of a parallelogram

(iii)  
i j k 
 
B × B = 3 1 −2 = 0.
3 1 −2

Example 1.7.2. Find the area of the parallelogram determined by A = i+j−3k and B = −6j+5k.

Solution:
 
i j k √

  p
A × B = 1 1 −3 = −13i − 5j − 6k = (−13)2 + 52 + 62 = 230
0 −6 5 

which is the desired area.

Example 1.7.3. Find a unit vector that is orthogonal to both A = i − 4j + k and B = 2i + 3j.

Solution: The cross product A × B is orthogonal to both A and B.

 
 i j k
 
A × B = 1 −4 1  = −3i + 2j + 11k.
2 3 0 
p √
Because |A × B| = (−3)2 + 22 + 112 = 134, a unit vector orthogonal to both A and B is
A×B 3 2 11
= −√ i+ √ j+ √ k.
|A × B| 134 134 134

1.8 The Scalar Triple Product

For vectors A, B and C in space, the dot product of A and B × C

A · (B × C)
is called the scalar triple product. The following laws are valid.

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 (i) A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B) = volume of a parallelopiped having A, B and C
as edges.
If A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k, B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k and C = C1 i + C2 j + C3 k, then
 
A1 A2 A3 

A · (B × C) = B1 B2 B3  .
 C1 C2 C3 

(ii) As a consequence, the volume of the parallelopiped is 0 if and only if the three vectors are
coplanar. That is, if the vectors A = (A1 , A2 , A3 ), B = (B1 , B2 , B3 ) and C = (C1 , C2 , C3 )
have the same initial point, then they lie in the same plane if and only if
 
A1 A2 A3 
 
A · (B × C) = B1 B2 B3  = 0.
 C1 C2 C3 

Example 1.8.1. Find the volume of the parallelopiped having A = 3i − 5j + k, B = 2j − 2k and

C = 3i + j + k as adjacent edges.

Solution:
 
3 −5 1       
  2 −2 0 −2 0 2 
V = |A · (B × C)| = 0 2 −2 = 3  −(−5) 
3 1 +(1) 3 1 = 3(4)+5(6)+1(−6) = 36.
  
3 1 1 1
1 

Example 1.8.2. Determine whether the four points A(−2, 0, 3), B(1, 0, 0), C(1, −3, 3) and D(4, 1, −2)
are coplanar.

−−→
Solution: We construct three vectors from the four points, a = AD = (6, 1, −5),
−→ −→
b = AB = (3, 0, −3), c = AC = (3, −3, 0). The scalar product is
 
6 1 −5
 
a · (b × c) = 3 0 −3 = 6(−9) − (1)(9) + (−5)(−9) = −18 6= 0.
3 −3 0 

Hence not coplanar.

1.9 The Vector Triple Product

Let A, B and C be a triple of vectors. Then the vector

A × (B × C)

is called the triple vector product of A, B and C in that order. The evaluation of a vector triple
product can be made easier using the vector identity

A × (B × C) = (A · C)B − (A · B)C.

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Example 1.9.1. Given the vectors A = i + 3j − k, B = −2i + j − 5k and C = 3i − 2j + 7k. Verify
the vector identity
A × (B × C) = (A · C)B − (A · B)C.

Solution: Starting with the left hand side

 
 i j k 
 
B × C = −2 1 −5 = −3i − j + k.
 3 −2 7 
 
 i j k 
 
A × (B × C) =  1  3 −1 = 2i + 2j + 8k.
−3 −1 1 
The right hand side gives

(A · C) = 3(1) + 3(−2) + 7(−1) = −10, (A · C)B = −10(−2i + j − 5k) = 20i − 10j + 50k.

(A · B) = (−2)(1) + (3)(1) + (−5)(−1) = 6, (A · B)C = 6(3i − 2j + 7k) = 18i − 12j + 42k.

Then
(A · C)B − (A · B)C = (20 − 18)i + (−10 + 12)j + (50 − 42)k = 2i + 2j + 8k.

1.10 Lines and Planes in Space

In the plane, slope is used to determine an equation of a line. In space, it is more convenient to
use vectors to determine the equation of a line.

1.11 Vector Equation of a Straight Line

Just as in finding the equation of a straight line in Cartesian coordinates, we will find that there
are two cases to consider when finding the equation of a straight line in terms of vectors.

Case I:
One case is when you are given a fixed point on the straight line and a vector parallel to the straight
line. This case is analogous to the situation in Cartesian coordinates when one is given a point
through which a straight line passes and the gradient of the line is known.

Suppose the straight line l passes through a point A with position vector a with respect to our
reference point O. Further, suppose the vector b is parallel to the straight line. Let R be any point
on the straight line and let its position vector relative to O be r. We have
−→ −→ −→
OR = OA + AR.

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 −→ −→
Since AR is parallel to the vector b, AR = λb where λ is a real number. Hence the vector equation
of a straight line is given by

r = a + λb. (1.1)

Case II:
Suppose you are given two points through which the straight line passes.

Suppose a straight line l passes through two points A and B with position vectors a and b respec-
tively relative to the reference point O. Let R be any point on the straight line and let its position
vector relative to O be r. We have
−→ −→ −→
OR = OA + AR.
−→ −→ −→
But AR = λAB where AB = b − a.
Thus r = a + λ(b − a) = (a − λa) + λb = (1 − λ)a + λb. Therefore the vector equation of a straight
line in this case is given by

r = (1 − λ)a + λb. (1.2)

1.12 The Cartesian Equation of a Straight Line

We know that the general equation of a straight line in 2 dimensions has the form ax + by + c = 0
or the equivalent form y = mx + c.
You might expect the general equation of a straight line in 3 dimensional space to have the form
ax + by + cz + d = 0. In fact this is the general equation of a plane and not a straight line. In
general, there are two Cartesian coordinate forms of the equation of a straight line in 3 dimensional
space namely:

1. parametric equations form

2. symmetric equations form.

They are all derived from the vector equation (1.1).

Parametric Equations
     
x x1 x2
Suppose vectors r, a, b have column vectors y ,  y1 ,  y2  respectively and suppose
z z1 z2
r=a+ λb is
    the vector equation
  of straight line l.
x x1 x2
Then y  =  y1  + λ  y2 .
z z1 z2

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Thus, we have

x = x1 + λx2 , y = y1 + λy2 , z = z1 + λz2 (1.3)

These are the parametric equations of the straight line l with parameter λ in 3 dimensional space.

Symmetric Equations

From the equations in (1.3), we obtain

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = = λ.
x2 y2 z2
Hence, we have
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = . (1.4)
x2 y2 z2
These are the symmetric form of the Cartesian equations of a straight line in 3 dimensional space.

Example 1.12.1. Find parametric and symmetric equations of the line L that passes through the
point (1, −2, 4) and is parallel to A = (2, 4, −4).

Solution: To find a set of parametric equations of the line, use the coordinates x1 = 1, y1 = −2
and z1 = 4 and the direction numbers x2 = 2, y2 = 4 and z2 = −4.

x = 1 + 2λ, y = −2 + 4λ, z = 4 − 4λ.

Because x2 , y2 and z2 are all non-zero, a set of symmetric equations is

x−1 y+2 z−4
= = .
2 4 −4

Neither the parametric equations nor the symmetric equations of a given line are unique.

Example 1.12.2. Find a set of parametric equations of the line that passes through the points
(−2, 1, 0) and (1, 3, 5).

Solution: Begin by letting P = (−2, 1, 0) and Q = (1, 3, 5). Then a direction vector for the line
passing through P and Q is given by

A = (1 − (−2), 3 − 1, 5 − 0) = (3, 2, 5) = (x2 , y2 , z2 ).

Using the direction numbers x2 = 3, y2 = 2 and z2 = 5, with the point P = (−2, 1, 0) you can obtain
the parametric equations
x = −2 + 3λ, y = 1 + 2λ, z = 5λ.

12
1.13 Planes in Space

We have seen how an equation of a line in space can be obtained from a point on the line and a
vector parallel to it. Now we will see that an equation of a plane in space can be obtained from a
point in the plane and a vector normal (perpendicular) to it.

Consider the plane containing the point P = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and having a non-zero normal vector
−→
n = (a, b, c). This plane consists of all points Q = (x, y, z) for which vector P Q is orthogonal to n.
Using the dot product, we have the following
−→
n·P Q = 0
(a, b, c) · (x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 ) = 0
a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0.
The third equation of the plane is said to be in standard form.

1.13.1 Standard Equation of a Plane in Space

Theorem 1.13.1. The plane containing the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and having a normal vector n =
(a, b, c) can be represented, in standard form by the equation
a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0.

By regrouping terms, we obtain the general form of the equation of a plane in space,
ax + by + cz + d = 0.
Given the general form of the equation of a plane, it is easy to find a normal vector to the plane.
simply use the coefficients of x, y and z and write n = (a, b, c).
Example 1.13.1. Find the general equation of the plane containing the points (2, 1, 1), (0, 4, 1) and
(−2, 1, 4).

Solution: We need a point in the plane and a vector that is normal to the plane. There are three
choices for the point, but no normal vector is given. To obtain a normal vector, use the cross
product of vectors B and C extending from the point (2, 1, 1) to the points (0, 4, 1) and (−2, 1, 4).
The component forms of B and C are
B = (0 − 2, 4 − 1, 1 − 1) = (−2, 3, 0)
C = (−2 − 2, 1 − 1, 4 − 1) = (−4, 0, 3)
and it follows that  
 i j k
 
n = B × C = −2 3 0  = 9i + 6j + 12k = (a, b, c)
−4 0 3 

13
is normal to the given plane. Using the direction numbers for n and the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (2, 1, 1),
you can determine an equation of the plane to be

a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0

9(x − 2) + 6(y − 1) + 12(z − 1) = 0 (Standard f orm)
9x + 6y + 12z − 36 = 0
3x + 2y + 4z − 12 = 0. (General f orm)

Remark: Check to see that each of the three points satisfies the equation 3x + 2y + 4z − 12 = 0.

1.14 Angle Between Two Planes

Two distinct planes in three-dimensional space either are parallel or intersect in a line. If they
intersect, you can determine the angle between them from the angle between their normal vectors.
Specifically, if vectors n1 and n2 are normal to two intersecting planes, the the angle θ between the
normal vectors is equal to the angle between the two planes and is given by
n1 · n2
cos θ = .
|n1 ||n2 |

Consequently, two planes with normal vectors n1 and n2 are

1. perpendicular, if n1 · n2 = 0.

2. parallel, if n1 is a scalar multiple of n2 .

Example 1.14.1. Find the angle between the two planes

x − 2y + z = 0 Equation f or P lane 1
2x + 3y − 2z = 0 Equation f or P lane 2

and find parametric equations of their line of intersection.

Solution: The normal vectors for the planes are n1 = (1, −2, 1) and n2 = (2, 3, −2). Consequently,
the angle between the two planes is as follows
n1 · n2
cos θ =
|n1 ||n2 |
−6
= √ √
6 17
−6
= √
102
≈ −0.59409 (θ ≈ cos−1 −0.59409).

14
You can find the line of intersection of the two planes by simultaneously solving the two linear
equations representing the planes. Multiply the first equation by −2 and add the result to the
second equation.

−2x + 4y − 2z = 0
2x + 3y − 2z = 0
0x + 7y − 4z = 0.
4z z
So y = . Substituting this into one of the original equations, we have x = . Finally, letting
7 7
z
t = , we obtain the parametric equations
7
x = t, y = 4t, z = 7t (Line of Intersection).

1.15 Distances Between Points, Planes and Lines

In this section we want to find two basic types of distance problems in space,

1. Finding the distance between a point and a plane.

2. Finding the distance between a point and a line.

The solutions of these problems illustrate the versatility and usefulness of vectors in coordinate
geometry. The first problem uses the dot product of two vectors, and the second problem uses the
cross product. The distance D between a point Q and a plane is the length of the shortest line
segment connecting Q to the plane.

1.15.1 Distance Between a Point and a Plane

Theorem 1.15.1. The distance between a plane and a point Q (not in the plane) is
−→
|P Q · n|
D= .
|n|

To find a point in the plane given by ax + by + cz + d = 0 (a 6= 0), let y = 0 and z = 0. Then,

from the equation ax + d = 0, we conclude that the point (− ad , 0, 0) lies in the plane.

Example 1.15.1. Find the distance between Q = (1, 5, −4) and the plane given by 3x − y + 2z = 6.

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Solution: We know that n = (3, −1, 2) is normal to the given plane. To find a point in the plane,
let y = 0 and z = 0, and obtain the point P = (2, 0, 0). The vector from P to Q is given by
−→
P Q = (1 − 2, 5 − 0, −4 − 0) = (−1, 5, −4).

Using the distance formula,

−→
|P Q · n| |(−1, 5, −4) · (3, −1, 2)|
D= = √
|n| 9+1+4
| − 3 − 5 − 8|
= √
14
16
= √ .
14
Remark: The choice of the point P is arbitrary in the Example. Try choosing a different point to
verify that we obtain the same distance.

The distance between the point Q = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and the plane given by ax + by + cz + d = 0 is

|a(x0 − x1 ) + b(y0 − y1 ) + c(z0 − z1 )|

D = √
a2 + b 2 + c 2
|ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d|
D = √
a2 + b 2 + c 2
where P = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) is a point on the plane and d = −(ax1 + by1 + cz1 ).

1.16 Finding the Distance Between Two Parallel Planes

Example 1.16.1. Find the distance between the two parallel planes given by 3x − y + 2z − 6 = 0
and 6x − 2y + 4z + 4 = 0.

Solution: To find the distance between the planes, choose a point in the first plane, say (x0 , y0 , z0 ) =
(2, 0, 0). Then, from the second plane, we determine that a = 6, b = −2, c = 4 and d = 4, and
conclude that the distance is
|ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d|
D = √
a2 + b 2 + c 2
|6(2) + (−2)(0) + (4)(0) + 4|
= p
62 + (−2)2 + 42
16 8
= √ = √ ≈ 2.14.
56 14

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1.17 Distance Between a Point and a Line in Space

The formula for the distance between a point and a line in space resembles that for the distance
between a point and a plane, except that we replace the dot product by the cross product and
replace the normal vector n by a direction vector for the given line.

Theorem 1.17.1. The distance between a point Q and a line in space is given by
−→
|P Q × u|
D=
|u|

where u is the direction vector for the line and P is a point on the line.

Example 1.17.1. Find the distance between the point Q = (3, −1, 4) and the line given by

x = −2 + 3t, y = −2t, z = 1 + 4t.

Solution: Using the direction numbers, 3, −2 and 4, we know that the direction vector for the line
is u = (3, −2, 4). To find a point on the line, let t = 0, and obtain P = (−2, 0, 1). thus,
−→
P Q = (3 − (−2), −1 − 0, 4 − 1) = (5, −1, 3)

and we form the cross product

 
 i j k
−→  
P Q × u = 5 −1 3  = 2i − 11j − 7k = (2, −11, −7).
3 −2 4 

Finally
−→ √
|P Q × u| 174 √
D= = √ = 6 ≈ 2.45.
|u| 29

1
“Everybody is a genius. But if you judge a fish by its ability to climb a tree, it will live its whole life believing
that it is stupid.”— Albert Einstein

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