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Chemical Weathering of Lime Mortars from the Jahangir Tomb, Lahore-

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DOI: 10.12983/ijsrce-2014-p0106-0114

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 International Journal of Scientific Research in Chemical Engineering, 1(7), pp. 106-114, 2014
Available online at http://www.ijsrpub.com/ijsrce
ISSN: 2345-6787; ©2014; Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://dx.doi.org/10.12983/ijsrce-2014-p0106-0114

Full Length Research Paper

Chemical Weathering of Lime Mortars from the Jahangir Tomb, Lahore-Pakistan

Saima Gulzar1, 2*, Muhammad Nawaz Chaudhry1, Jean-Pierre Burg2, Sohail Anwer Saeed3
1
College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
2
Geological Institute, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Switzerland
3
Sohail Saeed &Associates, Lahore, Pakistan
*Corresponding Author: Email: saimagulzar@yahoo.com, saima.gulzar@erdw.ethz.ch

Received 30 September 2014; Accepted 20 November 2014

Abstract. The effects of environmental pollution on cultural heritage have been widely studied in different parts of the world
over the last few decades but not with the reference to Pakistan, although cultural heritage in this part of the world is
deteriorating at an alarming rate. Determination of the deterioration processes and causes are the fundamental parameters for
the preservation on scientific grounds of these cultural assets. This study investigates the effect of environmental pollution on
the façades of the 17th century historic monuments of Jahangir Tomb in Lahore (Pakistan). For this purpose, samples were
collected from weathered as well as from sound interior surfaces. The samples were characterized by XRF, XRD, SEM-EDS
and stereomicroscopy/wet chemistry to understand the weathering mechanisms and products. Those are mainly comprised of
sulphates, chlorides and nitrates along with high contents of soil particulates and biological colonization. Results show that
chemical weathering is occurring at the mortar-atmosphere interface of the historic fabric, conjoining the petrographic
characteristics of the mortars and enveloping atmospheric composition. This interaction is responsible for the current
deterioration of the historic lime mortars.

Key words: chemical; weathering; XRF; XRD; SEM-EDS; mortars; Pakistan

1. INTRODUCTION al., 2010). The main damage occurring to mortars

Environmental pollution is now one of the major
factors contributing to the degradation of historical
buildings especially in the emerging countries like
Pakistan (Sarkar et al., 1992; Arif, 2003; Gulzar et al.,
2004). The exponential growth of vehicles and rapid
industrial developments over the last decades
generated highly polluted atmospheric conditions,
which are aggressive to the historic garden city of
Lahore (capital of Mughal Empire). This resulted into
enhanced chemical weathering of historic monuments
(Gulzar et al., 2013).
The determination of environmental impacts is not
straight-forward because of their complex and
variable nature (Viles, 2011). They may be natural or
anthropogenic. It is presently hybrid because of the
influx of pollutants from both natural and
anthropogenic sources, which together accelerate
deterioration of historic structures (Inkpen, 2004;
World Heritage Report No. 22, 2007). All gases and
particles emitted into the atmosphere deposited back
to the Earth’s surface directly or through wet
accumulation, which involves scavenging by
precipitation (Searle and Mitchell, 2006; Sternberg et
106
exposed to urban atmosphere is the transformation of
calcium carbonates into calcium sulphates due to the
deposition of airborne sulphur compounds, dissolution
by rainfall and SO2, blackening by soot deposition,
thermal damage, degradation by soluble salts and
biological colonization (Brimblecombe, 2004; Hall et
al., 2011). Pollution-triggered deterioration was
especially intense from 1700s in Europe. In the late
19th and early 20th centuries the dominant impact of
environmental pollution was the sulphation of
surfaces. The parallel deposition of soot caused the
blackening of surfaces and the formation of black
crusts (Sabbioni et al., 2010).
The Jahangir Tomb, a landmark of Mughal
architecture and funeral landscape in Pakistan, is
subjected to the adverse impacts of visibly identifiable
natural and anthropogenic deterioration processes
(Awan, 2009). The current deterioration of these
remarkable buildings were incentive to the presented
research on the causes of material degradation,
especially the lime mortars, in order to formulate
suitable solutions to restore this cultural asset and
transmit it to future generations.
 Gulzar et al.
Chemical Weathering of Lime Mortars from the Jahangir Tomb, Lahore-Pakistan

Site inspection revealed that the historic façades
suffered from several types of deterioration
phenomena (Fig 1 and 2) and are presently reaching
critical conditions due to negligence, lack of necessary
maintenance and poorly adopted conservation
strategies. Mortars were observed importantly
cracked, blistered and leached from the masonry
joints, leaving cavities at multiple locations (Fig 2).
Close visual inspection of the damaged mortars also
revealed discoloration and the formation of black and
green patinas. The interior surfaces (-of mortars-)
exhibited characteristic symptoms of localized
efflorescence –whitish patches and deposition of
pollutants corresponding to black surfaces, which is
even more evident from exfoliated surfaces.
The main objective of this study is to understand
the deterioration factors, identify the deterioration
products and characterize the deterioration
mechanisms affecting the heritage structures of
Jahangir tomb. The results obtained in this study will
help formulating a conservation plan and specifying
suitable materials for future restoration on the site.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Sample
The samples were collected keeping in view the
significance of this cultural asset and the needs for
multidisciplinary scientific examination (Delalieux et
al., 2001; Binda et al., 2007). Mortar samples were
taken from different places of the main tomb building
to incorporate all types of weathered mortar surfaces.
Sample MS1 was obtained from the exterior façade
directly exposed to polluted atmosphere, driving rain
and sunshine. Sample MS2 was extracted from the
leached joint of stone masonry whereas MS3 was
taken from the washed off exterior façade. The severe
deterioration on exterior of the historic buildings is
also one of basic and dramatic contributor to further
decay of the interior façades. MS4 was sampled from
the internal façades indirectly exposed to driving rain,
rain run-off and direct sunshine; MS5 was extracted
from cored mortars for determination of original
constituents/compositions.

Table 1: Mineralogical composition of mortars by XRD

Sample Description Location Calcite Quartz Clay/ Feldspar Gypsum Thenardite Anhydrite Hematite Halite Calcium
Illite oxalate

MS1 Exterior Exposed ++ +++ + + ++ + - + ? t/?

layer Surface
MS2 Jointing Leached +++ ++ + + + + t + + +
mortar surface
MS3 Exterior Washed off ++ +++ +/t t ++ ++/+ +/t +/ t +/ t -
layer surface
MS4 Interior layer Inner layer +++ ++/+ + +/t ++/+ ++ ? ++/+ t -
MS5 Intermediate Directly on +++ ++ + t t/ ? ? - + - -
layer masonry
+++Abundant, ++ present, + small amount, t traces,? doubts in presence,-undetected

2.2. Laboratory determinations
The chemical compositions were determined with X-
ray fluorescence spectrometer (WD-XRF, Axios,
PANalytical) to compare element concentration in
sound and decayed mortar samples, and understand
the involved alteration (Binda et al. 2007). The
mineralogy of powdered sample was determined with
X-ray diffraction (XRD) using a Bruker, AXS D8
Advance powder diffractometer with CuKα radiation.
The petrographic characteristics of the deteriorated
mortar and core mortar samples were studied with a
petrographic polarizing microscope to confirm the
mortar matrix constituent’s alteration identified by
XRD in addition to the conventional standard
chemical analysis. The elemental composition and
texture of the mortars along with the composition and
morphology of the salts were studied with SEM-EDS
(JEOL-JSM 6390-EDS-Oxford-1 NCA) as detailed
compositional investigation of individual particles
require this analytical combination.

107
 International Journal of Scientific Research in Chemical Engineering, 1(7), pp. 106-114, 2014

Table 2: Chemical composition of mortars determined by SEM-EDS averaged in wt%.

Sample MS1 MS2 MS3 MS4 MS5
Oxides-wt%
Na2O 1.97 1.00 1.52 1.37 1.50
MgO 3.67 2.71 2.62 2.61 5.50
Al2O3 8.98 6.59 7.14 8.78 9.13
SiO2 32.04 25.49 31.17 28.42 23.03
P2O5 0.17 0.10 0.09 0.16 0.10
SO3 1.30 0.92 1.49 3.63 0.13
Cl 0.12 0.49 0.73 0.82 0.04
K2O 1.35 1.90 2.56 2.88 1.43
CaO 46.06 57.44 50.74 47.60 54.83
TiO2 0.10 0.28 0.17 0.17 0.00
Cr2O3 0.13 0.29 0.02 0.30 0.14
FeO 3.31 2.18 1.75 3.18 3.98
NiO 0.37 0.61 0.00 0.01 0.28
Total 99.57 99.71 100 99.99 100

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The studied Jahangir tomb is located close to the large
industrial area of Shahdara and Grand Trunk road
which transformed from lush green gardens to densely
populated industrial area with heavy vehicular traffic
over the last 300 years, particularly since 1958 when
rapid industrialization and urbanization started (Awan,
1994a, 2009b; Gulzar et al., 2013). The change of
land use and unchecked urban sprawl created now the
highly polluted micro-environment of the site, which
is playing a significant role in damaging the historic
structure (Gulzar, 2004). The Environment Protection
Department of Lahore measured an abruptly increased
level of oxides sulphur and nitrogen along with the
amount of soot and dust. These severe changes
resulted in the identified degradation pattern of the
historic lime mortars.

Fig. 1: Deteriorated historic surfaces; a) exterior façade mortar leaching from stone masonry joints and b) formation of black
and white crusts in the Jahangir Tomb, Shahdara (Lahore)

3.1. XRD analysis location. The other deterioration products are

The XRD analysis (Table 1) indicates that core
sample MS5 (collected for determination of original
constituents) is mainly composed of calcite-high
peaks and moderate peaks for quartz in addition to
few low peaks for clay-illite and accessory minerals
(feldspar, hematite, etc.). Gypsum is present in all the
other samples and its abundance is related to sample
thenardite, traces of anhydrite, halite, calcium oxalate
and excess clay.
Petrographic observations showed that the mortar
is composed of small calcite and quartz grains bonded
with a fine calcareous material, containing a range of
pores (MS5), often found filled with gypsum crystals
(MS1, MS2, MS3, and MS4) in the weathered
samples.

108
 Gulzar et al.
Chemical Weathering of Lime Mortars from the Jahangir Tomb, Lahore-Pakistan

Fig. 2: Visually identified and megascopically studied sites; a) eroded exterior façade mortar b) deposition of black and white
particles c) washed off mortar surfaces d) rusting and staining of mortar e) biological colonization growth on exterior surfaces
around the rainwater disposal junction and f) dissolution of inner mortar surfaces from the Jahangir Tomb, Shahdara-Lahore

3.2. Chemical analysis weathering/alteration which was further

The X-ray fluorescence analysis (Fig 3) and the SEM-
EDS area measurements (Table 2) show significant
differences between samples, depending upon their
exposure and interaction with the surrounding
environment. Sample MS1 from the external façade
directly exposed to the environmental attack has the
following characteristics compared with the core
sample (MS5):
The calcite content (CaO+LOI) of intact Mughal
mortar is 65% while MS1 has less than 50% calcite
content (Fig 3); the difference is due to
109
complemented by increased amounts of other
contents.
The amount of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 in weathered
MS1 (34.718, 8.106 and 3.507%, respectively) are
higher than in the core MS5 sample (20.984, 5.262
and 2.285%, respectively). The relative enrichment of
Si, Al and Fe is derived from the deposition of
atmospheric particles (Qin et al., 2005) since the
Jahangir tomb site (once built away from the busy
urban area) is presently surrounded by a busy road
with increased traffic flows over the past few years.
 International Journal of Scientific Research in Chemical Engineering, 1(7), pp. 106-114, 2014
The amount of SO3 in MS1 is 1.30% which is
much higher than that in MS5 (0.13%) measured by
SEM-EDS. SO3 is due to SO2 emitted by
anthropogenic sources like combustion of fossil fuels,
automobile emissions, small foundries and smelters in
the vicinity.
The increased amount of Cl (0.12%) in MS1
(compared to 0.04% in MS5) is attributed to reaction
of the mortar substrate with water-transported chloride
salts that leads to crystallization and whitish crust
formations on exposed surfaces.
The amount of TiO2 and MnO are 0.44% in MS1
against 0.08% in MS5. The high content in Ti-Mn
witnesses industrial and urban emissions. The content
of transition metal oxides contributes to the catalytic
oxidation of atmospheric SO2 and to the sulphation of
calcium carbonate, which is one of the ongoing
chemical weathering phenomena, as further discussed
in this contribution.
The XRF and EDS measurements performed on
sample MS2 show SiO2 and CaO contents of 19.49
and 33.80, respectively, with LOI 34.55%. This data
clearly indicates that sample MS2 is rich in organic
material, confirmed by traces of calcium oxalate in
XRD, which is ascribable to macroscopically
Fig. 3: X-ray fluorescence analysis of sampled mortars
3.3. Chemical weathering mechanisms
The heavily polluted atmosphere surrounding the
heritage site of Jahangir tomb in addition to the
unfavorable climatic patterns (high humidity,
temperature, moisture etc.) is responsible for the
weathering of historic fabric especially the lime
mortars. The deposition mechanism of pollutants is
complex and depends on several factors. The most
critical factors are the location and exposure of the
historic fabric surface along with its condition at the
110
observable lichen colonization and the blackish color
of the sampled mortar surface.
The SiO2 and CaO contents of 37.92 and 23.50,
respectively, with LOI 22.45% (XRF analysis) and
high amounts of SO3 and Cl (EDS-measurements) in
sample MS3 is attributed to its direct exposure to
atmospheric pollutants and rainwater. The relatively
high amount of moisture favours absorption of
sulphur dioxide in rainwater and the development of
moist film on mortar surfaces, where mortar is
oxidized to form a sulphuric acid; this acid dissolves
in turn the calcium carbonate by gypsum formation
(Gauri and Holdern, 1981; Rampazzi, 2004; Qin et al.,
2005).
Sample MS4 taken from the severely deteriorated
internal façades shows highest SO3 and Cl contents of
3.63 and 0.82% (Table 2), respectively, compared to
all other samples. Chloride favours dissolution of
sulphate minerals, creating a process of solubility and
precipitation in the high humidity level of 70%
characteristic of the monsoon climatic pattern at
Lahore (Arif, 2003; Awan and Kazmi, 2009). This
further allows deposition of the atmospheric pollutants
that are clearly identified from the blackish spotty
surface of sample MS4.
time of interaction with pollutants. The resulting
chemical weathering is discussed in the following.
3.3.1. SOx-rich environment chemical weathering
Deposition of sulphur containing particulates results
in the following chemical reactions that involve the
constituents of the mortar surface.
(a) The gaseous deposition of SO2 on the mortar
surfaces initiates the reactions:
SO2+CaCO3 → CaSO3+CO2
CaSO3+1/2O2 → CaSO4
 Gulzar et al.
Chemical Weathering of Lime Mortars from the Jahangir Tomb, Lahore-Pakistan
In presence of moisture/water, the wet deposition
reaction is as follows:
(b) CaSO4+H2SO4→ CaSO4+H2O+CO2
The formation of anhydrous CaSO4 in both cases
is followed by the formation of gypsum:
CaSO4+2H2O→ CaSO4.2H2O
(c) With the formation of gypsum come two
possibilities related to situation:
-In rain-exposed areas such as those where samples
MS1 and MS3 were taken, CaSO4 or gypsum will be
dissolved (Norvaisiene, 2003; Siegesmund et al.,
2008).
CaSO4 → Ca++ + SO4-2
CaSO4.2H2O→ Ca++ + SO4-2+2H2O
-In rain-protected areas the formation of gypsum
gives rise to surface incrustation that attracts more
atmospheric pollutants, as observed in MS4.
3.3.2. NOx-rich environment chemical weathering
Nitrogen oxides (nitrous oxide, nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide) were found in small concentrations
but play an important role in weathering of lime
mortars:
(a) NOx besides attacking the historic fabric in
gaseous form is capable of conversion to nitrous and
nitric acids, which are strongly corrosive and
oxidizing agents reacting with mortar constituents by
converting the carbonates into:
NO2+O3→ NO3+O2
NO2+NO3→ N2O5
NO2+H2O→2HNO3
NO2+H2O→2HNO3
CaCO3+2HNO3→ Ca (NO3)2+ H2O+CO2
The so-formed calcium nitrate is very soluble in
rain water, leaving cavities in the historic fabric where
more pollutants can accumulate. This is one of the
reasons for detected low concentrations in nitrates in
the weathered samples (Vazquez-Calvo, 2007).
(b) Nitrate also contributes to weathering of lime
mortars by converting SO2 into sulphuric acid that
chemically weathers the lime mortar surface (Bonazza
et al., 2009):
S+O2 → SO2
2SO2+O2→ 2SO3
2SO3+ H2O→ H2SO4
(c) Another chemical reaction is the catalytic
oxidation of sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid in the
presence of metals elements such as Ti, Mn, Cu etc. in
combination with NOx
catalyst
SO2+ H2O+ 1/2O2 → H2SO4
(d) The combined corrosive act of SOx and NOx is
the biochemical weathering of mortars by promoting
111
the generation of lichens on the mortar surfaces as
observed in MS2.
2CaCO3+ (NH4)2SO4+4O2→ Ca (NO3)2+
CaSO4+2CO2+4H2O
mortar+ microorganisms+ oxygen→ Ca (NO3)2+
CaSO4+2CO2+4H2O
Deposition of nitrate on mortars is not a simple
function of NOx concentration and is under further
investigation to elucidate this deterioration
mechanism (Gulker et al., 2004, Arzu at al., 2009).
3.3.3. CL--rich environment chemical weathering
The presence of Cl- in the weathered mortar samples
is indicative of the following weathering mechanisms
Stefanis, 2001):
(a) Salt crystallization-NaCl inducing mechanical
stresses within the mortar constituents and with
interacting surfaces, thus developing into mechanical
disintegration.
(b) Playing a significant role in the swelling of clay
fractions in mortars, which commonly results in
material loss.
(c) An additional phenomenon under investigation
is the reaction of chloride salt with nitric acid:
NaCl + HNO3 → NaNO3+ HCl
4. CONCLUSION
Environmental pollution, with (i) emission of S and
N-rich particles into the atmosphere by traffic and
industry and (ii) water-transported Cl into mortars are,
together with unfavorable climatic patterns,
responsible for the chemical weathering of the lime
mortars in the Jahangir tomb. Different combinations
of these factors due to variable exposure in different
locations have created incompatibilities between
mortar constituents and generated deformation.
Sulphates (together with associated products) that
severely affect the lime mortars are a typical result of
increased vehicular pollution and industry, in addition
to their natural production. Moreover, the high
generation (as secondary pollutants) and
transportation (one of the major environmental issue
of polluted cities) of nitrates and chlorides are
disintegrating the mortar constituents and facilitate the
formation of various weathering products. Chemical
alteration due to above discussed pollutants further
enhances the deposition of foreign particles (aerosols,
particulate matter, carbon black soot, biogenic
products etc.) on the weathered surfaces. This initiates
secondary weathering phenomena, mainly biological
colonization.
Dissolution and crystallization of mortar
constituents in the polluted atmosphere are the main
causes of tensions created within the mortars. Tensile
 International Journal of Scientific Research in Chemical Engineering, 1(7), pp. 106-114, 2014
stresses lead to mechanical disintegration and erosion
of historic fabric as observed in the Jahangir Tomb
historic façades.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the
Department of Archaeology and Museums and all
contributors. We would like to thank Department of
Earth Sciences ETH-Zurich, for their assistance in
XRF and SEM-EDS analysis, respectively.
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 International Journal of Scientific Research in Chemical Engineering, 1(7), pp. 106-114, 2014

Dr. Saima Gulzar is an architect working in the field of architectural heritage conservation and
restoration. She has done her Ph.D in Earth and Environmental Sciences focusing on Environmental
Conservation of Architectural Heritage in Pakistan in 2013 and carried out analytical work on
heritage materials in ETH-Zurich during 2009-2011. Presently, she is an academic guest in
Geological Institute for carrying out her postdoctoral research on Ornamental Techniques of 17th
century Mughal architecture in Pakistan. She has published 6 research publications in international
peer reviewed journals along with several posters and conference publications.
Tel + (41) 44 632 85 79; Fax + (41) 44 632 10 30; Email: saima.gulzar@erdw.ethz.ch

Dr. M.N. Chaudhry is a Professor in College of Earth and Enviornmental Sciences from 12 December
2005 to date and Fellow of Pakistan Academy of Sciences. He has earned his Ph.D in Mineralogy
from London University in 1967 and did his postdoc from ETH Zurich, Switzerland in 1996. He has
been the Director of Intitute of Geology from 1997-2001, Director for Postgraduate Center for Earth
Sciences from 2001-2002 ans Director for Intgegrated Mountain Researcg from 1999-2000. He was
also serving as Distinguished Professor of HEC in Punjab University from 2003-2005. He has
published more than 215 national and international publications, 117 papers and posters presented at
national and international seminars. Prof. Chaudhry has been editor (1974-77&1985-1997) and chief
editor (1997-2000) of Geological Bulletin of Punjab University. He is been ranked No.1 in 2005 in
the Directory of Productive Scientist of Pakistan by PCST and ranked No. 2 after change of criteria.
He was also awarded Gold Medals for his outstanding research by Punjab Geological Society,
Pakistan Academy for Geological Sciences and Pakistan Academy of Sciences.
Tel +92 (345) 4005008; Fax +92 (42) 3595 31 00; Email: muhammadnawazchaudhry@yahoo.com

Jean-Pierre Burg has been full Professor (ETH/University of Zurich) at the Institute of Geology of the
ETH Zurich since September 1, 1993. Prof. Burg was born on April 25, 1953 in Meknès, Morocco
and is of French nationality. He received a scholarship from the British Council enabling him to study
as a graduate student at the Imperial College in London from October 1975 to July 1976. From 1979
to 1983 he did scientific research at the French CNRS. His dissertation was honored with great
distinction by the USTL Montpellier in May 1983. In November 1983 he assumed a post as research
fellow at Melbourne University. In March 1986 he was appointed Research Director at the CNRS
Center for Geology and Geophysics in Montpellier, a post he held until he was called to the ETH.
Prof. Burg has many editorial responsibilities. He has been chief editor of "Geodinamica Acta" and
"Géologie de la France" and is now one of the Chief Editors of "TECTONOPHYSICS". His
dedication merited the Australian Society of Educational Technology Award in 1986. He was
awarded the Prix Henri Becquerel from the Academy of Sciences in Paris on 26 November 1990. On the decision of the Sofia
University Council, Prof. Burg received the title Doctor honoris causa on 22 May 1995; at that time he was also given the "The
Blue Ribbon" from Sofia University.
Tel + (41) 44 632 60 27; Fax + (41) 44 632 10 30; Email: jean-pierre.burg@erdw.ethz.ch

Architect Sohail Anwer Saeed is an Associate Professor for Architecture Design at the Superior
University in Lahore and has his own architectural practice in Lahore-Pakistan. He earned his Master
of Science in Architecture-Advance Architectural Studies (Spatial Design: Architecture and Cities)
from Bartlett School of Architecture and Planning, UCL, UK in 1992. He has more than 30 years
experience in architectural design and urban planning projects in Pakistan and Middel East. He has
won many architectural design competitions at national level and senior member of professional
forums. He is an active researcher in the field of architecture, urban spatial planning, conservation
and disaster risk reduction. He has many national and international publications.
Tel + 92(300) 9475408; Fax + 92(42) 3583 18 66; Email: architectsohailsaeed@gmail.com

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