Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/physicsgre_v2
DRAFT
August 3, 2009
Author:
David S. Latchman
2
This solution guide initially started out on the Yahoo Groups web site and was pretty
successful at the time. Unfortunately, the group was lost and with it, much of the the
hard work that was put into it. This is my attempt to recreate the solution guide and
make it more widely avaialble to everyone. If you see any errors, think certain things
could be expressed more clearly, or would like to make suggestions, please feel free to
do so.
David Latchman
Document Changes
05-11-2009 1. Added diagrams to GR0177 test questions 1-25
2. Revised solutions to GR0177 questions 1-25
Preface i
1 Classical Mechanics 1
1.1 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Linear Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Work & Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 The Work-Energy Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.3 Work done under a constant Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.4 Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.5 Hooke’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.6 Potential Energy of a Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Oscillatory Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.1 Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.2 Period of Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.3 Total Energy of an Oscillating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.4 Damped Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.5 Small Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.6 Coupled Harmonic Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.7 Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.1 Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.2 Rotational Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.3 Parallel Axis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.4 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.5 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.6 Kinetic Energy in Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Dynamics of Systems of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6.1 Center of Mass of a System of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Central Forces and Celestial Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7.1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
iv Contents
1.7.2 Potential Energy of a Gravitational Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7.3 Escape Speed and Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7.4 Kepler’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7.5 Types of Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7.6 Derivation of Vis-viva Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.8 Three Dimensional Particle Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.9 Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.9.1 Equation of Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.9.2 Bernoulli’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.10 Non-inertial Reference Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.11 Hamiltonian and Lagrangian Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.11.1 Lagrange’s Function (L) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.11.2 Equations of Motion(Euler-Lagrange Equation) . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.11.3 Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Electromagnetism 13
2.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Coulomb’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 Electric Field of a point charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.3 Gauss’ Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.1.4 Equivalence of Coulomb’s Law and Gauss’ Law . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.5 Electric Field due to a line of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.6 Electric Field in a Solid Non-Conducting Sphere . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.7 Electric Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.8 Electric Potential of a Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.9 Electric Potential due to a line charge along axis . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Currents and DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Magnetic Fields in Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 Maxwell’s Equations and their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.8 AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.9 Magnetic and Electric Fields in Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.10 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.11 Energy in a Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.12 Energy in an Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.13 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.14 Current Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.15 Current Density of Moving Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.16 Resistance and Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.17 Resistivity and Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.18 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.19 Kirchoff’s Loop Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.20 Kirchoff’s Junction Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.21 RC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6 Atomic Physics 37
6.1 Properties of Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2 Bohr Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.3 Energy Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.4 Atomic Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.5 Atomic Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.5.1 Rydberg’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.6 Selection Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.7 Black Body Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.7.1 Plank Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.7.2 Stefan-Boltzmann Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.7.3 Wein’s Displacement Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.7.4 Classical and Quantum Aspects of the Plank Equation . . . . . . 39
6.8 X-Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.8.1 Bragg Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.8.2 The Compton Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.9 Atoms in Electric and Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.9.1 The Cyclotron Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.9.2 Zeeman Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.9.3 Franck-Hertz Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7 Special Relativity 45
7.1 Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.1 Postulates of Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.2 Time Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.3 Length Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.4 Simultaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.5 Energy and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.5.1 Relativistic Momentum & Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.5.2 Lorentz Transformations (Momentum & Energy) . . . . . . . . . 46
7.5.3 Relativistic Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.5.4 Relativistic Dynamics (Collisions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.6 Four-Vectors and Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.7 Velocity Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8 Laboratory Methods 51
8.1 Data and Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.1.1 Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.1.2 Multiplication and Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.1.3 Exponent - (No Error in b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.1.4 Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.1.5 Antilogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.2 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.3 Radiation Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.4 Counting Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.5 Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.6 Lasers and Optical Interferometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8.7 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8.8 Fundamental Applications of Probability and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . 54
9 Sample Test 55
9.1 Period of Pendulum on Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.2 Work done by springs in series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.3 Central Forces I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.4 Central Forces II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
9.5 Electric Potential I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9.6 Electric Potential II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
9.7 Faraday’s Law and Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
9.8 AC Circuits: RL Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9.9 AC Circuits: Underdamped RLC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.10 Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.11 Nuclear Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.12 Ionization of Lithium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.13 Electron Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.14 Effects of Temperature on Speed of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.15 Polarized Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.16 Electron in symmetric Potential Wells I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.17 Electron in symmetric Potential Wells II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.18 Relativistic Collisions I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.19 Relativistic Collisions II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.20 Thermodynamic Cycles I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.21 Thermodynamic Cycles II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.22 Distribution of Molecular Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.23 Temperature Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.24 Counting Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.25 Thermal & Electrical Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.26 Nonconservation of Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.96Pair Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.97I don’t know . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
12.98Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
12.99Metastable States of the LASER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
12.100Quantum Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
10.38.1
Truth Table for OR-gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Specific Heat, cv for a diatomic molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
10.87.1
11.54.1
Table showing something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
12.17.1
Table of wavefunction amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
12.79.1
Table of degrees of freedom of a Diatomic atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
A.1.1Something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
xx List of Tables
Classical Mechanics
1.1 Kinematics
1.1.1 Linear Motion
Average Velocity
∆x x2 − x1
v= = (1.1.1)
∆t t2 − t1
Instantaneous Velocity
∆x dx
v = lim = = v(t) (1.1.2)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Centripetal Acceleration
v2
a= (1.1.7)
r
2 Classical Mechanics
Angular Velocity
v
ω= (1.1.8)
r
We can write eq. (1.1.7) in terms of ω
a = ω2 r (1.1.9)
ω = ω0 + αt (1.1.10)
ω + ω0
θ= t (1.1.11)
2
1
θ = ω0 t + αt2 (1.1.12)
2
ω = ω0 + 2αθ
2 2
(1.1.13)
Second Law The net force on a body is proportional to its rate of change of momentum.
dp
F= = ma (1.2.1)
dt
1.2.2 Momentum
p = mv (1.2.3)
1.2.3 Impulse
w
∆p = J = Fdt = Favg dt (1.2.4)
W = F∆x (1.3.3)
wx f
W= F(x)dx (1.3.5)
xi
At the points of inflection, the derivative dV/dx is zero and d2 V/dx2 is positive. This
means that the potential energy for small oscillations becomes
1
V(x) u V(xe ) + k(x − xe )2 (1.4.16)
2
where " #
d2 V(x)
k≡ ≥0 (1.4.17)
dx2 x=xe
x = ` cos θ ≈ ` (1.4.19)
y = ` sin θ ≈ `θ (1.4.20)
L=T−V
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
= m ẏ1 + m ẏ2 − ky1 + κ y2 − y1 + ky2
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
= m y˙1 + y˙2 2 − k y21 + y22 + κ y2 − y1 (1.4.23)
2 2
We can find the equations of motion of our system
d ∂L ∂L
!
= (1.4.24)
dt ∂ ẏn ∂yn
m ÿ1 = −ky1 + κ y2 − y1
(1.4.25)
m ÿ2 = −ky2 + κ y2 − y1
(1.4.26)
y1 = cos(ωt + δ1 ) y2 = B cos(ωt + δ2 )
(1.4.27)
ÿ1 = −ωy1 ÿ2 = −ωy2
Substituting the values for ÿ1 and ÿ2 into the equations of motion yields
k + κ − mω2 y1 − κy2 = 0 (1.4.28)
−κy1 + k + κ − mω2 y2 = 0 (1.4.29)
k + κ − mω2
−κ
=0 (1.4.30)
k + κ − mω2
−κ
We can now determine exactly how the masses move with each mode by substituting
ω2 into the equations of motion. Where
k
ω2 = We see that
m
k + κ − mω2 = κ (1.4.33)
Substituting this into the equation of motion yields
y1 = y2 (1.4.34)
We see that the masses move in phase with each other. You will also notice
the absense of the spring constant term, κ, for the connecting spring. As the
masses are moving in step, the spring isn’t stretching or compressing and hence
its absence in our result.
k+κ
ω2 = We see that
m
k + κ − mω2 = −κ (1.4.35)
Substituting this into the equation of motion yields
y1 = −y2 (1.4.36)
Here the masses move out of phase with each other. In this case we see the
presence of the spring constant, κ, which is expected as the spring playes a role.
It is being stretched and compressed as our masses oscillate.
vs v − v s
λ0 = λ − − (1.4.37)
f0 f0
1.5.4 Torque
τ=r×F (1.5.4)
τ = Iα (1.5.5)
where α is the angular acceleration.
dR
V=
dt
m1 v1 + m2 v2 + m3 v3 + · · · + mN vN
= (1.6.2)
M
dV
A=
dt
m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 + · · · + mN aN
= (1.6.3)
M
E=T+U
1 GMm
= mv2 − (1.7.3)
2 r
The escape speed becomes
1 GMm
E = mv2esc − =0 (1.7.4)
2 RE
Solving for vesc we find r
2GM
vesc = (1.7.5)
Re
T2
=C (1.7.6)
R3
where C is a constant whose value is the same for all planets.
1.11.3 Hamiltonian
H =T+V
= pq̇ − L(q, q̇) (1.11.3)
where
∂H
= q̇ (1.11.4)
∂p
∂H ∂L
=−
∂q ∂x
= −ṗ (1.11.5)
Electromagnetism
2.1 Electrostatics
2.1.1 Coulomb’s Law
The force between two charged particles, q1 and q2 is defined by Coulomb’s Law.
!
1 q1 q2
F12 = r̂12 (2.1.1)
4π0 r212
1 q
E= r̂ (2.1.4)
4π0 r2
n
1 X qi
E(r) = r̂i (2.1.5)
4π0 i=1 r2i
14 Electromagnetism
Electric Fields and Continuous Charge Distributions
If a source is distributed continuously along a region of space, eq. (2.1.5) becomes
Z
1 1
E(r) = r̂dq (2.1.6)
4π0 r2
If the charge was distributed along a line with linear charge density, λ,
dq
λ= (2.1.7)
dx
The Electric Field of a line charge becomes
λ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dx (2.1.8)
4π0 r2
line
In the case where the charge is distributed along a surface, the surface charge density
is, σ
Q dq
σ= = (2.1.9)
A dA
The electric field along the surface becomes
σ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dA (2.1.10)
4π0 r2
Surface
In the case where the charge is distributed throughout a volume, V, the volume charge
density is
Q dq
ρ= = (2.1.11)
V dV
The Electric Field is
ρ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dV (2.1.12)
4π0 r2
Volume
At the top and bottom surfaces, the electric field is perpendicular to the area vector, so
for the top and bottom surfaces,
E · dA = 0 (2.1.18)
At the side, the electric field is parallel to the area vector, thus
E · dA = EdA (2.1.19)
The area in this case is the surface area of the side of the cylinder, 2πrh.
Φ = 2πrhE (2.1.21)
Applying Gauss’ Law, we see that Φ = q/0 . The electric field becomes
λ
E= (2.1.22)
2π0 r
Q
E= (2.1.24)
4π0 r2
As the charge is evenly distributed throughout the sphere’s volume we can say that
the charge density is
dq = ρdV (2.1.25)
where dV = 4πr2 dr. We can use this to determine the field inside the sphere by
summing the effect of infinitesimally thin spherical shells
Z E Z r
dq
E= dE = 2
0 0 4πr
ρ
Z r
= dr
0 0
Qr
= 4 (2.1.26)
3
π0 R3
where C is any path, starting at a chosen point of zero potential to our desired point.
The difference between two potentials can be expressed such
Z b Z a
V(b) − V(a) = − E · d` + E · d`
Z b
=− E · d` (2.1.31)
a
1 dq
dV =
4π0 x
1 λdx
= (2.1.36)
4π0 x
This becomes
λ x2
V= ln (2.1.37)
4π0 x1
where x1 and x2 are the distances from O, the end of the rod.
Now consider that we are some distance, y, from the axis of the rod of length, `.
We again look at eq. (2.1.34), where r is the distance of the point P from the rod’s axis.
Z
1 dq
V=
4π0 r
`
λdx
Z
1
= 1
4π0 0 x2 + y2 2
λ
12 `
= ln x + x2 + y2
4π0 0
λ 12
= ln ` + `2 + y2 − ln y
4π0
1
λ ` + `2 + y2 2
= ln (2.1.38)
4π0 d
2.5 Induction
5
2.8 AC Circuits
8
2.10 Capacitance
Q = CV (2.10.1)
Q2
U=
2C
CV 2
=
2
QV
= (2.11.1)
2
2.13 Current
dQ
I≡ (2.13.1)
dt
E = ρJ (2.17.2)
J = σE (2.17.3)
2.21 RC Circuits
Q
E − IR − =0 (2.21.1)
C
Ampère’s Law
z d w
B · ds = µ0 I + µ0 0 E · dA (2.22.3)
dt
surface
Faraday’s Law
z d w
E · ds = − B · dA (2.22.4)
dt
surface
Ampère’s Law
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 0 (2.22.7)
∂t
Faraday’s Law
∂B
∇·E=− (2.22.8)
∂t
E = cB (2.24.1)
E·B=0 (2.24.2)
3.2 Superposition
2
3.3 Interference
3
3.4 Diffraction
4
3.6 Polarization
6
n1 sin 90 = n2 sinθc
n1
sin θc = (3.8.2)
n2
4.6 Ensembles
6
26 Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics
4.7 Statistical Concepts and Calculation of Thermody-
namic Properties
7
∆Eint = −W (4.12.2)
If work is done on the system, negative W, then there is an increase in its internal
energy. Conversely, if work is done by the system, positive W, there is a decrease
in the internal energy of the system.
Closed Cycle In this situation, after certain interchanges of heat and work, the system
comes back to its initial state. So ∆Eint remains the same, thus
∆Q = ∆W (4.12.4)
The work done by the system is equal to the heat or energy put into it.
Q TH − TC
H= = kA (4.14.1)
t L
where k is the thermal conductivity.
n = Number of moles
P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature
∆Eint = Q − W
⇒ nCV ∆T = nCp ∆T + nR∆T
∴ CV = Cp − R (4.21.2)
Quantum Mechanics
H =T+V (5.2.3)
To determine E and p,
∂2 Ψ p2
= − Ψ (5.2.4)
∂x2 ~2
∂Ψ iE
= Ψ (5.2.5)
∂t ~
and
p2
H= +V (5.2.6)
2m
This becomes
EΨ = HΨ (5.2.7)
~ ∂Ψ ∂2 Ψ
EΨ = − p2 Ψ = −~2
i ∂t ∂x2
32 Quantum Mechanics
The Time Dependent Schrödinger’s Equation is
∂Ψ ~2 ∂2 Ψ
i~ =− + V(x)Ψ (5.2.8)
∂t 2m ∂x2
The Time Independent Schrödinger’s Equation is
~ 2 ∂2 Ψ
EΨ = − + V(x)Ψ (5.2.9)
2m ∂x2
so that a nonvanishing force acts only at ±a/2. An energy, E, is assigned to the system
such that the kinetic energy of the particle is E. Classically, any motion is forbidden
outside of the well because the infinite value of V exceeds any possible choice of E.
Recalling the Schrödinger Time Independent Equation, eq. (5.2.9), we substitute
V(x) and in the region (−a/2, a/2), we get
~2 d2 ψ
− = Eψ (5.2.10)
2m dx2
This differential is of the form
d2 ψ
2
+ k2 ψ = 0 (5.2.11)
dx
where r
2mE
k= (5.2.12)
~2
We recognize that possible solutions will be of the form
It shows that
⇒ A cos 0 + B sin 0 = 0
∴A=0 (5.2.14)
B sin ka = 0
ka = 0; π; 2π; 3π; · · ·
(5.2.15)
While mathematically, n can be zero, that would mean there would be no wave function,
so we ignore this result and say
nπ
kn = for n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·
a
Substituting this result into eq. (5.2.12) gives
√
nπ 2mEn
kn = = (5.2.16)
a ~
Solving for En gives
n2 π 2 ~ 2
En = (5.2.17)
2ma2
We cna now solve for B by normalizing the function
Z a
a
|B|2 sin2 kxdx = |A|2 = 1
0 2
2
So |A|2 = (5.2.18)
a
So we can write the wave function as
r
2 nπx
ψn (x) = sin (5.2.19)
a a
d2 x
m = −kx (5.2.22)
dt2
And the solution of this equation is
x(t) = A cos ω0 t + φ (5.2.23)
This step allows us to to keep some of constants out of the way, thus giving us
√
mk 2
ξ2 = x (5.2.25)
~r
2E m 2E
and λ = = (5.2.26)
~ k ~ω0
This leads to the more compact
d2 ψ 2
= ξ − λ ψ (5.2.27)
dξ2
where the eigenfunction ψ will be a function of ξ. λ assumes an eigenvalue anaglaous
to E.
From eq. (5.2.25), we see that the maximum value can be determined to be
√
mk 2
ξ2max = A (5.2.28)
~
Using the classical connection between A and E, allows us to say
√
mk 2E
ξ2max = =λ (5.2.29)
~ k
From eq. (5.2.27), we see that in a quantum mechanical oscillator, there are non-
vanishing solutions in the forbidden regions, unlike in our classical case.
A solution to eq. (5.2.27) is
ψ(ξ) = e−ξ /2
2
(5.2.30)
where
dψ
= −ξe−ξ /2
2
dξ
dψ 2 −xi2 /2 −ξ2 /2
e−ξ /2
2
and 2
= ξ e − e = ξ 2
− 1
dξ
λ0 = 1 (5.2.31)
~ω0 ~ω0
E0 = λ0 = (5.2.32)
2 2
! 18 √
mk mk x2 /2~ −iE0 t/~
Ψ0 (x, t) = 2 2 e− e (5.2.33)
π~
This solution of eq. (5.2.27) produces the smallest possibel result of λ and E. Hence,
Ψ0 and E0 represents the ground state of the oscillator. and the quantity ~ω0 /2 is the
zero-point energy of the system.
~2 d2 ψ
− = Eψ
2m dx2
d2 ψ
⇒ 2 = κ2 ψ
√ dx
−2mE
where κ=
~
This gives us κx
Be for x < a
ψ(x) = for 0 < x < a
D cos(lx) (5.2.38)
for x > a
Fe−κx
5.3 Spin
3
Atomic Physics
1 e2 me v2
= (6.2.1)
4π0 r2 r
The Total Energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies, so
p2
E=K+U = − | f race2 4π0 r (6.2.2)
2me
We can further reduce this equation by subsituting the value of momentum, which we
find to be
p2 1 e2
= me v2 = (6.2.3)
2me 2 8π0 r
Substituting this into eq. (6.2.2), we get
e2 e2 e2
E= − =− (6.2.4)
8π0 r 4π0 r 8π0 r
At this point our classical description must end. An accelerated charged particle, like
one moving in circular motion, radiates energy. So our atome here will radiate energy
and our electron will spiral into the nucleus and disappear. To solve this conundrum,
Bohr made two assumptions.
38 Atomic Physics
1. The classical circular orbits are replaced by stationary states. These stationary
states take discreet values.
2. The energy of these stationary states are determined by their angular momentum
which must take on quantized values of ~.
L = n~ (6.2.5)
L = m3 vr (6.2.6)
n2 ~2
rn = = n2 a0 (6.2.9)
me e2 /4π0
Having discreet values for the allowed radii means that we will also have discreet
values for energy. Replacing our value of rn into eq. (6.2.4), we get
!
me e2 13.6
En = − 2 = − 2 eV (6.2.11)
2n 4π0 ~ n
ex ' 1 + x (6.7.5)
hf hf
eh f /kT − 1 ' 1 + −1= (6.7.6)
kT kT
8πh 3 kT 8π f 2
u( f, T) ' f = 3 kT (6.7.7)
c3 hf c
As we can see this equation is devoid of Plank’s constant and thus independent of
quantum effects.
Quantum
At large frequencies, where h f > kT, quantum effects become apparent. We can
estimate that
eh f /kT − 1 ' eh f /kT (6.7.8)
Thus eq. (6.7.1) becomes
8πh 3 −h f /kT
u( f, T) ' f e (6.7.9)
c3
6.8 X-Rays
6.8.1 Bragg Condition
2d sin θ = mλ (6.8.1)
for constructive interference off parallel planes of a crystal with lattics spacing, d.
hc
E = hυ = (6.8.2)
λ
The photon has an associated momentum
E= pc (6.8.3)
E hυ h
⇒p = = = (6.8.4)
c c λ
The Relativistic Energy for the electron is
E2 = p2 c2 + m2e c4 (6.8.5)
where
p − p0 = P (6.8.6)
Squaring eq. (6.8.6) gives
p2 − 2p · p0 + p02 = P2 (6.8.7)
c2 p2 − 2c2 p · p0 + c2 p02 = c2 P2
E 2 − 2E E 0 cos θ + E 02 = E2 − m2e c4 (6.8.8)
E + me c2 = E 0 + E (6.8.9)
Solving
E − E 0 = E − me c2
E 2 − 2E E 0 + E 0 = E2 − 2Eme c2 + m2e c4 (6.8.10)
2E E 0 − 2E E 0 cos θ = 2Eme c2 − 2m2e c4 (6.8.11)
Solving leads to
h
∆λ = λ0 − λ = (1 − cos θ) (6.8.12)
me c
where λc = h
me c
is the Compton Wavelength.
h
λc = = 2.427 × 10−12 m (6.8.13)
me c
FB = qv × B (6.9.1)
or more simply FB = qvB. As this traces a circular path, from Newton’s Second Law,
we see that
mv2
FB = = qvB (6.9.2)
R
Solving for R, we get
mv
R= (6.9.3)
qB
We also see that
qB
f = (6.9.4)
2πm
The frequency is depends on the charge, q, the magnetic field strength, B and the mass
of the charged particle, m.
1
Put drawing of Franck-Hertz Setup
Special Relativity
We can define
1
γ= q (7.1.1)
u2
1− c2
7.4 Simultaneity
4
46 Special Relativity
7.5 Energy and Momentum
7.5.1 Relativistic Momentum & Energy
In relativistic mechanics, to be conserved, momentum and energy are defined as
Relativistic Momentum
p̄ = γmv̄ (7.5.1)
Relativistic Energy
E = γmc2 (7.5.2)
E
p0x = γ px − β (7.5.3)
c
py = py
0
(7.5.4)
p0z = pz (7.5.5)
E0 E
=γ − βpx (7.5.6)
c c
K = E − mc2 (7.5.7)
1
= mc q
2
− 1 (7.5.8)
v2
1−
c2
= mc2 γ − 1
(7.5.9)
∆E
∆P0x = γ ∆Px − β (7.5.10)
c
∆P y = ∆P y
0
(7.5.11)
∆P0z = ∆Pz (7.5.12)
∆E0 ∆E
=γ − β∆Px (7.5.13)
c c
x
y
s = (7.6.1)
z
ict
A different Lorents frame, S0 , corresponds to another set of space time axes so that
0
x
y0
s0 = 0 (7.6.2)
z
0
ict
x γ
0
0 0 iγβ x
y0 0 1 0 0 y
0 = (7.6.3)
z 0 0 1 0 z
0 γ
0
ict −iγβ 0 ict
s0 = L s (7.6.4)
The matrix L contains all the information needed to relate position four–vectors for
any given event as observed in the two Lorentz frames S and S0 . If we evaluate
x
h i y
s s = x y z ict
T = x2 + y2 + z2 − c2 t2 (7.6.5)
z
ict
We can take any collection of four physical quantities to be four vector provided that
they transform to another Lorentz frame. Thus we have
bx
b
b = y (7.6.7)
bz
ibt
this can be transformed into a set of quantities of b0 in another frame S0 such that it
satisfies the transformation
b0 = L b (7.6.8)
px
p
p = y (7.6.9)
pz
iE/c
p0 = L p (7.6.10)
We can also get a Lorentz-invariation relation between momentum and energy such
that
p0T p0 = pT p (7.6.11)
The resulting equality gives
E02 E2
x + p y + pz −
p02 = + +
02 02 2 2 2
px p y p z − (7.6.12)
c2 c2
Time-like Interval
Light-like Interval
Space-like Intervals
Laboratory Methods
The Error in x is
(δx)2 = (δa)2 + (δb)2 + (δc)2 (8.1.2)
x = ab (8.1.5)
The Error in x is
δx δa
=b (8.1.6)
x a
8.1.4 Logarithms
Base e
x = ln a (8.1.7)
52 Laboratory Methods
We find the error in x by taking the derivative on both sides, so
d ln a
δx = · δa
da
1
= · δa
a
δa
= (8.1.8)
a
Base 10
x = log10 a (8.1.9)
The Error in x can be derived as such
d(log a)
δx = δa
da
ln a
ln 10
= δa
da
1 δa
=
ln 10 a
δa
= 0.434 (8.1.10)
a
8.1.5 Antilogs
Base e
x = ea (8.1.11)
We take the natural log on both sides.
ln x = a ln e = a (8.1.12)
Applaying the same general method, we see
d ln x
δx = δa
dx
δx
⇒ = δa (8.1.13)
x
Base 10
x = 10a (8.1.14)
We follow the same general procedure as above to get
log x = a log 10
log x
δx = δa
dx
1 d ln a
δx = δa
ln 10 dx
δx
= ln 10δa (8.1.15)
x
Sample Test
where ` is the length of the pendulium string. The relationship between the weight of
an object on the Earth, We , and the Moon, Wm , is
We
Wm = (9.1.2)
6
From eq. (9.1.2), we can determine the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon and on
the Earth; we use the same subscript notation as above.
ge
gm = (9.1.3)
6
On Earth, the period of the pendulum, Te , is one second. From eq. (9.1.1), the equation
for the pendulum’s period on Earth is
s
`
Te = 2π = 1s (9.1.4)
ge
and similarly for the moon, the period becomes
s
`
Tm = 2π (9.1.5)
gm
Substituting eq. (9.1.3) into eq. (9.1.5) gives
s
`
Tm = 2π
gm
√ √
= 6 Te = 6s
Answer: (D)
56 Sample Test
9.2 Work done by springs in series
Hooke’s Law tells us that the extension on a spring is proportional to the force applied.
F = −kx (9.2.1)
Springs in series follow the same rule for capacitors, see section 13.90.2. The spring
constants are related to each other by
1
k1 = k2 (9.2.2)
3
The springs are massless so we can assume that the weight is transmitted evenly along
both springs, thus from Hooke’s Law the extension is
where k1 and k2 are the spring constants for the springs S1 and S2 respectively. Thus
we see
k1 x2 1
= = (9.2.4)
k2 x1 3
The work done in stretching a spring or its potential energy is
1
W = kx2 (9.2.5)
2
Thus
1 2
W1 k1 x1
= 2
W2 1 2
k2 x
2 2
k1 x1 2
= ·
k2 x2
=3 (9.2.6)
Answer: (D)
k
V(r) = − (9.3.1)
r
L=r×p (9.3.2)
dL
τ= (9.3.4)
dt
We see that if τ = 0, then L is constant and therefore conserved. This can occur if ṙ = 0,
Ḟ = 0 or F ∝ r.
From 9.3.1, we can determine the force acting on the object since
dV k
F=− = 2 (9.3.5)
dr r
As our force is a central force, the force acts in the direction of our radius vector. Thus
the torque becomes
τ = r × F = rF cos 0
=0
L = constant (9.3.6)
A constant angular momentum means that r and v remain unchanged. The total
mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies.
E = KE + PE
1 k
= mv2 + 2 (9.3.7)
2 r
Both the kinetic and potential energies will remain constant and thus the total mechan-
ical energy is also conserved.
Answer: (C)
k
V(r) = − (9.4.1)
r
we have shown in the above question that the angular momentum, L, is conserved.
We can define three types of orbits given k and E.
From, table 9.4.1, we expect the orbit to be elliptical; this eliminates answers (C),
(D) and (E).
For an elliptical orbit, the total energy is
k
E=− (9.4.2)
2a
where a is the length of the semimajor axis. In the case of a circular orbit of radius, r,
eq. (9.4.2) becomes
k
E=− (9.4.3)
2r
Recalling eq. (9.3.1), we see
1
E = V(r) = −K (9.4.4)
2
This is the minimum energy the system can have resulting in a circular orbit.
Answer: (A)
+z
P2
r2
P1
r1
b
1 Q
V= √ (9.5.1)
4π0 R2 + z2
where R is the radius of our ring and x is the distance from the central axis of the ring.
In our case, the radius of our ring is R = b.
The potential at P1 , where z = b is
1 Q 1 Q
V1 = √ = √ (9.5.2)
4π0 b2 + b2 4π0 b 2
1 Q 1 Q
V2 = = √ (9.5.3)
4π0 4π0 b 5
q
b2 + (2b)2
Answer: (D)
The work done in moving our charge through this electrical field is
W = U2 − U1
= qV2 − qV1
= q (V2 − V1 ) (9.6.2)
Answer: (E)
L
A
I
V R
7
V(x)
6
5
Voltage/V
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time/s
Answer: (A)
V R
A B
C
1.8
V(x)
1.6
1.4
1.2
Voltage/V
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time/s
1 1
K = mv21 + Mv22
2 2
1 mM 2
= v (9.10.9)
2M+m
We can reduce this to the equivalent of a one body system where the reduced mass
factor is
mM
µ= (9.10.10)
M+m
2
Put figure here
3
as seen in diagram
L = mv1 r1 + Mv2 r2
M 2
2
m
=m vr + M vr
M+m M+m
= µvr (9.10.12)
The centripetal force of the system is equal to the Coulomb force, thus
The potential energy of the system comes from the Coulomb potential energy
1 Ze2
V=− (9.10.14)
4π0 r
The total energy of the system can be found by adding eqs. (9.10.11) and (9.10.14)
E=K+V
1 1 Ze2
= µv2 − (9.10.15)
2 4π0 r
1 Ze2
E=− (9.10.16)
2 4π0 r
n2 me
rn = a0 (9.10.19)
µZ
1 Ze2
En = −
2 4π0 rn
!2
Z2 e2 µ
=− 2 (9.10.21)
n 4π0 2~2
or
Z2 µ
En = − E0 (9.10.22)
n2 me
where
!2
e2 me
E0 = = 13.6 eV (9.10.23)
4π0 2~2
We see that this analysis eliminates all but one answer.
Answer: (A)
where r0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m and A is the mass number. In the case of hydrogen, we recall
the Bohr radius to be a0 = 0.0592 nm.
So in the case of hydrogen, A = 1,
Thus
r0 1.2 × 10−15
=
a0 0.0592 × 10−9
= 2.02 × 10−5 (9.11.3)
Answer: (B)
4
Add diagram of nuclear and atomic sizes here
Eionization = E∞ − En
Z2 µ
= 2 E0 (9.12.1)
n me
µ M
= (9.12.2)
me M + me
In the case of atoms, the above ratio is close to one and hence we can ignore it for this
case.
Lithium has an atomic number, Z = 3 so its electron structure is5
So the total ionization energy will be the total energy needed to completly remove each
electron. This turns out to be
" 2 #
3 32 3 2
E = 2 + 2 + 2 13.6 eV
1 1 2
≈ 20 × 13.6 eV
= 272.0 eV (9.12.4)
Answer: (C)
h
λ= and E = h f
p
The speed of sound is determined by its Bulk Modulus and its density
s
B
v= (9.14.1)
ρ
B = γP (9.14.2)
where γ is the adiabatic ratio and P is the pressure of the gas. For an ideal gas
PV = nRT (9.14.3)
r
nγRT
v= (9.14.4)
M
So we see that
1
v ∝ T2 (9.14.5)
Answer: (B)
y y
x x
√
(a) φ = 2 (b) φ = 3π/2
z y(x) z y(x)
z(x) z(x)
y y
x x
z y(x)
z(x)
Figure 9.15.2: φ = 0
Answer: (E)
mv
p= r 2 (9.18.1)
v
1−
c
p = 2p f cos 30 (9.19.1)
P2 P3
= (9.20.5)
T2 T3
where T3 = T1 , we have
P3 = 2γ−1 P2 (9.20.6)
1
= P1 (9.20.7)
2
This becomes
P1
A(P1 , V1 , T1 ) , B(2−γ P1 , 2V1 , 21−γ T1 ) , C( , 2V1 , T1 ) (9.20.8)
2
On a PV-graph, we see that this makes a clockwise cycle, indicating that positive work
is done by the gas on the environment.
Answer: (A)
Answer: (D)
Optical Pyrometer Optical pyrometers work by using the human eye to match the
brightness of a hot object to a calibrated lamp filament inside the instrument.
Carbon Resistor These thermometers are typically used for very low temperatures
and not high ones. One of their main advantages is their sensitivity, their resis-
tance increases exponentially to decreasing temperature and are not affected by
magnetic fields.
Gas-Bulb Thermometer May also be known as the constant volume gas thermometer.
Doubtful the glass bulb will survive such high temperatures.
Mercury Thermometer The boiling point of mercury is about 360 °C. This thermome-
ter will be a gas before you even had a chance to think about getting a temperature
reading.
I = MR2 (9.27.2)
A
A is equivalent to
Thus, see fig. 9.27.1, the moment of inertia of our S-shaped wire can be found from
a hoop with its axis or rotation at its radius. This can be calculated by using the Parallel
Axis Theorem
I = ICM + Md2 (9.27.3)
where d2 is the distance from the center of mass. This becomes
Answer: (E)
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
I
FE
u B
FB
Figure 9.28.1: Charged particle moving parallel to a positively charged current carrying
wire
The force on the charged particle is determined by the Lorentz Force Equation
F = e [E + u × B] (9.28.1)
6
The moment of inertia of a 1 kg mass at a distance 1m from the axis of rotation is the same as a hoop
with the same mass rotating about its central axis.
Doubling both the charge per unit length on the wire and the charge on the particle
As shown above, the particle’s charge has no effect on the trajectory. This leaves
us with the charge per unit length, λ and as we have seen before, this will change
the particle’s trajectory, see eq. (9.28.7).
Doubling the speed of the particle If we double the particle’s speed we will get
λ` µ0 I/2 λ` µ0 I
− (2u) = −u
2π0 r 2πr 2π0 r 2πr
∴ FE = FB
This is our answer
7
Add derivation in a section
FB = e [u × B]
= uB sin 0
=0 (9.28.9)
Answer: (D)
If we move our charged particle a distance 2r from the wire with a speed nu, 9.28.5
becomes
λ` µ0 I λ` µ0 I
" # " #
1
e +u =e + nu
2π0 (2r) 2π(2r)r 2 2π0 r 2πr
1
=e [FE − nFB ]
2
=0 (9.29.2)
Thus
[FE − nFB ] = FE − FB = 0
⇒n=1 (9.29.3)
V
E
x
O
The point, x = 0, divides the region into two regions, Region I, where classical motion
is allowed and, Region II, where classical motion is forbidden. The barrier potential is
0 for x < 0
V(x) =
(9.31.1)
V for x > 0
If you have seen this type of equation, and solved it, you’d know that the rock’s speed
will asymtotically increase to some max speed. At that point the drag force and the
force due to gravity will be the same. We can best answer this question through analysis
and elimination.
C Again from eq. (10.1.2) we see that the acceleration is dependent on whether the
rock is moving up or down. If ẋ > 0 then ẍ < −g and if ẋ < 0 then ẍ > −g. So this
is also FALSE.
D If there was no drag (fictional) force, then energy would be conserved and the rock
will return at the speed it started with but there is a drag force so energy is lost.
The speed the rock returns is v < v0 . Hence FALSE.
E Again FALSE. Once the drag force and the gravitational force acting on the rock is
balanced the rock won’t accelerate.
Answer: (B)
80 GR8677 Exam Solutions
10.2 Satellite Orbits
The question states that the astronaut fires the rocket’s jets towards Earth’s center. We
infer that no extra energy is given to the system by this process. section 1.7.5, shows
that the only other orbit where the specific energy is also negative is an elliptical one.
Answer: (A)
1
c= √ (10.3.1)
µ0 0
where c is the speed of light. The speed through a dielectric medium becomes
1
v = √
µ0
1
=
2.1µ0 0
p
c
= √ (10.3.2)
2.1
Answer: (D)
t x
− = 2π f t − kx
T λ
= ωt − kx (10.4.2)
λ
v= (10.4.4)
T
Answer: (E)
Mv0 = (3M + M) v1
= 4Mv1
v0
⇒ v1 = (10.5.3)
4
The fused putty mass rises, kinetic energy is converted to potential energy and we find
our final height.
1
(4M) v21 = 4Mgh
2
v21
h =
2g
1 v0 2
=
2g 4
h0
= (10.5.4)
16
Answer: (A)
1
mgy0 = mg(y0 − y) + mv2
2
1 2
⇒ v = gy (10.6.1)
2
So we have a relationship between v and the particle’s position on the track.
The tangential acceleration in this case is
mv2
mg cos θ = (10.6.2)
r
v2
g cos θ =
r
gx2
=
2 x2 + y2
p
gx
= √ (10.6.3)
x2 + 4
Answer: (D)
T sin θ = F (10.7.1)
T cos θ = mg (10.7.2)
Thus we get
F
tan θ =
mg
10 1
= ≈ (10.7.3)
(2)(9.8) 2
Answer: (A)
1
Insert Free Body Diagram of particle along track.
where v, v0 , a and s are the final speed, initial speed, acceleration and displacement
that the nail travels. Now it’s just a matter os plugging in what we know
F = ma
= 5 · 2000 = 10000 N (10.8.4)
Answer: (D)
J = envd (10.9.1)
where e is the charge of an electron, n is the density of electrons per unit volume and
~
vd is the drift speed. Plugging in what we know
I
J=
A
I =nAvd e
I
vd =
nAe
100
= (10.9.2)
(1 × 1028 ) π×2×10
−4
4
1.6 × 10−19
2 − 28 + 4 + 19 = −4 (10.9.3)
Q Qenclosed
ρ= = (10.10.2)
4
3
πR3 4
3
πr3
4 3 Qr3
Qenclosed = ρ πr = 3 (10.10.3)
3 R
Answer: (A)
Answer: (E)
Cp = CV + R (10.14.1)
The difference is due to the work done in the environment by the gas when it expands
under constant pressure.
3
Add reference to Dopler Equations.
4
Add Young’s Double Slit Experiment equations.
dU = −dW + dQ (10.14.2)
Where dU is the change in Internal Energy, dW is the work done by the system and dQ
is the change in heat of the system.
We also recall the definition for Heat Capacity
dQ = CdT (10.14.3)
If the changes in internal energies are the same in both cases, then eq. (10.14.5) is equal
to eq. (10.14.4). Thus
CV dT = −nRdT + Cp dT
This becomes
Cp = CV + nR (10.14.6)
We see the reason why Cp > CV is due to the addition of work on the system; eq. (10.14.4)
shows no work done by the gas while eq. (10.14.5) shows that there is work done.
Answer: (A)
As there are N atoms and the probability of finding one is mutually exclusive of the
other, the probabolity becomes
N
P = 1 − 1.0 × 10−6 (10.15.2)
Answer: (C)
Graviton This is a hypothetical particle that mediates the force of gravity. It has no
charge, no mass and a spin of 2. Nothing like an electron.
Photon The photon is the quantum of the electromagnetic field. It has no charge or
mass and a spin of 1. Again nothing like an electron.
Pion The Pion belongs to the meson family. Again, nothing like leptons.
Proton This ia a sub atomic particle and is found in the nucleus of all atoms. Nothing
like an electron.
Answer: (A)
Beta Decay
A
ZX →AZ+1 X0 +−1 e− + ῡe (10.17.2)
Answer: (B)
~2 ∂2 ψ
Eψ = − + V(x)ψ (10.18.1)
2m ∂x2
Given that ( 2 2)
bx
ψ(x) = A exp − (10.18.2)
2
~2 4 2
Eψ = − b x − b2 ψ + V(x)ψ (10.18.4)
2m
Applying the boundary condition at x = 0 gives
~2 2
Eψ = − bψ (10.18.5)
2m
This gives
~2 b2 ~2 4 2
− ψ=− b x − b2 ψ + v(x)ψ (10.18.6)
2m 2m
Solving for V(x) gives
~2 b4 x2
V(x) = (10.18.7)
2m
Answer: (B)
Z2
En = − 13.6 eV (10.19.1)
n2
where Z is the atomic number and n is the quantum number. This can easily be reduced
to
A
En = − 2 (10.19.2)
n
Answer: (E)
E = mc2 (10.20.1)
E = γv mc2 (10.20.2)
We are told that a kaon moving at relativistic speeds has the same energy as the rest
mass as a proton. Thus
E K + = Ep (10.20.3)
This becomes
γv ≈ 1.9 (10.20.9)
Solving gives
2.61 2
v2 = c (10.20.10)
3.61
This gives v2 in the order of 0.7. Squaring will give an answer that’s greater than 0.7,
the only answer is 0.85c.
Answer: (E)
We get
Answer: (C)
B As the temperature of the conductor is increased its atoms vibrate more and disrupt
the flow of electrons. As a result, resistance increases. TRUE.
C Different process. As temperature increases, electrons gain more energy to jump the
energy barrier into the conducting region. So conductivity increases. TRUE.
D You may have paused to think for this one but this is TRUE. The addition of an
impurity causes an increase of electron scattering off the impurity atoms. As a
result, resistance increases.5
Answer: (E)
Answer: (C)
Fq = q [E + (v × B)] (10.25.1)
v is in the same direction as B so the cross product between them is zero. We are left
with
Fq = qE (10.25.2)
The force is directed along the electrical field line and hence it moves in a straight line.
Answer: (E)
where Zeff is the effective atomic number and n f and ni are the energy levels. For the
n f = 1 transition
Zeff = Z − 1 (10.26.2)
where Z = 28 for nickle. As the electrons come in from ni = ∞, eq. (10.26.1) becomes
1 1
E1 = (28 − 1)2 − 13.6 eV (10.26.3)
1 2 ∞2
This works out to
E1 = (272 )13.6 eV
≈ (30)2 × 13.6 eV (10.26.4)
A The periodic table’s arrangement of elements tells us about the chemical properties
of an element and these properties are dependent on the valent electrons. How
these valent electrons are arranged is, of course, dependent on spin. So this
choice is TRUE.
E < EF
(
1,
f (E) =
0, E > EF
1
f (E) = (10.27.1)
eE−EF /kT + 1
As a system goes above 0K, thermal energy may excite to higher energy states
but this energy is not shared equally by all the electrons. The way energy is
distributed comes about from the exclusion principle, the energy an electron my
absorb at room temperture is kT which is much smaller than EF = 5eV. We can
define a Fermi Temperature,
EF = kTF (10.27.2)
which works out to be, TF = 60000K. Thus only electrons close to this temperature
can be excited as the levels above EF are empty. This results in a small number of
electrons being able to be thermally excited and the low electronic specific heat.
π2
!
T
C= Nk where kT << EF
2 Tf
C The Zeeman Effect describes what happens to Hydrogen spectral lines in a magnetic
field; the spectral lines split. In some atoms, there were further splits in spctral
lines that couln’t be explained by magnetic dipole moments. The explanation for
this additional splitting was discovered to be due to electron spin.6
D The deflection of an electron in a uniform magnetic field deflects only in one way
and demonstrates none of the electron’s spin properties. Electrons can be de-
flected depending on their spin if placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, as was
demonstrated in the Stern-Gerlach Experiment.7
E When the Hydrogen spectrum is observed at a very high resolution, closely spaced
doublets are observed. This was one of the first experimental evidence for electron
spin.8
6
Write up on Zeeman and anomalous Zeemen effects
7
Write up on Stern-Gerlach Experiment
8
Write up on Fine Structure
and that 2
ψ(x) = ψ∗ (x)ψ(x) (10.28.4)
So
2
⇒ ψ(φ) = A2 eimφ e−imφ
Z 2π
A 2
dφ = 1
0
A [2π − 0] = 1
2
1
⇒A = √ (10.28.5)
2π
B The 4s subshell only has one electron. The s subshell can ‘hold’ two electrons so this
is also NOT TRUE.
C Unknown.
9
Don’t forget to bring your right hand to the exam
E Potassium has one outer electron, like Hydrogen. So it will also have a spherically
symmetrical charge distribution.
d 4
F = − kx
dx
= −4kx3 (10.34.3)
Answer: (B)
p2
H= + kx4 (10.35.3)
2m
Answer: (A)
where T is the kinetic energy and V is the potential energy. This becomes
Z t2
1 2
Φ= mv − kx4 dt (10.36.2)
t1 2
Answer: (A)
T cos θ = mg (10.37.1)
T sin θ = mrω2 (10.37.2)
T2 = m2 g2 + m2 r2 ω4 (10.37.3)
Leaving us with
T = m g2 + r2 ω4 (10.37.4)
Answer: (E)
10
Write something on this
Answer: (A)
Solving, we get √
k k 2k
ω= ; ± (10.43.13)
m m m
Substituting ω = k/m into the equations of motion, we get
x1 = −x3 (10.43.14)
x2 = 0 (10.43.15)
We see that the two masses on the ends move out of phase with each other and the
middle one is stationary.
mv = MV
mv
V= (10.44.1)
M
Answer: (A)
Ĥψ = Eψ (10.49.1)
We can determine the energy of a quantum particle by regarding the classical nonrel-
ativistic relationship as an equality of expectation values.
* 2+
p
hHi = + hVi (10.49.2)
2m
~ ∂
p→ (10.49.3)
i ∂x
Substituting this into eq. (10.49.2) gives us
Z +∞ "
~ ∂2
#
hHi = ψ −
∗
ψ + V(x)ψ dx
−∞ 2m ∂x2
Z +∞
∂
= ψ∗ i~ ψdx (10.49.4)
−∞ ∂t
So we can get a Hamiltonian operator
∂
H → i~ (10.49.5)
∂t
Answer: (B)
I = nAvd e (10.50.2)
For a conductor of width, w and thickness, d, there is a Hall voltage across the width
of the conductor. Thus the electrical force becomes
Fe = eE
EVH
= (10.50.3)
w
The magnetic force is
BI
Fm = (10.50.4)
neA
eq. (10.50.3) is equal to eq. (10.50.4), thus
eVH BI
=
w newd
BI
∴ VH = (10.50.5)
ned
So for a measured magnetic field and current, the sign of the Hall voltage gives is the
sign of the charge carrier.
Answer: (C)
∇ · D = 0 ∇ · E + ∇ · P
D ∇ · E
= − σp
κ
12
Draw Cube at potential V with Gaussian Surface enclosing no charge
13
As we expect there to be no Electric Field, we must expect the potential to be the same throughout
the space of the cube. If there were differences, a charge place inside the cube would move.
∂
p = −i~ (10.57.1)
∂x
With an eigenvalue of ~k. We can do this by trying each solution and seeing if they
match17
∂ψ
− i~ = ~kψ (10.57.2)
∂x
A: ψ = cos kx We expect ψ, to have the form of an exponential function. Substituting
this into the eigenfuntion, eq. (10.57.2), we have
∂
−i~ cos kx = −i~ (−k sin kx)
∂x
= i~k sin kx , ~kψ
ψ does not surive our differentiation and so we can eliminate it.
14
Check Polarization in Griffiths
15
Examples of fermions include electrons, protons and neutrons
16
The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two fermions may occupy the same quantum state
17
We can eliminate choices (A) & (B) as we would expect the answer to be an exponential function in
this case. These choices were just done for illustrative purposes and you should know to avoid them in
the exam.
Again we see that ψ does not survive when we apply our operator and so we can
eliminate this choice as well.
∂ −ikx
−i~ e = −i~ −ike−ikx
∂x
= −~ke−ikx , ~kψ
D: ψ = exp ikx If the above choice didn’t work, this might be more likely to.
∂ ikx
−i~ e = −i~ ikeikx
∂x
= ~ke−ikx = ~kψ
E: = ψ = exp −kx
∂ −kx
−i~ e = −i~ −ke−kx
∂x
= −i~ke−kx , ~kψ
Again this choice does not work, so we can eliminate this as well
Answer: (D)
10.58 Holograms
The hologram is an image that produces a 3-dimensional image using both the Am-
plitude and Phase of a wave. Coherent, monochromatic light, such as from a laser, is
split into two beams. The object we wish to “photograph” is placed in the path of the
illumination beam and the scattered light falls on the recording medium. The second
beam, the reference beam is reflected unimpeded to the recording medium and these
two beams produces an interference pattern.
The intensity of light recorded on our medium is the same as the scattered light from
our object. The interference pattern is a result of phase changes as light is scattered off
our object. Thus choices (I) and (II) are true.
Answer: (B)
V 00 (x) = 2b = k (10.60.2)
The angular frequency, ω, is
k 2b
ω2 = = (10.60.3)
m m
We see this is dependent on b and m.
Answer: (C)
mdv = udm
Z v Z m
dm
dv = u
0 m0 m
m
v = u ln (10.62.2)
m0
This fits none of the answers given.
Answer: (E)
E = −E y ĵ = (E− + E+ ) ĵ
= 2E− ĵ (10.63.2)
Remember the two charges are the same, so at any point along the x-axis, or rather our
grounded conductor, the electrical field contributions from both charges will be the
same. Thus
q d
E− = cos θ where cos θ =
4πr2 r
qd
= (10.63.3)
4π0 r3
You may recognize that 2qd is the electrical dipole moment. Now, putting eq. (10.63.4)
equal to eq. (10.63.1) gives us
σ qd
= (10.63.5)
0 2π0 r3
where r = D, we get
qd
σ= (10.63.6)
2πD2
Answer: (C)
Z g = R g + jX g (10.64.1)
For the maximum power to be transmitted, the maximum power theorem states that the
load impedance must be equal to the complex conjugate of the generator’s impedance.
Z g = Z∗` (10.64.2)
Thus
Z` = R g + jX`
= R g − jX g (10.64.3)
Answer: (C)
µ0 i rd` cos θ b
B= 3
where cos θ =
4π r r
mu0 i d` cos θ
=
4π r2
µ0 i bd` √
= where r = b2 + h2
4π r3
µ0 i bd`
= where d` = b · dθ
4π (b2 + h2 ) 32
Z2π
µ0i b2
= · dθ
4π (b2 + h2 ) 32
0
µ0 i b 2
= (10.65.2)
2 (b2 + h2 ) 32
we see that
B ∝ ib2 (10.65.3)
Answer: (B)
First Law
dU = TdS − PdV (10.66.1)
Entalpy
H = E + PV
∴ dH = TdS + VdP (10.66.2)
F = E − TS
∴ dF = −SdT − PdV (10.66.3)
G = E − TS + PV
∴ dG = −SdT + VdP (10.66.4)
= Mdx + Ndy
For the variables listed, we choose eq. (10.66.1) and applying the above condition we
get
∂U ∂U
! !
T= P= (10.66.5)
∂S V ∂V S
Thus taking the inverse of T, gives us
∂S
!
1
= (10.66.6)
T ∂U V
Answer: (E)
Answer: (A)
Choice A NOT TRUE Relativity says nothing about whether light is in a vacuum or
not. If anything, this choice goes against the postulates of Special Relativity. The
laws of Physics don’t change in vacuum.
Choice B NOT TRUE. X-rays can “transmit” signals or energy; any waveform can
once it is not distorted too much during propagation.
Choice C NOT TRUE. Photons have zero rest mass. Though the tachyon, a hypothet-
ical particle, has imaginary mass. This allows it to travel faster than the speed or
light though they don’t violate the principles of causality.
Choice D NOT TRUE. How or when we discover physical theories has no bearing
on observed properties or behavior; though according to some it may seem so at
times18
Choice E The phase and group speeds can be different. The phase velocity is the rate at
which the crests of the wave propagate or the rate at which the phase of the wave
is moving. The group speed is the rate at which the envelope of the waveform
18
There is a quote by Douglas Adams,
There is a theory which states that is ever anyone discovers exactly what the Universe is
for and why it is here, it will instantly disappear and be replaced by something even more
bizarre and inexplicable.
There is another which states this has already happened.
So maybe the order in which discoveries are made matters. Who am I to question Douglas Adams?
I = I0 cos2 θ (10.74.1)
where θ is the angle between the light’s plane of polarization and the axis of the
polarizer. A beam of light can be considered to be a uniform mix of plane polarization
angles and the average of this is
Z 2π
I = I0 cos2 θ
0
1
= I0 (10.74.2)
2
24 × 60 2
3
RS
=
RE 80
RS = 18 RE
3 2 3
(10.75.6)
Answer: (B)
Answer: (A)
F = −kx (10.77.1)
k
mẍ − kx where ω2 =
m
where
x = A sin ωt + φ (10.77.2)
and ẋ = ωA cos ωt + φ (10.77.3)
Amswer: (B)
Applying the three condition, we expect the total energy to be positive and constant.
Answer: (C)
Choice B Again we see that the number of field lines entering is the same as the
number leaving.
Choice D In this case, we see that the field lines at the edge of the Gaussian Surface
are all leaving; no field lines enter the surface. This is also what we’d expect the
field to look like for a region bounded by a magnetic monopole.
Choice E The field loops in on itself, so the total number of field lines is zero. This fits
with the above law.
Answer: (D)
E = 2xyî − xyk̂
∂ ∂
∇·E= 2xy + (−xz)
∂x ∂z
= 2y + x , 0 (10.80.3)
Choice B
E = −xy jˆ + xzk̂
∂ ∂
∇·E= (−xy) + xz
∂y ∂z
= −x + x = 0 (10.80.4)
Choice C
E = xzî + xz jˆ
∂ ∂
∇·E= xz + xz
∂x ∂y
=z+0,0 (10.80.5)
Choice D
ˆ
E = xyz(î + j)
∂ ∂
∇·E= xyz + xyz
∂x ∂y
= yz + xz , 0 (10.80.6)
Choice E
E = xyzî
∂
∇·E= xyz
∂x
= yz , 0 (10.80.7)
Answer: (B)
dΦ
E = (10.81.3)
dt
where Φ = BA. The magnetic flux becomes
µ0 I
Φ= · πa2 (10.81.4)
2b
The induced EMF becomes
µ0 π
!
a2 dI
E =
2 b dt
µ0 π
!
a2
= ωI0 sin ωt (10.81.5)
2 b
Answer: (B)
Stark Effect The Stark Effect deals with the shift in spectral lines in the presence of
electrical fields; not in magnetic fields.
Nuclear Magnetic Moments of atoms Close, the splitting seen in the Stern-Gerlach
Experiment is due to this. Emission spectrum typically deals with electrons and
so we would expect it to deal with electrons on some level.
Emission lines are greater or equal than in the absence of the magnetic field This we
know to be true.
The difference in the emission spectrum of a gas in a magnetic field is due to the
Zeeman effect.
Answer: (E)
We are most interested in the 3s1 sub-shell and can ignore the rest of the filled sub-
shells. As we only have one valence electron then ms = +1/2. Now we can calculate
the total spin quantum number, S. As there is only one unpaired electron,
1
S= (10.84.2)
2
Now we can calculate the total angular momentum quantum number, J = L + S. As
the 3s sub-shell is half filled then
L=0 (10.84.3)
This gives us
1
J= (10.84.4)
2
and as L = 0 then we use the symbol S. Thus our term equation becomes
2
S 21 (10.84.5)
Answer: (B)
where f is the number of degrees of freedom. In the case of Model I, we see that
5 7
cvI = Nk cvII = Nk
2 2
Now we can go about choosing our answer
Choice A From our above calculations, we see that cvI = 5/2Nk. So this choice is
WRONG.
Choice B Again, our calculations show that the specific heat for Model II is larger than
than of Model I. This is due to the added degrees of freedom (vibrational) that it
possesses. So this choice is WRONG.
where PB is the boson pressure, PC is the pressure with no quantum effects taking place
and PF to be the fermion pressure.
Answer: (B)
1 h i
ψ = √ ψα (x1 )ψβ (x2 ) + ψβ (x1 )ψα (x2 ) (10.89.1)
2
Symmetric functions obey Bose-Einstein statistics and are known as bosons. Upon
examination of our choices, we see that19
electrons fermion
positrons fermion
protons fermion
19
You could have easily played the ‘one of thes things is not like the other...’ game
deutrons Boson
Incidentally, a anti-symmetric function takes the form,
1 h i
ψ = √ ψα (x1 )ψβ (x2 ) − ψβ (x1 )ψα (x2 ) (10.89.3)
2
En = n2 E0 (10.90.1)
1
E0 = E2
n2
2
= eV
4
1
= eV (10.90.2)
2
Answer: (C)
h
p= (10.91.3)
λ
h
mv =
λ
h
⇒v=
mλ
6.63 × 10−34
= (10.91.4)
(9.11 × 10−31 )(3 × 10( − 10))
We can determine the order of our answer by looking at the relevant indices
We have no selection rules for spin, ∆s, so we can eliminate this choice.
Answer: (D)
W =F×x (10.93.1)
We can relate this to the power of the sander; power is the rate at which work is done.
So
dW
P=
dt
dx
= F = Fv (10.93.2)
dt
The power of the sander can be calculated
P = VI (10.93.3)
10.94 RL Circuits
When the switch, S, is closed, a magnetic field builds up within the inductor and the
inductor stores energy. The charging of the inductor can be derived from Kirchoff’s
Rules.
dI
E − IR − L = 0 (10.94.1)
dt
and the solution to this is
R1 t
I(t) = I0 1 − exp (10.94.2)
L
where the time constant, τ1 = L/R1 .
We can find the voltage across the resistor, R1 , by multiplying the above by R1 ,
giving us
R1 t
V(t) = R1 · I0 1 − exp
L
R1 t
= E 1 − exp (10.94.3)
L
The potential at A can be found by measuring the voltage across the inductor. Given
that
E − VR1 − VL = 0
∴ VL = E − VR1
R1 t
= E exp (10.94.4)
L
1 2 1 E 2
UL = LI0 = L (10.94.5)
2 2 R1
With S opened, the inductor is going to dump its energy across R2 and assuming that
the diode has negligible resistance, all of this energy goes to R2 . Thus
!2
1 VR2
U= L (10.94.6)
2 R2
The above two equations are equal, thus
E VR2
=
R1 R2
VR2 = 3E (10.94.7)
We expect the potential at A to be larger when S is opened. Graph (B) fits this choice.
Answer: B
PV γ = a constant (10.95.2)
where γ = CP /CV .
For the KL transformation, dU = 0.
Q2 = WK→L
Z VL
∴ WK→L = PdV
VK
VK
= nRT2 ln (10.95.3)
VL
20
If you get stuck beyond this point, you can guess. The odds are now in your favor.
We see that the entropy of the system remains the same. Thus choice (C) is false.
5. The effeciency is based on an ideal gas and has no relation to the substance used.
So choice (E) is also true.
Answer: (C)
From there we can get the first order correction to the wave function
X hψ0 |H0 |ψ0 i
m n
ψ1n = 0 0
(10.96.2)
m,n
En − Em
you may recognize this as a Fourier Series and this will help you knowing that the
perturbing potential is one period of a saw tooth wave. And you may recall that the
Fourier Series of a saw tooth wave form is made up of even harmonics.
Answer: (B)21
21
Griffiths gives a similar problem in his text
Lv0 = MR × v0
= −MRv0 (10.97.2)
Adding eq. (10.97.3) and eq. (10.97.2) gives the total angular momentum.
L = Lω0 + Lv0
= Iω0 − MRv0
1 1
= MR2 ω0 − MR2 ω0
2 2
=0
Q dQ
λ= = (10.98.1)
` dx
The Electric Potential is defined
q
V(x) = (10.98.2)
4π0 x
We can ‘slice’ our rod into infinitesimal slices and sum them to get the potential of the
rod.
1 λdx
dV = (10.98.3)
4π0 x
~
p= ∇ (11.1.1)
i
~
pψ = ∇ψ
i
~ ∂
= ψ
i ∂x
~
= · ikei(kx−ωt)
i
= ~kψ (11.1.2)
Amswer: (C)
where d is the distance between the atomic layers and λ is the wavelength of the
incident X-ray beam. We know that sin θ falls between the 0 and 1 and our longest
wavelength will occur at our first order, m = 1. So
2d = λ (11.2.2)
Answer: (D)
130 GR9277 Exam Solutions
11.3 Characteristic X-Rays
Mosley1 showed that when the square root of an element’s characteristic X-rays are
plotted agianst its atomic number we get a straight line. X-ray spectra is associated
with atoms containg many electrons but in the X-ray regime, excitation removes tightly
bound electrons from the inner orbit near the atom’s nucleus. As these emitted X-rays
are the result of transitions of a single electron, Bohr’s Hydrogen model proves useful.
Thus Mosley’s adaption of Bohr’s model becomes
1 1 1
= Z2 RH 2 − 2 (11.3.1)
λ eff n f ni
where RH is the Rydberg number and Zeff is the effective charge parameter that replaces
the nuclear charge index, Z. The effective charge comes into play because the transition
electron sees a nuclear charge that is smaller than Ze as the other electrons shield the
nucleus from view. Thus our effective “shielding” constant, z f is
Zeff = Z − z f (11.3.2)
1 1 3
EKα = hυKα = (Z − 1)2 2
− 2
13.6 eV = (Z − 1)2 13.6eV (11.3.3)
1 2 4
So
EC (ZC − 1)2
=
EMg Z − 12
Mg
(6 − 1)2
=
(12 − 1)2
25 1
= ≈ (11.3.4)
121 5
1
4
is our closest answer.
Answer: (A)
1
Henry G. J. Moseley (1887-1915) was described by Rutherford as his most talented student. In his
early 20’s, he measured and plotted the X-ray frequencies for 40 elements of the periodic table and
showed that the K-alpha X-rays followed a straight line when the atomic number Z versus the square
root of frequency was plotted. This allowed for the sorting of the elements in the periodic table by
atomic number and not mass as was popular at the time.
Moseley volunteered for combat duty with the Corps of Royal Engineers during World War I and was
killed in action by a sniper at age 27 during the attack in the Battle of Gallipoli. It is widely speculated
that because of his death, British and other world governments bagan a policy of no longer allowing
scientists to enlist for combat.
GMm
F= (11.4.1)
r2
or rather
1 1
F(R) ∝ F(2R) ∝ (11.4.2)
R2 2R
Dividing, we get
F(R) (2R)2
=
F(2R) R2
=4 (11.4.3)
Answer: (C)
11.5 Gravitation II
Newton’s Law of Gravitation becomes a linear law inside a body. So
F∝r (11.5.1)
Thus
F(R) ∝ R F(2R) ∝ 2R (11.5.2)
Dividing the two equations gives us
F(R) R
= R
F(2R) 2
=2 (11.5.3)
Answer: (C)
2R = 2mg + Mg
Mg
⇒ R = mg + (11.6.1)
2
As Ienclosed = 0, then the magnetic induction at P(r > c), is also zero2 .
Answer: (A)
2q2
F(2q)(q) = (11.10.3)
4π0 (a)2
1 7q2
F= (11.10.4)
4π0 2a2
Answer: (E)
1
U = CV 2 (11.11.1)
2
The time for the potential difference across a capacitor to decrease is given by
t
V = V0 exp − (11.11.2)
RC
The energy stored in the capacitor is half of its initial energy, this becomes
1
U = U0 (11.11.3)
2
where U0 is the initial stored energy. We can find eq. (11.11.3) in terms of C and V,
1 1
CV 2 = CV02
2 2
V0
⇒ V2 = (11.11.4)
2
Substituting eq. (11.11.2) into the above equation gives
V2
2t
V02 exp − = 0
RC 2
Equation I.: Ampère’s Law This relates the magnetic field to an electrical current and
a changing electric field.
Equation II: Faraday’s Law of Induction This equation is similar to Ampère’s Law
except there is no ‘magnetic current’ component. As we have stated above, the
presence of a magnetic charge will lead us to assume a magnetic current, this is
one of the equations that would be INCORRECT.
Equation III.: Gauss’ Law Here we see that the distribution of an electric charge gives
us an electric field.
Equation IV.:Gauss’ Law for Magnetism This is similar to Gauss’ Law above except
that we have no ‘magnetic charge’. If we did assume for monopoles, this equation
would not be zero, so this equation would also be INCORRECT
Answer: (D)
E = σT4 (11.14.1)
If we were to double the temperature of this blackbody, the energy emitted would be
E1 = 8E = 8C∆T (11.14.4)
Translational = 3
Rotational = 2
Vibrational = 2
We recall the formula, eq. (4.22.1) we used to determine the specific heat per mole at
constant volume, CV
!
f
CV = R = 4.16 f J/mol.K (11.15.1)
2
where f = 7 Thus, CV is
7
CV = R (11.15.2)
2
Answer: (C)
Tc
e=1− (11.16.2)
Th
800
e=1− = 0.2 (11.16.3)
1000
So the work our engine performs is
Answer: (A)
Choice A The terminating resistor doesn’t prevent leakage, the outer core of the cable
was designed to confine the signal. Your coaxial cable is a waveguide.
3
If you’ve never seen this in the lab, one of the best examples where this can be seen is during the
opening sequence of the 1950’s TV series, “The Outer Limits”. “We will control the horizontal. We will
control the vertical. We can roll the image, make it flutter....”
4
You may be familiar or have seen the use of terminating resistors if you’ve dabbled in computers
or electronics for the past couple of years. SCSI cables made use of terminating resistors as you daisy
chained your drives across the cable. In the time when 10BASE2 ethernet networks were prevalent, the
use of a 50 Ω BNC Terminator was of utmost importance or your computers would have lost connectivity.
Choice C This is correct. The resistor essentially attenuates the remaining power
across itself, making it seem that the wave gets propagated across an infinite
length i.e. no reflections.
Choice D This won’t prevent attenuation across the cable. The cable has a natural
impedance which will attenuate the signal to a degree. The terminating resistor
absorbs the remaining power so no signal gets refelcted back5 .
Choice E Improbable since the outer sheath’s purpose is to cancel out these currents.
Answer: (C)
M = ρV
= 7870 × 109 × 1021 (11.19.1)
= 8 × 1024 kg (11.19.2)
Of course, if you want to apply some real Phyics, we start with Newton’s Gravitation
Equation
GM
g= 2 (11.19.3)
RE
Solving for M, we get
gR2E
M=
G
(9.8)(6.4 × 106 )2
= (11.19.4)
6.67 × 10−11
Choice II This is CORRECT. At the front of the soap film, there is a phase change
of 180°as the soap film as a refractive index greater than air. The part that gets
transmitted through this film gets reflected by the back part of the film with no
phase change as air has a lower refractive index. This means that the two waves
are out of phase with each other and interfere destructively.
Choice III Yes, this is true. Light comes from a less dense medium, air, and bounces
off a more dense medium, soap, there is a phase change. There is no phase change
for the transmitted wave through the soap film.
Choice IV Inside the soap film, the wave meets an interface from an optically more
dense medium to a less dense one. There is no phase change.
From the above, we see that choices II, III and IV are all true.
Answer: (E)
fo
M= (11.22.1)
fe
where fo and fe are the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece lens respectively.
From the information given to us, we know that
fo
fe = = 0.1 m (11.22.2)
10
d = f0 + fe
= 1.0 + 0.1 = 1.1 m (11.22.3)
Answer: (D)
EF = kTF (11.23.1)
1
EF = me v2 (11.23.2)
2
Solving for v
r
2kTF
v=
me
r
2(1.38 × 10−23 )(8 × 104 )
= (11.23.3)
9.11 × 10−31
means that you will go down three divisions on the y-axis to get the half life count. We see that from
eq. (11.26.1),
dN = −λNdt (11.26.2)
Integrating gives us
N
Z Z t1
2 dN
= −λ dt
N N t0
ln 2 = t2 − t1
log10 2
∴ = t2 − t1 = ∆t (11.26.3)
log10 e
So at any point on the graph, a change in three divisions on the y-axis will give us the half life.
P = I2 R (11.32.1)
where I is the current through the resisitor. In this case the current through the R1
resistor is the current from the battery, I. After the current passes through R1 , the
current divides as it goes through to the other resistors, so the current passing through
R1 is the maximum current. As the other resistors are close to R1 but have smaller
currents passing through them, the power dissipated by the R1 resistor is the largest.
Answer: (A)
11.34 Waveguides
NOT FINISHED Answer: (D)
where T is the time measure in the fram at rest and T0 is the time measured in the
frame moving at speed u relative to the rest frame. With the information given in the
question we can see that
∆t1
∆t2 = q (11.38.2)
v2
1 − c122
∆t1
∆t3 = q (11.38.3)
v2
1 − c132
You may think that Answer: (C) is a possible answer but it would be incorrect the
leptons are not in the S2 frame, they are in the S1 frame, so this possibility has no
physical consequence.
Answer: (B)
11.39.1 Calculation
As we have the time, we see that the function of out square wave is
1
0 < t < ωπ
V(t) =
π
(11.39.1)
−1
ω
< t < 2πω
1
V(t) = a0 + a1 cos ωt + a2 cos 2ωt + · · · + an cos nωt+
2
+ b1 sin ωt + b2 sin 2ωt + · · · + bn sin nωt (11.39.2)
1
= [cos(2nπ) − 2 cos(nπ) + 1]
nπω
2 − 2(−1)n
=
nπω
0
for even n
=
4
(11.39.5)
nπω for odd n
1
∆K = I ω2f − ω2i (11.41.1)
2
This becomes
1
∆K = 4 802 − 402
2
= 9600 J (11.41.2)
Answer: (D)
9
Definitely not something you have lots of time to do in the exam.
L=T−V (11.43.1)
and in generalized coordinates, this looks like
1
L = mq̇2n − U(qn ) (11.43.2)
2
We can find the equations of motion from this
d ∂L ∂L
!
= (11.43.3)
dt ∂q̇n ∂qn
Answer: (C)
~ d
p= (11.51.1)
i dx
Given that r
2 nπx
ψn = sin (11.51.3)
a a
Answer: (A)
~2 d2 ψ
− + V(x) = Eψ (11.53.1)
2m dx2
~2 d2 ψ
− = Eψ
2m dx2
d2 ψ 2mE
∴ 2 = −kn2 ψ = − 2 ψ (11.53.2)
dx ~
We see that
kn2 ~2 n2 π2 ~
E= = 2 (11.53.3)
2m a 2m
where n = 1, 2, 3 · · · . So
π2 ~2
E≥ (11.53.4)
2ma2
Answer: (B)
Now we know the current directions, we can determine the forces on the wires.
As we have a current moving through the wire, a motor, we use Fleming’s Left Hand
Rule. From this rule, we see the force on the wire is actin to the left. Using the same
principle, on the right side, the force is acting on the right.
Answer: (E)
FB = I` × B (11.55.1)
We need to calculate the magnetic induction on the left and right sides of the loop. For
this we turn to Ampere’s Law
I
B · ds = µ0 Ienclosed (11.55.2)
BL (2πr) = µ0 I
µ0 I
BL = (11.55.3)
2πr
On the right side of the loop, we have
BR [2π (r + a)] = µ0 I
µ0 I
BR = (11.55.4)
2π (r + a)
µ0 I
!
FL = ib (11.55.5)
2πr
µ0 I
!
FR = ib (11.55.6)
2π (r + a)
We know that from the above question, these forces act in oppsoite directions, so
F = FL − FR
µ0 iIb 1 1
= −
2π " r r + #1
µ0 iIb a
= (11.55.7)
2π r (r + a)
Answer: (D)
1s2 (11.59.1)
mv2 v
= Bev where ω =
r r
Be
⇒ ωc = (11.60.1)
m
Plugging in what we know, we get
1 × 1.6 × 10−19
ωc =
0.1 × 9.11 × 10−31
Adding the indices of the equation gives an order of magnitude approximation
− 19 + 31 = 12
I1 = 2mr2 (11.61.3)
10
Show derivation of this equation.
5mr2
2
r
I2 = mr2 + m = (11.61.4)
2 4
Now the tricky part. The distance d in eq. (11.61.1) is the distance from the pivot to the
center of mass. In the first case it’s the distance from the pivot to the two masses. In
the second case the center of mass is between the two masses. The center of mass can
be found by P
mi ri
rcm = P (11.61.5)
mi
Thus the center of mass for the second pendulum is
mr + m 2r 3
r2 = = r (11.61.6)
2m 4
Now we can determine the angular frequencies of our pendulums. For the first pen-
dulum
r
2mgr
ω1 =
2mr2
r
g
= (11.61.7)
r
For the second pendulum
v
t
3r
(2m)g 4
ω2 = 5
4
mr2
r
6g
= (11.61.8)
5r
Dividing eq. (11.61.8) by eq. (11.61.7) gives
6g 12
12
ω2 5r 6
= g = (11.61.9)
ω1 r
5
Answer: (A)
k
ω2 = (11.65.5)
m
where m is the mass of the small particle.
Thus the angular frequency, ω, is
" # 12
Qq
ω= (11.65.6)
2π0 mR3
Answer: (E)
As the chain is pulled up, the mass changes with the length that is hanging. We are
given the linear density so we know the relationship of the chain’s mass to its length13
M m
ρ= = (11.66.2)
L x
13
There is another way to think of this problem. We are told that the steel chain is uniform, so its
center of mass is in the middle of its length. The work done is the work done in raising the mass of the
chain by this distance. Thus
L L 10
W = Mg = ρLg = 2 · 10 · 10 · = 1000 J
2 2 2
As you can see, we get the same result. You may find this solution quicker.
Ipo
Ip = Ipo cos2 θ = [cos 2θ − 1] (11.67.1)
2
Unpolarized light would have the same intensity through all θ so
Iu = Iuo (11.67.2)
I = Iu + Ip
Ipo
= Iuo + Ipo cos2 θ = [cos 2θ − 1]
" # 2
Ipo Ipo
= Iuo − + cos 2θ (11.67.3)
2 2
where
Ipo
A = Iuo − B B =
2
Given that A > B > 0, the above hypothesis holds.
Answer: (C)
λ
sin θ = 1.22 (11.68.1)
d
As we are looking at ultra-high energies, we can ignore the rest energy term on the
right hand side, so14
2
100mc2 = pc2
∴ p ≈ 100mc (11.70.4)
Answer: (D)
14
We can find a solution by relating the relativistic energy and momentum equations. Given
E = γmc2 p = γmc
This gives us
E = pc
⇒ p = 100mc (11.70.3)
Now we can go through our choices and find the correct one.
A This is clearly not the case. From the above, we see that kHe = 60KTh .
B Again, this is clearly not the case. We see that vHe ≈ 60VTh .
C No this is not the case as momentum is conserved. For this to take place the two
nuclei must fly off in opposite directions.
E This is correct. We see from the above calculations that kHe ≈ 60KTh .
Answer: (E)
`1 = 0 (11.76.3)
j = j1 + j2 + j3
1 3 3 7
= + + = (11.76.6)
2 2 2 2
Answer: (A)
L = m (r × V) (11.78.1)
L = Ltop + Lbottom
! !
b b
=m (2v) + m v
2 2
= mbv (11.78.2)
L = Iω (11.78.3)
3v
ω= (11.78.5)
b
As the two masses move towards the rod, the speed of the center of mass remains the
same even after collision. This allows us to define the linear motion of the rod which
we know to be at the center of the rod.
n
P
mi vi
i=1
vcenter = n
(11.78.6)
P
mi
i=1
m(2v) + m(−v) v
vcenter = = (11.78.7)
2m 2
The poition of the mass at b/2 is a combination of the translational and rotational
motions. The translatioal motion is
dω
vg = (11.79.1)
dk
B They can’t be in the same directions. The phase velocity is moving in the opposite
direction to the group velocity.
Answer: (A)
hc
E = hf = =K (11.80.1)
λ
hc
λ=
K
6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
=
25 × 103 × 1.60 × 10−19
6.63 × 3
= × 10−10
25 × 1.6
12
≈ × 10−10 = 0.5 Å (11.80.2)
25
Answer: (B)
where tau is the torque on the plate. We recall that τ = Iα where I is the moment of
inertia and α is the angular acceleration. Thus the above equation becomes
Z
H
ω= αdt = (11.82.2)
I
sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ θ
cos θ ≈ 1
T = mg
kq2
!
d
⇒ T sin θ = mg = 2
2L 2d
2kq2 L
!
∴ d3 = (11.83.2)
mg
Answer: (A)
q2 a2
P= (11.84.1)
6π0 c3
where q is the charge and a is the acceleration. We can use this to eliminate choices.
A This says
P ∝ a2 (11.84.2)
B This says
P ∝ e2 (11.84.3)
C Also true.
D False
E True
Answer: (D)
Q0 = C0 V0 (11.88.1)
While still connected to the battery, a dielectric is inserted between the plates. This
serves to change the electric field between the plates and as a result the capacitance.
Qf = Cf Vf (11.88.2)
V f = V0 (11.88.3)
C f = κC0 (11.88.4)
It follows that
Q f = κQ0 (11.88.5)
When a dielectric is placed inside an electric field, there is an induced electric field,
that points in the opposite direction to the field from the battery.
E f = E0 + Einduced (11.88.6)
This results in
E0
Ef = (11.88.7)
κ
From the above we can infer
1. V f = V0
2. Q f > Q0
3. C f > C0
4. E f < E0
Based on this we can eliminate all but choice (E). In the case of the last choice, the effect
of the electric field places charges on the plates of the capacitor. Gauss’ Law tells us
0 ∇ · E = ρ (11.88.8)
ρ = ρb + ρ f (11.88.9)
This becomes
0 ∇ · E = −∇ · P + ρ f (11.88.10)
This becomes
∇ · (0 E + P) = ρ f (11.88.11)
Where the term 0 E + P is the displacemet vector. In the beginning, there is no polar-
ization vector, P so
D0 = 0 E (11.88.12)
But with the presence of the dielectric it becomes,
D f = 0 E + P (11.88.13)
Thus
D f > D0 (11.88.14)
Answer: (E)
f = 3 f0 = 30Hz (11.92.1)
Answer: (D)
11.93.1 Calculation
As the mass falls, its gravitaional potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. We
can express this as a function of θ.
1
mg` sin θ = mv2 (11.93.1)
2
where ` is the length of the rod.
The radial or centripetal force, ar is
mv2
mar = (11.93.2)
`
Solving for ar gives us
ar = 2g sin θ (11.93.3)
The tangential accelertion is a component of the gravitational acceleration, thus
at = g cos θ (11.93.4)
16
Think an amusement park ride, something along ‘the Enterprise’ ride manufactured by the HUSS
Maschinenfabrik company. The g-forces are at the greatest at the bottom about 2gs and lowest at the top.
There are no restraints while you’re inside; you’re kept in place through centripetal forces. Your faith in
the force should dispel any fears.
D = nd (11.96.1)
The Optical Path Difference is the difference in these two lengths. As the gas is
evacuated, we observe 40 fringes move past our field of view. So our optical path
difference is
∆ = nλ (11.96.2)
NOT FINSIHED
ANswer: (C)
By finding the determinant of the characteristic matrix, we can find its eigenvalues
−λ 1 0
0 −λ 1 = 0 (11.98.2)
1 0 −λ
E Also TRUE
Answer: (E)
11.100 Levers
As our system is in equlibrium, we know that the sum of the moments is equal to zero.
We are also told that the rod is uniform, so the center of mass is in the middle of the
rod. Thus, taking the clockwise and anticlockwise moments about the pivot
where x is the distance of the center of mass from the pivot and y is the distance of the
40kg mass from the pivot. We know
10 = 5 + x + y (11.100.2)
V 5.0
Ic = = A (12.2.1)
R 10
The induced EMF from the magnetic field is found from Faraday’s Law of Induction
dΦ
E =− (12.2.2)
dt
where Φ is the magnetic flux.
dΦ dB
=A (12.2.3)
dt dt
176 GR9677 Exam Solutions
The area of our loop, A = 10 × 10cm . So the induced EMF is
2
1
mgh = mv21
2
v21 = 2gh (12.7.1)
1
Sometimes the frictional force can act in the direction of motion. This is one such case.
2
If you’d like a more rigorous proof, not something you might do in the exam. The work done by
the frictional force, Fr is Z
W= Fr dx (12.6.1)
Fr = mg sin θ (12.6.2)
W = Fr · x
h
= mg sin θ ×
sin θ
= mgh
v1 = v2 + 2v3
= 3v2
⇒ v21 = 9v22 (12.7.5)
We see that
2gh
= 2gh2
9
h
⇒ = h2 (12.7.7)
9
Answer: (A)
This shows that the damped frequency will be higher than the natural frequency, ω0 ,
or its period, T0 , will be longer.
Answer: (A)
where ni and n f are the intial and final states respectively. The longest wavelength, or
the smallest energy transition, would represent the transition n1 = n f + 1.
For the Lyman series, n f = 1, which lies in the ultra-violet spectrum, we have
1 1 1 3
= RH 2 − 2 = RH (12.9.2)
λL 1 2 4
For the Balmer series, n f = 2, which lies in the optical spectrum, we have
1 1 1 5
= RH 2 − 2 = RH (12.9.3)
λB 2 3 36
5
λL R
36 H 5
= = (12.9.4)
λB 3
R
4 H
27
Answer: (A)3
me M
µ= (12.12.1)
M + me
Z2 µ
En = − E0 (12.12.2)
n2 me
µ me 1
= = (12.12.3)
me 2me 2
and the ground state of this atom, Z = 1 and n = 1. The ground state energy of
Hydrogen is 13.6eV.
eq. (12.12.2) becomes
1
E1 = − 13.6 eV = −6.8 eV (12.12.4)
2
Answer: (C)
E 4200
t= = = 42 seconds (12.13.2)
P 100
Answer: (B)
Answer: (D)
and Path C → A
Z
WC→A = P1 dV where dV = 0
=0 (12.15.3)
We can tally the values given to us on the graph The probability of finding the particle
x Ψ Ψ2
1 1 1
2 1 1
3 2 4
4 3 9
5 1 1
6 0 0
Total 16
between (2 ≤ x ≤ 4) is
12 + 22 + 32
P(2 ≤ x ≤ 4) =
12 + 12 + 22 + 32 + 12 + 02
4+9
=
1+1+4+9+1+0
13
= (12.17.3)
16
Answer: (E)
The moment of inertia of the hoop hanging by a nail is found from the Parallex Axis
Theorem
I = Icm + Md2 = Mr2 + Mr2 = 2Mr2 (12.21.3)
Plugging this into the first equation gives
s
2Mr2
T = 2π
Mgr
s
2r
= 2π
g
r
2 × 20 × 10−2
≈ 2π
10
= 4π × 10 ≈ 1.2 s
−1
Answer: (C)
1
s= gM t2
2
⇒ t = 1 second (12.22.1)
Choice B Momentum is conserved. This also isn’t dependent on the inverse square
law.
Choice D This is FALSE. This follows from Bertrand’s Theorem5 , which states that
only two types of potentials produce stable closed orbits
1. An inverse square central force such as the gravitational or electrostatic
potential.
−k
V(r) = (12.23.2)
r
2. The radial Harmonic Oscillator Potential
1
V(r) = kr2 (12.23.3)
2
Choice E A stationary circular orbit occurs under special conditions when the central
force is equal to the centripetal force. This is not dependent on an inverse square
law but its speed.
Answer: (D)
We can substitute the symbols for Length, L, Mass, M and Time, T. So the dimensions
of our constants become
G = L3 M−1 T−2
~ = ML2 T−1
c = LT−1
`p = L
We get
L
3x + 2y + z = 1
M
−x+y=0
T
z = −3x
Solving, we get
1 1 3
x= y= z=−
2 2 2
Thus r
G~
`p =
c3
Answer: (E)
h2 − (x1 + 5) = 15
∴ h2 − x1 = 20
We expect the water column to go down on the left side of the tube as it goes up on the
right side of the tube; conservation of mass. So we infer the change in height on both
sides is 10 cm. We conclude that since the intial height is 20cm, then h2 = 30 cm and
x1 = 10 cm. So
h2 30
= =2 (12.30.3)
h1 15
Answer: (C)
ma = mg − bv (12.31.1)
We are also told that the buoyant force is negligible. Armed with this information, we
can analyze out choices and emiminate.
A This statement will be incorrect. We have been told to ignore the buoyant force,
which if was present, would act as a constant retarding force and slow our sphere
down and reduce its kinetic energy. INCORRECT
B This is also incorrect. In fact if you were to solve the above equation of motion, the
speed, and hence kinetic energy, would monotonically increase and approach
some terminal speed. It won’t go to zero. INCORRECT
C It may do this if it was shot out of a gun, but we were told that it is released from
rest. So it will not go past its terminal speed.
0 = mg − bv (12.31.2)
where ri is the distance from the point mass to the axis of rotation.
The moment of inertia about point A is found by finding the distances of each of
the three masses from that point. The distance between the mass, m and A is
`
r= √
3
Thus the moment of inertia is
!2
`
IA = 3m √ = m`2
3
The Moment of Inertia about B can be found by the Parallel Axis Theorem but it may be
simpler to use the formula above. As the axis of rotation is about B, we can ignore this
mass and find the distances of the other two masses from this point, which happens to
be `. Thus
IB = 2m`2
The rotational kinetic energy is
1
K = Iω2
2
So the ratio of the kinetic energies at fixed, ω becomes
KB IB 2m`2
= = =2
KA IA m`2
Answer: (B)
E = γmc2 (12.36.1)
5
E = γmc2 = mc2 (12.36.3)
4
The composite mass can be found by adding the energies of the two lumps of clay
ET = 2E
10
Mc2 = mc2
4
∴ M = 2.5m = 2.5 × 4 = 10 kg (12.36.4)
Answer: (D)
7
14
N Nitrogen has two outermost electrons.
18
40
Ar Another noble gas, this has filled outermost electrons and is not reactive.
55
133
Cs We can see that Cs has a high atomic number and hence a lot of electrons. We
expect the outmost electrons to be far from the nucleus and hence the attraction
to be low. This will have a low ionization potential.
Answer: (E)
Z2 µ
En = − E0 (12.40.1)
n2 me
where Z is the atomic number, n is the energy level, E0 is the ground state energy level
of the Hydrogen atom and µ/me is the reduced mas correction factor.
The emitted photon can also be found through a similar correction
hc µ 1 1
∆E = = Z2 2 − 2 13.6 (12.40.2)
λe me n f ni
As Helium’s mass is concentrated in the center, it’s reduced mass is close to unity8 .
µ Z
= ≈1 (12.40.3)
me Z + me
Plugging in the values we know into eq. (12.40.2), we get
−34 8
6.63 × 10 × 3 × 10 1
1
= 22
13.6 −
n2 42 (12.40.4)
470 × 10−9 × 1.60 × 10−19 f
Now we can calculate the energy level at n = 3 from eq. (12.40.1), which gives,
22
E3 = − · 13.6
32
= −6.0 eV (12.40.7)
h f = eVs + K (12.42.1)
dv dx dv
a(x) = = ·
dx dt dx
dv
=v· (12.44.2)
dx
dv
= −nβx−n−1
dx
Answer: (A)
1
XC = XL = ωL
ωC
We see that in the case of capacitors, there is an inverse relationship with frequency
and a linear one for inductors. Simply put, at high frequencies capacitors have low
impedances and inductors have high inductances.
NOT FINSIHED
Answer: (E)
dΦ
E =−
dt
In this case, the magnetic field, B, is constant and the Cross Sectional Area, A, through
which the magnetic field acts changes. Thus the above equation becomes
dA
E0 sin ωt = −B (12.46.1)
dt
Let’s say that at t = 0 the loop is face on with the magnetic field,
dA
E0 sin ωt = −B ·
dt
= −B · −ωπR2 sin ωt
= ωBπR2 sin ωt (12.46.3)
dΦ
E =− (12.47.1)
dt
Here the flux changes because the number of loops enclosing the field increases, so
Φ = NBA (12.47.2)
dN
E = BA
dt
= BπR2 N (12.47.3)
Answer: (C)
The Space-Time Interval is invariant across frames, so eq. (12.50.1) is equal to eq. (12.50.2)
Answer: (C)
We see that the x̂ and ŷ vectors have the same magnitude but opposite sign; they are
both out of phase with each other. This would describe a trajectory that is 135°to the
x-axis.
Answer: (B)
n2 sin θi = n1 sin 90
a sin θ = mλ (12.57.1)
where a is the slit width, θ is the angle between the minimum and the central maximum,
and m is the diffraction order. As θ is small and solving doe d, we can approximate the
above equation to
λ
d=
θ
400 × 10−9
=
4 × 10−3
= 0.1 × 10−3 m (12.57.2)
Answer: (C)
fo
M= = 10 (12.58.1)
fe
fe = 10 × 1.5 cm = 15 cm (12.58.2)
To achieve this magnification, the lens must be placed in a position where the focal
length of the eyepiece meets the focal length of the objective. Thus
Answer: (E)
hc
E = hf = (12.59.1)
λ
The power is the energy delivered in one second. So for a 10kW laser, the total energy
in 10−15 seconds is
EL = Pt = 10 × 103 × 10−15
= 10 × 10−12 J (12.59.2)
EL
n=
E
10 × 10−12 × λ
=
hc
10 × 10−12 × 600 × 10−9
=
6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
10 × 600
= × 106 ≈ 3 × 108 (12.59.3)
6.63 × 3
Answer: (B)
The enclosed charge can be found from the charge density, which is
Enclosed Charge
ρ=
Enclosed Volume
q
= (12.61.2)
4 3
πr
3
We can find the enclosed charge by integrating within 0 to R/2. The charge density is
dq
ρ=
dV
dq
= (12.61.3)
4πr2 dr
∴ dq = ρ4πr2 dr
= 4πAr4 dr (12.61.4)
0 0
Z R2
4πA
= r4 dr
0 0
R
4πA r5 2
= (12.61.5)
0 5 0
R
A r3 2
∴E= (12.61.6)
0 5 0
Solving gives
AR3
E= (12.61.7)
400
Answer: (B)
QA = Q2 − Q1 (12.62.1)
where
Q1A = C1 V f and Q2A = C2 V f (12.62.3)
Solving for V f gives us
(C2 − C1 )V 5
Vf = = = 1.67 V (12.62.4)
C1 + C2 3
Answer: (C)
mu = Mv
Mv
u= (12.65.1)
m
The point A is midway between the center of the two cylinders and as the currents are
in opposite directions, thier magnetic fields at A point in the +y-direction. We can use
the right hand grip rule to determine this. This leaves us with choices (A) or (B).
The current density, J is
I
J=
Area
I
= 2 (12.69.2)
πr
We draw an Amperian loop of radius, r = d/2, thus the magnetic field becomes,
I
B · ds = µ0 Ienclosed
B · (2πr) = µ0 J πr2
µ0 πJr
B=
2π
µ0 πJ d
= (12.69.3)
2π 2
We expect B⊗ to be the same, thus
B = B + B⊗
µ
0
= πdJ (12.69.4)
2π
Answer: (A)
A B
Charge qa = q qb = 2q
Mass ma = m mb = m2
Velocity va = v vb = 3v
Acceleration aa = a ab = 4a
PA ∝ q2 a2 PB = (2q)2 (4a2 )
Thus
PB (2q)2 (4a2 )
=
PA q2 a2
= 64 (12.70.2)
Answer: (D)
qV
Fe = qE = = ma y (12.71.1)
d
The time it takes to traverse this distance is
L
t= (12.71.2)
v
The deflection angle, θ is determined by
vy
tan θ = (12.71.3)
vx
Now
vy = ayt
qV
= t
me d
qV L
= (12.71.4)
me d v
qV L
md v
tan θ =
v
qVL
= (12.71.5)
mdv2
Answer: (A)
PV γ = C (12.73.1)
C h −γ+1 −γ+1
i
= Vf − Vi (12.73.3)
1−γ
Answer: (C)
dQ
dS = (12.74.1)
T
The change in heat of a system is
dQ = nCdT (12.74.2)
We are told that the two bodies are brought together and they are in thermal isolation.
This means that heat is not absorbed or lost to the environment, only transferred
between the two bodies. Thus
The Total Change in Entrophy is the sum of the entrophy changes of bodies A and B.
Thus
dS = dSA + dSB
300 300
= mC ln + mC ln
500 100
9
= mC ln (12.74.4)
5
Answer: (B)
dQ
= kxdT (12.75.1)
dt
where k is the thermal conductivity, x is the thickness of the material and dT is the
temperature difference across the material.
where f is the number of degrees of freedom. At very low temperatures, there are only
three translational degrees of freedom; there are no rotational degrees of freedom in
this case. At very high temperatures, we have three translational degrees of freedom,
two rotational and two vibrational, giving a total of seven in all.
3
cvl = R (12.79.2)
2
7
cvh R
= 23
c vl 2
R
7
= (12.79.4)
3
Answer: (D)
12.85 Waves
NOT FINSIHED
Answer: (B)
a < r < b Within the shaded region, the enclosed current is, Ienclosed = I. Ampere’s Law
becomes
B (2πr) = µ0 I
µ0 I
B(a<r<b) = (12.88.4)
2π r
The magnetic induction decreases inversely with respect to r.
πr2 − πb2
" #
Ienclosed =I−I
πc2 − πb2
" 2 #
c − r2
=I 2 (12.88.6)
c − b2
B(r>c) = 0 (12.88.8)
We can find the points of stability by differentiating the above equation to get and
setting it to zero.
dV
= −2ax + 4bx3 = 0 (12.92.2)
dx
we see that x = 0; a/2b. Taking the second differential gives us the mass’s spring
constant, k
d2 V
k= = −2a + 12bx2 (12.92.3)
dx2
We can also use this to find the minimum and maximum points of inflection in our
potential graph. We see that
d2 V(0) d2 V(a/2b)
k= = −2a k= = 4a
dx2 dx2
We see that when x = a/2b, we are at a minima and hence at a point of stable equilibrium.
We can now find the angular frequency
r
k
ω=
m
r
4a
=
m
r
a
=2 (12.92.4)
m
Answer: (D)
Answer: (D)
γ → e− + e+ (12.96.1)
Pair production occurs when a γ ray of high energy is absorbed in the vincinity of
an atomic nucleus and particles are created from the absorbed photon’s energy. This
takes place in the Coulomb field of the nucleus; the nucleus acts as a massive body to
ensure the conservation of momentum and energy. The nucleus is an essential part of
this process; if the photon could spontaneously decay into an electron-positron pair in
empty space, a Lorentz frame could be found where the electron and positron have
equal and opposite momenta and the photon will be at rest. This is a clear violation of
the principles of Special Relativity. We choose (A).
Based on what we know, we can determine the maximum wavelength as a matter
or interest. As the nucleus is massive, we will ignore its recoil and consider that all
of the photon’s energy goes into electron-positron creation and the particles’ kinetic
energy.
hυ = E− + E+
= K− + me c2 + K+ + me c2
= K− + K+ + 2me c2 (12.96.2)
where K− and K+ are the kinetic energies of the electron and positron respectively. Thus
the minimum energy needed to initiate this process is
h
λmax = (12.96.4)
2me c2
θ
acent
atang
The acceleration of an object that rotates with variable speed has two components, a
centripetal acceleration and a tangential acceleration. We can see this in the above
diagram, fig. 13.1.1, where
Centripetal Acceleration
v2
acent = = ω2 r (13.1.1)
r
Tangential Acceleration
atang = αr (13.1.2)
The net acceleration on the bob can be found by adding the cetripetal and tangential
accelerations
atang + acent = a (13.1.3)
220 GR0177 Exam Solutions
a = atang a = acent
Figure 13.1.2: Acceleration vectors of bob at equilibrium and max. aplitude positions
At point (e), v = 0, so
acent = 0 and
atang = a
acent = a and
atang = 0
mrω2 − µR = 0
µg
∴r= 2 (13.2.1)
ω
ω = 33.3revolutions/min
100 2π
= ·
3 60
10π
= rad s−1 (13.2.2)
9
(0.3) (9.8)
r= 81
100π2
0.3 · 10
≈ · 81
100 · π2
243
≈
100 · 10
' 0.243 m (13.2.3)
Answer: (D)
T 2 ∝ r3 (13.3.1)
Answer: (D)
See section 1.7.4. If you’re unable to remember Kepler’s Law and its relationship
between the period and orbital distance, some quick calculation will yield some results.
GMm
mrω =
r2
2
2π GM
mr = 2
T r
2
(2π)
⇒ r3 = T2
GM
∴ r3 = kT2
2m v m 3m vf
As the bodies fuse, see fig. 13.4.1, the resulting collision will be an inelastic one;
kinectic energy is not conserved but momentum will be conserved. This allows us to
immediately eliminate choice (A)1 .
Thus
Momentum Before Collision = Momentum After Collision
2mv = 3mv f
3
⇒ v = vf (13.4.1)
2
The kinectic energy before and after collision are
Initial K.E.
1
E = (2m)v2 = mv2 (13.4.2)
2
Final K.E.
2
1 1 2
E f = (3m)v f = (3m) v
2
2 2 3
2 2
= mv (13.4.3)
3
Subtracting eq. (13.4.3) from eq. (13.4.2) gives us the energy lost in the collision
2
∆E = mv2 − mv2
3
1 2
= mv (13.4.4)
3
The fraction of initial kinetic energy lost in the collision is
1 2
mv
∆E 3
=
E mv2
1
= (13.4.5)
3
1
Not much help but the elimination of just one choice may work to our advantage.
Q = nCV T
!
f
=n RT
2
!
f
=N kT (13.5.2)
2
6
Q= kT = 3kTJ (13.5.3)
2
Answer: (D)
+q
Gaussian Surface
+q
+q
r
+q
+q
Gauss’s Law states that “The electric flux through any closed surface is proportional
to the enclosed electric charge”.
I
Qenclosed
E · dA = (13.9.1)
S 0
If we draw a Gaussian Surface at the center of our arrangement, see fig. 13.9.1, we
notice there are no charges enclosed and thus no electric field.5
Answer: (A)
4
Put wikipedia reference here
5
This makes sense, there is no electric field inside a conductor because all the charges reside on the
surface.
dA
1m
Thallium doped Sodium Iodine crystals are used in scintillation detectors, usually
found in hospitals. These crystals have a high light output and are usually coupled to
photomultiplier tubes. No emitted power is lost to the surrounding medium. Thus,
the net power radiated by our source is
Z
P= IdA (13.14.1)
P1 = I1 A1 (13.14.2)
P2 = I2 A2 (13.14.3)
As no power is lost to the environment, then eqs. (13.14.2) and (13.14.3) are equal, thus
P1 = P2
I1 A1 = I2 A2
I2 A1
⇒ = (13.14.4)
I1 A2
In the first case, as the detector is right up to the radioactive source, the area, A1 is the
cross sectional area of the NaI(Tl) crystal.
πd2
A1 = (13.14.5)
4
A2 = 4πD2 (13.14.6)
where D is the distance of the crystal detector from the radioactive source.
The ratio between I2 and I1 can be found from eq. (13.14.4),
I2 A1
=
I1 A 2
πd2 1
=
4 4πD2
d2
=
16D2
2
8 × 10−2
=
16
= 4 × 10−2
Answer: (C)
Answer: (B)
E = E1 + E2 (13.18.2)
We expect the energy to remove the first electron to be less than the second; there are
more positive charges in the nucleus holding the second electron in place. We can use
the above equation to find out the energy to remove this second electron.
22
E2 = −13.6 eV
12
= 54.4eV (13.18.3)
Now we can determine the energy needed to remove the first electron
E1 = E − E2
= 79.0 − 54.4
= 24.6 eV (13.18.4)
Answer: (A)
13.20 Bremsstrahlung
A definition question. It may help to know that Bremsstrahlung is German for ‘braking
radiation’. This is the radiation that is released as the electron slows down or is
“braked” and results in a continous spectra.
Answer: (E)
where λ is the wavlength of the emitted light, RH is the Rydberg constant for Hydrogen,
n1 and n2 are the electron orbital numbers.
For the Lyman-α emission, electrons jump from n2 = 2to the n1 = 1 orbital. This
gives
1 1 1
= RH −
λ1 1 2
1
= RH (13.21.2)
2
For the Balmer-α emission, electrons jump from n2 = 3 to n1 = 2 orbital. This gives
1 1 1
= RH −
λ2 2 3
1
= (13.21.3)
6
Dividing eq. (13.21.3) by eq. (13.21.2), we get
λ1 1
= (13.21.4)
λ2 3
Answer: (C)
Mass of he Moon We see that in all cases, the mass of the moon, m, cancels out. We
can not find the mass of the moon from the astronomer’s observations.
Mass of the Planet We can determine the mass of the planet, M, from the data.
v2 GM
= 2 (13.22.2)
r r
We will need the distances and the moon’s orbital speed.
Minimum Speed of the Moon The speed of the Moon, v, also does not cancel out in
any of our equations. So we can find this out.
Period of Orbit As the period, T, does not cancel out, we can also determine this.
2
2π GM
r = (13.22.3)
T r2
Semimajor axis of orbit The semimajor axis is the longest distance from the center of
an ellipse. The distance, r, in our equations are a measure of the semimajor axis.
We see that the mass, m, the mass of the moon cancels out. Everything else mentioned
remains. Thus
Answer: (A)
ac
a
θ
at
where
v2
ac = (13.23.2)
r
at = αr (13.23.3)
ac
tan θ = (13.23.4)
at
The velocity vector points in the same direction as at , hence the reason why we use the
above calculation.
Given that r = 10 meters, v = 10 meters per second, we calculate ac to be
ac
tan θ =
at
10
= =1 (13.23.6)
10
Thus
θ = 45° (13.23.7)
Answer: (C)
2r
r
1
Ipenny = Icm = Mr2 (13.25.1)
2
For the other pennies, we find their Moments of Inertia by using the Parallel Axis
Theorem.
IT = Icm + Md2 (13.25.2)
1
IT = Mr2 + M (2r)2
2
9
= Mr2 (13.25.3)
2
The Moment of Inertia depends on the mass distribution. Whether the six pennies
were stacked on top of each other next or arranged in a hexagonal pattern, the Moment
of Inertia will be the same. The total moment of inertia is found by adding eqs. (13.25.1)
and (13.25.3).
1 9
I = Mr2 + 6 × Mr2
2 2
55 2
= Mr (13.25.4)
2
Answer: (E)
L/2 mg
mg
As the rod falls, its Gravitational Potential Energy is converted to Rotational Kinetic
Energy. In this case, we will need to calculate the Moment of Inertia of the rod about
its point of rotation. For this, we turn to the Parallel Axis Theorem. The Moment of
Inertia of the rod is
1
Icm = ML2 (13.26.1)
12
The Parallel Axis Theorem gives us the Moment of Inertia about the pivot point
I = Icm + Md2
2
1 L
= ML + M
2
12 2
1
= ML2 (13.26.2)
3
The rod is uniform, so its Center of Mass is in the middle of the rod. Its Gravitational
Potential Energy while standing upright is
L
PE = Mg (13.26.3)
2
The Rotational Kinetic Energy is
1
KE = Iω2 (13.26.4)
2
As energy is conserved, eqs. (13.26.3) and (13.26.4) are equal.
2
L 1 1 v
Mg = ML 2
2 2 3 L
v = 3gL
p
(13.26.5)
Answer: (C)
me mp
µ=
me + mp
me
= (13.31.2)
2
We then apply the Bethe-Salpeter equation,
µ q4e
En = − (13.31.3)
8h2 ε20 n2
In most two body atom systems, the reduced-mass factor is close to unity but as the
masses of the electron and the positron are equal, the reduced-mass has an appreciable
effect on the energy levels. Substituting, we get,
1 me q4e 1
En = −
2 8h2 ε20 n2
−6.8
= (13.31.4)
2
= −3.4 eV (13.31.5)
Answer: (A)
E2 = c2 p2 + m2 c4 (13.32.2)
E = 2Erest
∴ 4m c = p2 c2 + m2 c4
2 4
√
⇒ p = 3 mc (13.32.4)
Answer: (D)
L2
v =
2
L2 + c2 (∆t0 )2
900
=
900 + 9
100
= (13.33.4)
101
We can surmise that the result of eq. (13.33.4) will be closer to (D) than (C).
Answer: (D)
13.34 Simultaneity
The Space-Time Interval of an event is
The Space-Time interval is a Lorentz-invariant quantity which means that it has the
same value in all Lorentz frames. Depending on the two events, the interval can be
positive, negative or zero. So
u = σT4 (13.35.1)
Let
u1 = σT14 (13.35.2)
The temperature of the object increases by a factor of 3, thus
T2 = 3T1
u2 = σ (3T1 )4 (13.35.3)
and we get
u2 = 81σT14
= 81u1 (13.35.4)
It increases by a factor of 81.
Answer: (E)
dQ
dS = (13.36.1)
T
As dQ = 0, then there is no change in entropy.
dU = −dW + dQ (13.36.2)
Thus Z
dU = − PdV (13.36.5)
PV γ = constant (13.36.6)
So
γ−1 γ−1
Ti Vi = Tf Vf (13.36.8)
The temperature of the gas is not constant. So this is NOT TRUE.
Answer: (E)
WC→A = 0 (13.37.3)
WA→B = P · dV
= P (VB − 2) (13.37.4)
The path along BC is an isotherm and this allows us to find the volume at point B.
PB VB = PC VC = nRT
200VB = 500 · 2
∴ VB = 5 (13.37.6)
Plugging in what we know, we add eq. (13.37.4), eq. (13.37.5) and eq. (13.37.3) to get
the total work.
2
W = 600 + 1000 ln > −400 kJ (13.37.8)
5
Answer: (D)
13.40 RL Circuits
As an EMF is introduced in the circuit, there is going to be a slowly rising (or falling)
current. If the inductor was not present, the current would rapidly rise to a steady
state current of ER . The inductor produces a self-induced EMF, EL , in the circuit; from
Lens’s Law. This EMF is
di
EL = −L (13.40.1)
dt
Applying Kirchoff’s Voltage law gives
di
E = iR + L (13.40.2)
dt
This differential equation can be solved such that
E Rt
i= 1 − e− L (13.40.3)
R
Let τL = RL , we can rewrite eq. (13.40.3), to say
E − t
i= 1 − e τL (13.40.4)
R
1
The time constant is the time to fall to e
of its original value.
10mH
τL =
2Ω
= 2 milli-seconds (13.40.5)
As we expect the EMF to decay across the inductor, we choose
Answer: (D)8
8
We note that choices D) and E) both decay exponentially and that milli-second decay times are
standard with the usual components you find in a lab. A 200 sec decay time is unusual given the
“normal” electronic components in the question.
Gauss’ Law This equation relates the distribution of electric charge to the resulting
electric field.
∇ · E = 4πρe (13.41.1)
Gauss’ Law for Magnetism Here we assume that there are no magnetic charges, so
the equation that we know and have studies is
∇·B=0 (13.41.2)
∇ · B = 4πρm (13.41.3)
Here we have used a symmetric argument from Gauss’ Law to get this equation.
Ampère’s Law This equation relates the magnetic field to a current. With Maxwell’s
displacement current, je , we have
∂E
∇×B= + 4πje (13.41.4)
∂t
∂B
∇·E= + 4πjm (13.41.6)
∂t
Loop B As the current carying loop moves away from Loop B, the magnetic flux
will decrease. Loop B wants to prevent this decrease by inducing an increasing
current. The induced current will be in the clock-wise direction.
Answer: (C)
Thus
h i h i
Lx L y , Lz = − Lz , Lx L y
h i
= − −Lx Lz , L y + [Lz , Lx ] L y
= − −Lx (i~Lx ) + i~L y L y
= i~ L2x + L2y (13.43.3)
Answer: (D)
13.44 Energies
We are given that
n2 π2 ~2
En = (13.44.1)
2mL2
where n = 1, 2, 3, · · · So the possible energy values are E2 = 4E1 , E3 = 9E1 , E4 = 16E1 , · · · .
Possible answers are of the form
E n = n2 E 1 (13.44.2)
1 3 4 5 9 7
hψ|H|ψi = ~ω + ~ω + ~ω
14 2 14 2 14 2
3 20 63
= ~ω + ~ω + ~ω
28 28 28
43
= ~ω (13.45.6)
14
Answer: (B)
p2
E= (13.46.1)
2m
The de Broglie Relationship is
h
λ= (13.46.2)
p
Substituting eq. (13.46.1) into eq. (13.46.2), yields
h
λ= √ (13.46.3)
2mE
10
This question seems to be designed to trip you up and make you focus on irrelevant details.
E0 = E − V (13.46.4)
13.47 Entropy
Our container is sealed and thermall insulated. This means that the temperature
throughout the process remains the same. You may recall that the work done by an
isothermal process is
" #
Vf
W = nRT ln (13.47.1)
Vi
Where V f = 2Vi . As the temperature remains the same, there is no change in internal
energy. The First Law of Thermodynamics says
dU = −dW + dQ (13.47.2)
where dU = 0, so
dQ = dW (13.47.3)
The Entropy of a system is defined as
dQ
dS = (13.47.4)
T
eq. (13.47.4) becomes
nRT ln (2)
dS =
T
= nR ln 2 (13.47.5)
Answer: (B)
where
1
β=
kB T
g j = degeneracy for each state
So
2
− −
Z = 2e kB T + 2e kB T
−k T − k2T
=2 e B +e B (13.49.2)
Answer: (E)
At 20°C, we have
v1 = f1 λ (13.50.2)
v2 = 0.97v1 (13.50.3)
v2 = f2 λ
0.97v1 = f2 λ
f2 = 0.97 f1
= 427Hz (13.50.4)
Answer: (B)
13.51 Polarizers
The Law of Malus gives us the intensity of a beam of light after it passes through a
polarizer. This is given by
I = I0 cos2 θi (13.51.1)
Answer: (B)
V = a3 (13.52.1)
For a cube, each corner has 1/8 of an atom. In the BCC case, we also have an atom in
the center. So there are a total of two atoms in our BCC crystal’s primitive unit cell.
The volume of this primitive unit cell is V/2 = a3 /2.
Answer: (C)
13.54 Impulse
The Impulse is defines as Z
J= F · dt (13.54.1)
On a F vs. t graph, the Impulse will be the area under the curve.
The area under the graph is
2×2
J= = 2kg.m/s (13.54.2)
2
Answer: (C)
mv = 2mv0 cos θ
v
⇒ v0 = (13.55.1)
2 cos θ
Mg
mg
Archimedes’ Principle states that when an object is fully or partiall immersed in a fluid,
the upthrust acting on it is equal to the weight of fluid displaced. If we neglected the
weight of the balloon, we see from fig. 13.56.1, for the helium balloon to just float our
mass
U − Mg − mg = 0 (13.56.1)
where U is the upthrust, M is the mass of helium and m is the mass to be suspended.
Given the density of helium, ρHe = 0.18 kg m−3 and the density of air, ρair = 1.29 kg m−3 ,
we have
U = ρair Vg (13.56.2)
Answer: (D)
M dm
ρ= = (13.57.4)
V dV
Substituting this into eq. (13.57.3), we get
dV
F = vρ
dt
dx
= vρA
dt
= v ρA
2
(13.57.5)
Answer: (A)
F1 = e [E + v1 × B] = 0 (13.58.2)
E = Eî (13.58.3)
v = vk̂ (13.58.4)
B = Bĵ (13.58.5)
We recall that
ex ≈ 1 + x (13.65.2)
So we can simplify
e kT
hυ
1 + kT
hυ
hυ 2 = 2 (13.65.3)
hυ
e kT −1 kT
λC = λ1 + λ2 + · · · (13.66.5)
121.5r = 607.5
r≈5
12
∴v≈ c (13.71.2)
13
T1 − M1 g − M2 g = 0 (13.72.1)
T2 = M2 g (13.72.2)
After the string is cut, T1 is now zero. The spring, pulls on the top mass with the froce
due to its extension. Thus
M1 a = −M1 g − T2
= −M1 g − M2 g
⇒ a = −2g (13.72.3)
Answer: (E)
F = (MA + MB ) a (13.73.1)
MB g − µR = 0 (13.73.3)
Substituting eq. (13.73.1) and eq. (13.73.2) into the equation gives us
F
MB g − µMB =0
MA + MB
g (MA + MB )
⇒F= (13.73.4)
µ
We get F = 40g
Answer: (D)
d ∂L
!
= 2aq̈ (13.74.4)
dt ∂q̇
eq. (13.74.3) is equal to eq. (13.74.4)
2aq̈ = 4bq3
2b
q̈ = q3 (13.74.5)
a
Answer: (D)
cos θ sin θ 0
A = − sin θ cos θ 0 (13.75.1)
0 0 1
1
cos θ = (13.75.2)
2√
3
sin θ = (13.75.3)
2
Solving
θ = 60◦ (13.75.4)
As positive rotations are in the counter-clockwise direction
Answer: (E)
The degeneracies, g j , are the same for both states. So the ratio between bot states
becomes b +0.1
Za = e− kT
0.1
(13.77.2)
Zb = e− kT
Simplifying, this becomes
Za 0.1
= e− kT
Zb
= e−4 (13.77.3)
Answer: (E)
µ− = e− + υµ + υe (13.78.1)
Charge The muon is best described as a heavy electron. The neutrino on the other
hand has no charge. So the charges in the above reaction are
− 1 = −1 + 0 (13.78.2)
Mass This one is a bit trickier. We know the muon mass is about 200 times the
electron. Neutrinos on the other hand have a small but nonzero mass. Is it
enough to complete this reaction? Maybe
L2 = ` (` + 1) ~2 (13.81.1)
and the z-component of the angular momentum in terms of the magnetic quantum
number is
Lz = m` ~ (13.81.2)
We are told that
L2 = 6~2 (13.81.3)
Lz = −~ (13.81.4)
` (` + 1) = 6 (13.81.5)
m = −1 (13.81.6)
Answer: (B)
n=2 to n=1
and
`=0 to `=0
We see that this transition is forbidden12 .
`=1 to `=0
and
3 1
j= to j=
2 2
This leaves us with the transitions
∆` = −1 and ∆j = −1
1 1
j= to j=
2 2
This leaves us with the transition
∆j = 0
From the above, we see that transitions B & C are the only valid ones.
Answer: (D)
12
Not forbidden really, just highly unlikely.
13
∆j = 0 is a valid transition as long as you don’t have the j = 0 → j = 0 transition. The vector angular
momentum must change by one unit in a electronic transition and this can’t happen when j = 0 → j = 0
because there is no total angular momentum to re-orient to get a change of 1
ρL
R= (13.85.1)
A
We can use this to calculate the individual resistances of the two wires in series.
2L
R1 = ρ (13.85.2)
A
L
R2 = ρ (13.85.3)
2A
Circuit 14 The Potential Difference across R1 is
R1
∆V = V1 (13.85.4)
R1 + R2
V1 is the potential difference across R1 . To get the Potential at A, we let
V1 = 8.0 − V (13.85.5)
R1
8.0 − V = ∆V
R1 + R1
2
8.0 − V = (7)
3
1
V=3 (13.85.6)
3
Answer: (B)
B = B0 sin ωt (13.86.3)
14
Put Schematic of Resistors in Series here
Each loop has an induced EMF as described in eq. (13.86.5). So n loops will have a total
EMF of nE. We can use Ohm’s Law to find the current,
nE
I=
R
nωBr2 π
= cos ωt
R
= 250π × 10−2 cos ωt (13.86.6)
Answer: (E)
1 qQ
F= (13.87.2)
4π0 x2
So the force exerted on the charge is
1 qQ
F=
4π0 10d − d
2
qQ
= (13.87.3)
361π0 d2
Both charges q and Q are the same so the force is repulsive, i.e. acts to the left.
Answer: (A)
θ
µ0 I Rθ
Z
B= dB = ·
0 4π R2
µ0 I θ
= (13.88.3)
4π R
Answer: (C)
Ii = Id + Ic
1
= Md R2 + Mc R2
2
2 1
=R Md + Mc
2
= 400 · 2.52 (13.89.1)
The final Moment of Inertia is just that of a disc. Moment of Inertia deals with how a
mass is distributed and taking the child as a point mass means that his rotation can be
ignored. Thus
1
I f = Md R2
2
= 100 · 2.52 (13.89.2)
Ii ωi = I f ω f
Ii
⇒ ω f = ωi
If
140
= 2 = 2.8 rad/s (13.89.3)
100
Answer: (E)
ke = k1 + k2 (13.90.4)
Answer: (E)
The Volume of a sphere is V = 43 πr3 , so dV = 4πr2 . From the above equation we see
that
− 2r
dPr e a0
= · 4πr2 (13.93.2)
dr πa0 3
d2 Pr
We find the maxima and thus the most probable position by determining dr2
= 0.
Differentiating eq. (13.93.2) gives
d2 P 4 2 − a2r
− a2r
= 3 2r · e 0 − r · · e 0 = 0
2
(13.93.3)
dr2 a0 a0
1 q σ
E= = (13.95.1)
4πκ0 r 2 κ0
13.96 EM Radiation
Though the size of the sphere oscillates between R1 and R2 , the charge remains the
same. So the power radiated is zero.
Answer: (E)
θ0 = θ0 (λ) (13.97.3)
n = n(λ) (13.97.4)
Ei e−Ei /kT
P
i
hEi = P −E /kT (13.98.1)
e i
i
Answer: (A)
γ + e− −→ e− + e− + e+
13.99.1 Solution 1
Momentum and Energy is conserved during the process. The energy of our photon is,
E . Conservation of Momentum shows us
E 3me v
= r (13.99.1)
c 2
v
1−
c
The left hand side of the equation is the momentum of our photon and the right hand
side is the momentum of all our electrons17 . We assume that their momenta is the same
for all. Energy conservation gives us
3me c2
E + me c2 = r 2 (13.99.2)
v
1−
c
Dividing eq. (13.99.1) by eq. (13.99.2) gives us
E v
= (13.99.3)
E + me c 2 c
16
This question was covered as an example question here.
17
I am using electrons to indicate both electrons & positrons. As they have the same rest mass we can
treat them the same. We don’t have to pay attention to their charges.
E E E + me c2
= 3me c (13.99.4)
c E + me c2 2E me c2 + (me c2 )2
p
E = 4me c2 (13.99.5)
13.99.2 Solution 2
You may find the above a bit calculation intensive; below is a somewhat quicker
solution but the principle is exactly the same. We use the same equations in a different
form. The total relativistic energy before our collision is
Ei = E + me c2 (13.99.6)
E f = 3Ee
q
2
= 3 pe c + (me c2 )2 (13.99.8)
Thus we have q
2
E + me c = 3
2
pe c + (me c2 )2 (13.99.9)
As momentum is conserved, we can say
p
pe = (13.99.10)
3
where p is the momentum of the photon, which happens to be
E = pc (13.99.11)
Substituting eq. (13.99.11) and eq. (13.99.10) into eq. (13.99.9) gives us
E = 4me c2 (13.99.12)
h λc
λ= = (13.99.13)
4me c 4
where λc is the Compton Wavelength
mr λr
λg = (13.100.2)
mg
This becomes
(85865)(632.82)
λg =
100000
86000 · 630
≈
100000
= 541. · · · (13.100.3)
Answer: (B)
A.1 Constants
A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B) (A.2.1)
A × (B × C) = B (A · C) − C (A · B) (A.2.2)
276 Constants & Important Equations
A.2.2 Product Rules
∇ f g = f ∇g + g ∇ f
(A.2.3)
∇ (A · B) = A × (∇ × B) + B × (∇ × A) + (A · ∇) B + (B · ∇) A (A.2.4)
∇ · f A = f (∇ · A) + A · ∇ f
(A.2.5)
∇ · (A × B) = B · (∇ × A) − A · (∇ × B) (A.2.6)
∇ × f A = f (∇ × A) − A × ∇ f
(A.2.7)
∇ × (A × B) = (B · ∇) A − (A · ∇) B + A (∇ · B) − B (∇ · A) (A.2.8)
∇ · (∇ × A) = 0 (A.2.9)
∇ × ∇f = 0
(A.2.10)
∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇ (∇ · A) − ∇2 A (A.2.11)
A.3 Commutators
A.3.1 Lie-algebra Relations
[A, A] = 0 (A.3.1)
[A, B] = −[B, A] (A.3.2)
[A, [B, C]] + [B, [C, A]] + [C, [A, B]] = 0 (A.3.3)
[1] Stephen Gasiorowicz Paul M. Fishbane and Stephen T. Thornton. Physics for Scien-
tists and Engineers with Modern Physics, chapter 24.2, page 687. Prentice Hall, third
edition, 2005.
[2] Wikipedia. Maxwell’s equations — wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2009. [Online;
accessed 21-April-2009].
[3] David J. Griffiths. Introduction to Electrodyanmics, chapter 5.3.4, page 232. Prentice
Hall, third edition, 1999.
Index
Wave Equation
GR8677 Q04, 80
Wave function
GR8677 Q28, 93
X-Rays
GR8677 Q26, 91