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Capacitive Transducer

Definition: The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure and


other physical quantities. It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for
operation. The capacitive transducer works on the principle of variable capacitances. The
capacitance of the capacitive transducer changes because of many reasons like overlapping of
plates, change in distance between the plates and dielectric constant.
The capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates. These plates are separated by the
dielectric medium which is either air, material, gas or liquid. In the normal capacitor the
distance between the plates are fixed, but in capacitive transducer the distance between them
are varied.

The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance for converting the
mechanical movement into an electrical signal. The input quantity causes the change of the
capacitance which is directly measured by the capacitive transducer.

The capacitors measure both the static and dynamic changes. The displacement is also
measured directly by connecting the measurable devices to the movable plate of the
capacitor. It works on with both the contacting and non-contacting modes.

The working principle of a capacitive transducer is variable capacitance. As per its


structure, these are having two parallel metal pates which are maintaining the distance
between them. In between them, dielectric medium (such as air) can be filled. So, the
distance between these two metal plates and positions of the plates can change the
capacitance. So, variable capacitance is the principle of these transducers. The basic
difference between the normal capacitors and capacitive transducers is, the capacitor plates
are constant in normal capacitors wherein these transducers, capacitor plates are the movable
condition.

capacitive-transducer
The capacitance of the variable capacitor can be measured by this formula.
Capacitive-transducer-formula
In this formula:

C indicates the capacitance of the variable capacitance


εo indicates the permittivity of free space
εr indicates the relative permittivity
A indicates the area of the plates
D indicates the distance between the plates

So according to the formula, the variable capacitance value is dependent on four important
parameters. They are the distance between the plates of the variable capacitor, occupying area
of the plates, permittivity of the free space, relative permittivity and dielectric material. These
parameters can be varying the capacitance value of the variable capacitor.

 Change in dielectric constant can vary the capacitance of this transducer.


 The area of the plates of these transducers can vary its capacitance value.
 Distance between the plates can vary the transducers’ capacitance value. This method
is mostly used. In this method, the dielectric medium and area of the plates are kept
constant. When the plates are moving then the distance is varied and this results in the
changing of the capacitance of the capacitive transducer.
These above three methods are used to change the capacitance value of this transducer.

Capacitive Circuit Diagram


The above circuit diagram indicates the equivalent circuit diagram of a capacitive transducer.
The difference between the variable capacitor to the normal capacitor is, the capacitance of
the variable capacitor is varied whereas in a normal capacitor, the capacitance value is fixed
& it cannot be changed.

capacitive-transducer-circuit-diagram
Types of Capacitive Transducer
According to the structure of the capacitive transducer, they are four types which are
discussed below. They are
 Parallel plate capacitance with rectangular plates.
 Cylindrical capacitor transducer.
 Semi circular parallel plates.
 Change in dielectric between parallel plates.
Parallel Plate Capacitance with Rectangular Plates
This is also called a flat type of capacitive transducer. In this type of transducer, one plate is
fixed and the other plate can be moved. By this variation, the distance d or area A can be
varied. This results in the capacitance value of this transducer.

flat-type-capacitive-
transducer
If area A varies and the capacitance value C would be when the plates are having the distance
of x, then

C= ε(A-wx)/d
Cylindrical Capacitive Transducer

cylindrical-capacitive-transducer
Considering the length of the cylinder is to be L, then the capacitance

cylindrical-capacitive-equation
Semi Circular Capacitive Transducer
This type will provide the highest capacitance value when the two capacitive plates are
overlapped to each other. These are preferable when the circuit requires the maximum
capacitance.
circular-parallel-plate-
diagram
In this type capacitive transducer, area A = πr^2/2  and the capacitance C=ε πr^2/2d
Change in Dielectric Medium between Parallel Plates
When the dielectric medium varies between the two parallel plates of this transducer, that
also varies the capacitance of the transducer.

Therefore capacitance C= εo (ε1*L1*w + ε2*L2*w)/d


Here – L1 and L2 are indicating the length of the 1st and 2nd plates length.

W indicates the width of the plate

D indicates the distance between the plates

Advantages of Capacitor Transducers


 
1. It produces an accurate frequency response to both static and dynamic measurements.
2. Require small forces to operate them
3. Loading effects are minimum because of high input impedance.
4. Extremely sensitive device
5. They require small power to operate.
6. It is useful in applications where stray magnetic fields affects the inductive transducers.
 
Disadvantages of Capacitor Transducers
 
1. Stray capacitance may arise. So metallic parts of transducers must be insulated from each
other.
2. An increase or decrease in temperature to a high level will change the accuracy of the
device.
3. The leads connecting the transducer cause errors or distortion in signals.
 Applications
The Applications of the capacitive transducer are
 This transducer has a wide range of applications in determining the quantities like
temperature, displacement, and pressure, etc. Capacitive transducer applications are listed
below.
 These transducers have applications in the field of linear and angular displacement
with the sensitivity factor.
 One of the best applications of this transducer is to find the humidity level. As the
humidity value changes the capacitance value of this transducer also changes. By this
value, we can measure the change in humidity.
 The variable capacitance pressure transducer is applicable to find the pressure
variations by using the variable capacitance.

Potentiometer – Working, Circuit Diagram

“A potentiometer is a very simple instrument which can measure and compare potential
differences accurately”. Potential difference is usually measured by an instrument called a
voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected across the two points in circuits between which
potential  difference is to be measured. It is necessary that the resistance of the voltmeter be
large compared to the circuit resistance across which the voltmeter is connected. Otherwise
an appreciable current will flow through the voltmeter which will alter the circuit current and
the potential difference to be measured. Thus the voltmeter can read the correct potential
difference only when it does not draw any current from the circuit across which it is
connected. An ideal voltmeter would have an infinite resistance.

However, there are some potential measuring instrument such as digital voltmeter and
cathode ray oscilloscope which practically do not draw any current from the circuit because
of their large resistance and are thus very accurate potential measuring instrument. But these
instruments are very expensive and are difficult to use. A very simple instrument which can
measure and compare potential differences accurately is a potentiometer.

Now that we have had an introduction about the potentiometer, you might have a curiosity of
knowing how it looks like. Figure 1 shows some practical pots, while figure 2 shows the
standard symbol of the same.

Potentiometer
 

Potentiometer Symbol

It is represented by a zigzag line with an arrow pointing inwards at the center.

How does it work?


As already discussed, a potentiometer has three terminals. When connected to a circuit, the
two fixed terminals are connected to the ends of the resistive elements while the third
terminal is connected to the wiper.

In the circuit diagram shown  below,  the terminals of the potentiometer are marked 1, 2 and
3. The voltage supply is connected across terminals 1 and 3, positive lead to terminal one
while negative lead to terminal three.  The terminal 2 is connected to the  wiper.

Potentiometer Circuit Diagram


 

Now a closer look into the figure, we can see that at the current position of wiper, there are
two resistive paths just like the resistor is split into two resistors. Out of these two resistors,
the one having longer resistive path will have a higher resistance. This is due to the fact that
resistance of a resistor depends on its length (since R=ρ). Higher the length, higher is the
resistance, provided the material of the resistor and its cross-sectional area remains same.
For simplicity, lets name the two resistors, R1 and R2 (Refer figure). The wiper voltage is
actually the voltage across R2. The circuit now looks like a voltage divider, where the output
voltage is given the equation:
Vout =  {R2/(R1+R2)} x V; where V= supply voltage.
So clearly, if we want to change the output voltage, we can just change the value of R2, by
sliding the wiper towards the terminal 3. When the wiper is at terminal 1, R1 becomes zero
and the voltage across the wiper is same as the supply voltage.
Also, when the wiper is at terminal 3, the effective resistive path for R2 is zero, hence the
resistance R2  is zero.
The working principle can be made clearer, by solving the example below

EXAMPLE 1:
A resistor, R1 of 150Ω is connected in series with a 50 Ω resistor, R2 acrosss a 10 Volt supply
ohm resistor as shown . Calculate the total series resistance, the current flowing through the
series circuit and the voltage drop across the 50 ohm resistor.

Solution:
Since the two resistance are in series, total resistance R = R1 +R2 = 200Ω. The current
flowing through the circuit will be I = V/R =10/200 = 0.05A. Voltage drop across R2 = 50Ω
can be found by voltage division rule, that is
VR2= 10 × (50/200)= 2.5 V
Here we see if we change the value of either R1 or R2the value of the voltage across any one
of the resistors will be in the range of 0-10V, provided that the total resistance of the circuit
remains constant.
This very concept is the principle behind the working of a potentiometer. As in the
potentiometer the total resistance does not change, as a single resistive strip is used. The split
of resistor is done by the wiper. And therefore the resistance values vary as the position of the
wiper varies.

Now that we have discussed the working principle, lets now learn how this passive device is
constructed.
Construction of a Potentiometer

The potentiometer essentially has a resistive element over which a moving terminal, the
wiper slides. Any potentiometer is constructed of the following parts:
1. The terminals: As already discussed, the potentiometer has three terminals, two fixed
and one variable.
2. The resistive element: This part is the main part of the device and it is connected to
the two fixed terminals. It is one of the decisive aspects when it comes to the cost of the
potentiometer, and also can govern aspects of the performance of the component
including the power dissipation capability and noise generated. The resistive element
used can be of the following types:
 Carbon Composition: This is made from carbon granules and is one of the most
common types of resistive material used, because of its low cost. It also has a
reasonably low noise and lesser wear than other naterials. However, it is not that
accurate in its operation.
 Wire wound – These are basically Nichrome wires and are wound over an insulating
substrate. They are mostly used in high power applications and last really long. They
are precise but have limited resolution.
 Conductive plastic: Often used in high end audio applications, they have very good
resolution but are really costly, and can be used in low power applications only.
 Cermet: A very stable type of material, it has a low temperature coefficient and is
highly resistant to temperature.  However, it has a short life and can burn a hole in your
pocket.
 The wiper: This is the one terminal that slides over a resistive strip to make an
electrical contact. It may be a rotary wiper that is like a half an arc, that covers over ¾
of a circle or a linear wiper.
Angular position of the rotary wiper in degrees is given by the formula:

θ = (Vout/Vsupply)
1. The shaft: In case of a rotary wiper type potentiometer, a shaft is present over which
the wiper is fabricated.
2. Casting: All of the components is housed inside a casting, to prevnt it from external
physical damages

Potentiometer Construction
 
What is RVDT?
Definition: Rotary Variable Differential Transformer or RVDT is an inductive transducer
which converts angular displace to an electrical signal. Unlike LVDT, the input of this
transducer is differential value of rotary variable i.e. angular rotation (dƟ) to generate voltage
output.

Construction:
Like every transformer, RVDT has two types of winding i.e. Primary winding and Secondary
winding. The primary and secondary winding are wound on a former. There are two
secondary winding having equal number of turns. These winding are placed on either side of
the primary winding identically. A cam shaped magnetic core made of soft iron is connected
to a shaft. This magnetic core can be thus be rotated in between the winding. Carefully
observe the figure below to understand the construction and working principle

The construction of LVDT and RVDT is almost same. The only difference in their
construction is that in RVDT, the core is cam shaped and may be rotated between the
windings by means of a shaft. You should read LVDT – Construction and Working
Principle to understand the constructional detail.
Working Principle:
The reluctance seen by the primary mmf changes with the rotation of cam shaft. This results
in change in the magnetic flux with rotation of the cam shaft. Due to this change in magnetic
flux with rotation of cam, the flux linkage of secondary winding also changes. Therefore, as
per the transformer action, an emf is induced in secondary winding. The magnitude of
induced emf will depend on the rate of change of rotation. The more the rate of change of
rotation, the more will be the rate of change of flux w.r.t. and hence more emf will be
induced.
As can be seen from the figure, the two secondary winding are connected in series but in
phase opposition. This is done to get a single output voltage from the transducer. If Es1,
Es2 and E0 be the emf induced in the two secondary winding S1 & S2 and output voltage
respectively then
E0 = Es1 – Es2
Under normal condition of RVDT, the flux linkage of both the secondary winding are same
due to their symmetrical placing with respect to primary and core. Therefore, the induced emf
Es1 and Es2 are equal and hence output voltage E0 of the transducer in such condition is zero.
Therefore, normal position of RVDT is called NULL position.
Clockwise rotation of cam causes an increasing voltage Es2 in one of the one secondary
winding while counter clockwise rotation leads to increase in voltage Es1 of another
secondary winding. Thus the direction as well as magnitude of angular rotation can be
ascertained from the magnitude and phase of transducer output voltage. Phase of transducer
output voltage means whether (Es1 – Es2) is positive or negative. In case of anti-clockwise
rotation, the value of Es1 will be more than that of Es2 and hence (Es1 – Es2) will be positive. In
this case we say that output voltage E0 is in phase with the primary voltage. With the same
logic, when cam is rotated in clockwise direction, the output voltage will be negative i.e. out
of phase with primary voltage.

Case 1: When the core is at Null position.

When the core is at the null position then the flux linkage with both the secondary windings
will be the same. So the induced emf (Es1 & Es2) in both the windings will be the same.
Hence the Net differential output voltage E0 = Es1 – Es2 will be zero (E0 = Es1 – Es2 = 0).
It shows that no displacement of the core.

Case 2: When the core rotates in the clockwise direction.

When the core of RVDT rotates in the clockwise direction. Then, in this case, the flux
linkage with S1 will be more as compared to S2. This means the emf induced in S1 will be
more than induced emf in S2. Hence Es1>Es2 and Net differential output voltage E0 = Es1 –
Es2 will be positive. This means the output voltage E0 will be in phase with the primary
voltage.

Case 3: When the core rotates in the anti-clockwise direction.

When the core of RVDT rotates in the anti-clockwise direction. Then, in this case, the flux
linkage with S2 will be more as compared to S1. This means the emf induced in S2 will be
more than induced emf in S1. Hence Es2>Es1 and Net differential output voltage E0 = Es1 –
Es2 will be negative. This means the output voltage E0 will be in phase opposition
(180 degrees out of phase) with the primary voltage.
Advantages of RVDT
Following are the main advantages of RVDT:

 High Accuracy.
 Compact and strong construction.
 The consistency of RVDT is high.
 Long life span.
 Very high Resolution.
 Low cost.
 High durability
 Linearity is excellent.
 The performance is repeatable.
 Easy to handle

Disadvantages of RVDT
The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following.

 Since the output of RVDT is linear ( about +40 degrees or -40 degrees), So it restricts
its usability.
 The contact among the measuring exteriors as well as the nozzle is not possible for all
time.

Applications of RVDT
RVDT is most commonly is used as a sensor nowadays, also it doesn't experience any
functional problem due to its contactless structure. Hence the main applications of RVDT
include the following.

 Actuators for controlling flight as well as engine.


 Fuel valve as well as hydraulics.
 Brake with a cable system.
 Modern machine tools.
 Nose wheel steering systems.
 Weapon and Torpedo system.
 Engine fuel control system
 Aircraft and avionics.
 Engines bleed air systems.
 Robotics.

Selecting a Displacement Transducer

The following factors should be considered when selecting a displacement transducer:

1. Measurement range
2. Armature type
3. AC-AC versus DC-DC
4. Environment

Measurement range: Displacement transducers are available with ranges from 0,25 mm to


470 mm [±.01 in to ±18.5 in]. A displacement transducer with a ±470 mm [±18.5 in] range
can be used in one direction to measure up to 939,8 mm [37 in]. If accuracy is important, the
range selected should not be any larger than necessary.

Armature type: The three available armature types are free unguided armatures, captive
guided spring return armatures and captive guided armatures.

1. Free unguided armatures are recommended for applications in which the target


being measured moves parallel to the transducer body, as well as, those that
require frequent or continuous measurements. This armature type is often well
suited for dynamic applications. When using a free unguided armature, the
armature and the displacement transducer body must be mounted so that their
correct relative positions are maintained. This type of displacement transducer
features an armature/threaded push rod assembly that is completely separable from
the displacement transducer body. Since the free unguided armature involves no
mechanical coupling between the armature and the displacement transducer body,
there are no springs or bearings to fatigue. This unit often has a virtually unlimited
fatigue life.
2. Captive guided, spring return armatures are often well suited for those
applications requiring the measurement of multiple targets or applications in which
the target moves transverse to the armature and changes in a structure’s surface are
being measured. In this type of displacement transducer, the armature moves over
bearings in the displacement transducer body. The armature is biased by an
internal spring so that the ball-ended probe bears against the surface of the target
whose displacement is being measured. The displacement transducer is held in
position by clamping the body alone. The armature is not attached to the target
being measured.
3. Captive guided armatures are designed for applications requiring a longer
working range. The armature moves freely over machined bearings but cannot be
removed from the body. The displacement transducer body has a threaded
mounting hole and the armature is attached to the structure being measured. The
armature end is threaded so that special adapters such as spherical bearings or
rollers can be attached.

AC-AC versus DC-DC: The major advantages of DC-DC displacement transducers are the
ease of installation, the ability to operate from dry cell batteries in remote locations and lower
system cost. AC-AC displacement transducer advantages include enhanced accuracy and a
smaller body size. An AC-AC displacement transducer can be equipped with more
sophisticated electronics, such as Honeywell’s SC instrumentation. The SC instrument
provides an AC power supply, a phase sensitive demodulator, a scaling amplifier and DC
output. The AC-AC displacement transducer system has less residual noise at minimum
readings than DC-DC units that use internal electronics.

Environment: For applications involving very high humidity or requiring submersion of the


displacement transducer, a submersible displacement transducer is required. Submersible
units are available for either AC-AC or DC-DC operation and with free unguided or captive
spring, return armatures. The unit selected should also operate and survive at the
temperatures dictated by the application. Note that AC-AC units will operate at higher
temperatures (up to 125 °C [257 °F]) than the DC-DC units (up to 70 °C [158 °F]) that have
internal electronics.
Side loads: Side loads must be kept to a minimum since they will cause rubbing between the
armature and the displacement transducer body. This friction will cause excessive wear of
bearings and parts and in extreme cases, the armature may bend. At a minimum, side loads
will reduce the unit’s life and accuracy.

Mounting blocks: Mounting blocks come in two sizes. The large size (order code AA937)
accommodates displacement transducers with an outside diameter of 20,6 mm [0.80 in]. The
small size (order code AA945) is for units with outside diameters of 9,5 mm [0.37 in] or 8
mm [0.32 in]. The mounting blocks are designed to be bolted to a flat surface. The sensor is
clamped with a captive cap head screw. Two mounting cap screws are furnished. Both units
are made from glass-filled nylon and have an operating temperature of -29 °C to 110 °C [-20
°F to 230°F]. Strokes up to 10,16 mm [0.4 in] require one mounting block, strokes over 12,7
mm [0.5 in] require two mounting blocks.

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