Forging of Specific Metals and Alloys 1 863

located in front of the container that contains
the die and the backer
0 A die backer, which is a circular steel block
placed behind an extrusion die for support. The
hole in the backer is slightly larger than the
hole in the die to allow for clearance of the
extrusion.
0 One or more bolsters, which are circular steel
blocks used adjacent to the backer to reinforce
the die and backer against billet pressure
A tool carrier (die slide or housing)
0 the hot billet is pushed into the container liner
The die itself must have high toughness com-
bined with resistance to wear and softening at
elevated temperatures. The other components of
the die assembly should be high in both strength
and toughness.
The mandrel is a rod used to produce the cav-
ity in a hollow shape while it is being extruded.
Mandrels should be high in hot hardness, abra-
sion resistance, fracture toughness, and yield
strength.
Press Operation. With the ram retracted, a hot
billet or slug is placed in the container. A dummy
block is inserted between the ram and billet; then
and advanced under high pressure against the die.
The metal is squeezed through the die opening,
assuming the desired shape, and is severed from
the remaining stub by sawing or shearing.
SELECTED REFERENCES
0 T. Altan et al., Ed., Forging Equipment, Materials. und
Practices. Battelle-Columbus Laboratories, Metalworking
Division, 1973
0 T.G. Byrer, Ed., Forging Handbook, Forging Industry Asso-
ciation and American Society for Metals, 1984
0 D. Lange, Ed., Handbook of Metal Forming. McGraw-Hill,
1985
0 Forging Processes, An Internet publication with executive
summary, Forging Institute of America, 1997
0 Hot Forging, Tool and Manufacturing Engineers' Hand-
book. Vol 2,Forming. 4th ed., C. Wick, J.T. Benedict, and
R.F. Veilleux, Ed., Society of Manufacturing Engineers,
1984
0 Open Die Forging Manual. 3rd ed., Forging Institute of
America, 1992

Forging of Specific Metals and Alloys

SPECIFIC PROCESSING CHARACTERIS- state of stress in a given deformation process signifi- strength at forging temperature determine forge-
TICS and forging-related properties of commonly cantly influences forgeability. Upset forging at large ability. Low-carbon steels are the most forgeable,
forged families of metals and alloys are reviewed in reductions, for instance, produces cracking at the partly because they can be forged at higher tem-
this article. Except for open-die forging, materials outside fibers of the billet, at points of excessive bar- peratures than high-carbon steels, and partly be-
best suited for forging require low strength (or flow reling where tensile stresses develop. Certain extru- cause of their low strength at elevated tempera-
stress) to reduce pressures in the dies. This require- sion-type forging operations create axial tensile tures. As carbon and alloy contents increase, the
ment is most important for complex parts requiring stresses in the deformation zone, causing center- strength of the metal at any temperature in-
a high degree of metal displacement. Materials also burst cracking. Generally compressive support is creases, as do the forging load requirements. Fig-
are rated according to forgeability-the amount of needed forthose portions of a less forgeable material ure 2 shows the effects of steel composition on
deformation possible before failure (Fig. I ) . Both that are normally exposed to the tensile and shear the forging loads and forging pressures required
these characteristics vary with forging temperatures stresses. to effect upset reductions of increasing severity
at different forging temperatures.
(Table I). The forgeability of metals at various temperatures
Microalloyed forging steels often can be forged
The forging material influences the design of the can be evaluated by using such tests as torsion, ten-
at lower temperatures than conventional carbon
forging as well as the parameters for the forgingpro- sion, and compression tests. In all of these tests, the or alloys steels. The combination of metal dis-
cess. Ultimately, materials are rated according to the amount of deformation prior to failure of the speci- placement and heating during forging, followed
metallurgical characteristics of the billet material men is an indication of forgeability at the tempera- by controlled cooling, strengthens the workpiece
and the temperatures, strains, strain rates, and ture and deformation rate used during that particular thermomechanically. This eliminates the need for
stresses that develop in the deforming material. test. subsequent quenching and tempering.
In general, the forgeability of metals increases
with increasing temperature. However, temperature
increases produce grain growth. In some alloy sys-
Forging of Carbon and Alloy Steels Heating Steel Forgings
tems, forgeability decreases with increasing grain Forgeability varies considerably among the Maximum safe forging temperatures for carbon
size. In other alloys, forgeability is influenced by the various grades of carbon and alloy steels. Carbon and alloy steels, as shown in Table 2, show that
characteristics of second-phase compounds. The and alloy content, forging temperature, and forging temperature decreases as carbon content
increases. Higher forging temperatures increase
plasticity of steel, which improves forging (see
Increasing flow strength or forging pressure Fig. 2) and reduces die wear; however, the dan-
Table 1 Classification of alloys in order of
ger of overheating and excessive grain coarsening
increasing forging difficulty is increased. If a steel that has been heated to
Approximate forging- its maximum safe temperature is forged rapidly
temwrature ranee
and with large reduction, the energy transferred
Alloy group "C O F
to the steel during forging can substantially in-
Aluminum alloys (least 400-550 750- 1020 crease its temperature, thus causing overheating.
difficult)
Magnesium alloys 250-350 480-660
Copper alloys 600-900 I 1 10-1650 Table 2 Maximum safe forging
Carbon and low-alloy steels 850-1 150 1560-2100 temperatures for carbon and alloy steels
Martensitic stainless steels I 100- 1250 2010-2280
Maraging steels IIOO-1250 2010-2280 of various carbon contents
Austenitic stainless steels 1 100- 1250 2010-2280 Maximum safe forging temperature
Nickel alloys 1000- I 150 1830-2100 Carbon steels Alloy steels
Semiaustenitic PH stainless 1100-1250 20 10-2280 Carbon
cohtent, % "C "F "C "F
steels
Titanium alloys 700-950 1290- 1740 0.10 1290 2350 1260 2300
Iron-base superalloys 1050-1180 1920-2160 0.20 1275 2325 I245 2275
Cobalt-base superalloys 1180- 1250 2160-2280 0.30 I260 2300 I230 2250
Niobium alloys 950- I 150 1740-2100 0.40 I245 2275 1230 2250
Tantalum alloys 1050-1350 1920-2460 0.50 1230 2250 I230 2250
Molybdenum alloys 1150-1350 2 1OO-2460 0.60 1205 2200 1205 2200
Nickel-base superalloys 1050- I200 1920-2190 0.70 I I90 2175 I175 2150
Fig. 1 Generalized diagram of influence of forgeability
Tungsten alloys (most 1200-1300 2190-2370 0.90 I 150 2100 ... ...
and flow strength on die filling. Shaded arrow
difficult) 1.10 Ill0 202s
denotes increasing ease of die filling. -
864 I Forging LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view

1020 carbon steel 4340 olloy steel A 6 tool s t e e l The effect of carbon content on forging tem-
I60 perature is the same for most tool steels as for
I40 carbon and alloy steels. However, the complex
alloy compositions of some tool steels have dif-
.p 120
0
ferent effects on forging temperature. Table 3
0 I00 lists forging temperatures for tool steels.
0 Heating Time. For any steel, the heating time
v- 80
must be sufficient to bring the center of the forg-
-0
cn 60 ing stock to forging temperature. A longer heat-
- ing time than necessary creates excessive decarb-
c" 40
LL urization, scale, and grain growth. For stock up
20 to 75 mm (3 in.) diameter, the heating time per
0 inch of section thickness should be no more than
Z 50 5 min for low-carbon and medium-carbon steels
a
or no more than 6 min for low-alloy steel. For
0 40
0 stock 75 to 230 mm (3 to 9 in.) diameter, heating
2- 30 time should be no more than 15 min per inch of
P thickness. For high-carbon steels (0.50% C and
= 20
v) higher), and for highly alloyed steels, slower
P
a 10 rates are required, and sometimes preheating at
F O temperatures from 650 to 760 "C (1200 to 1400
p 0 10 2 0 3 0 40 5 0 60 7 0 0 10 2 0 30 40 5 0 60 70 "F) is necessary to prevent cracking.
0
LL Upset reduction. % Upset reduction, % Upset reduction. % Finishing temperature should always be well
above the transformation temperature of the steel
Fig. 2 Effects of compositions of three ditferent steels on loads and pressures required for upset reductions of increasing
being forged to prevent cracking of the steel and
severity at various temperatures
excessive wear of the dies. Temperatures should
be low enough to prevent excessive grain growth.
Table 3 Forcing temDeratures for tool steels For most carbon and alloy steels, 980 to 1095
~
"C (1800 to 2000 "F) is a suitable range for finish
Forging temperatures
forging.
Preheat slonly to: Start forging at(a): Do not forge below:
Steels "C "F QC "F "(' "F
~~ ~ ~ ~~

Water-hardeningtool steels
WI to w5 790 1450 980- 1095(b) 1800-2000(bj 815 I500 Cooling Steel Forgings
Shock-resistingtool steels
Cooling in still air or in factory tote boxes
s1, s2, s4, s5 815 I500 1040-1 150 1900-2 100 870 I600
Oil-hardeningcold work tool steels usually is satisfactory for carbon-steel or low-
01 815 I500 980- 1065 1800- 1950 845 1550 alloy steel forgings with cross sections no greater
02 815 I500 980- 1040 1800-1900 845 1550 than approximately 64 mm (2v2 in.). Larger forg-
07 815 1500 980- I095 1800-2000 870 I600 ings can flake when air cooled. Flakes (also
Medium-alloy air-hardeningcold work tool steels
called "shatter cracks" or "snowflakes") are
A2. A4. A5. A6 870 1600 1010- 1095 1850-2000 900 1650
High-carbon,high-chromium cold work tool steels short, discontinuous internal fissures attributed to
DI to D6 900 I650 980-1095 1800-2000 900 I650 stresses produced by localized transformation and
Chromium hot work tool steels decreased solubility of hydrogen during cooling.
H I I , H12, HI3 900 1650 1065-1175 1950-2150 900 I650 Flaking indicates the need for cooling to at least
H14, H I 6 900 1650 1065-1175 1950-2150 925 I700 175 "C (350 OF) in a furnace or by burying the
HI5 845 I550 1040-1150 1900-2 100 900 1650
Tungsten hot work tool steels piece in sand or slag. An alternative treatment
H20, H21, H22 870 I600 1095- I205 2000-2200 900 1650 for large forgings of alloy steels (such as 4340)
H24, H25 900 1650 1095- I205 2000-2200 925 I700 is to cool in air to approximately 540 "C (1000
H26 900 1650 I095 - 1 205 2000-2200 955 1750 OF), followed by isothermal annealing at 650 "C
Molybdenum high speed tool steels ( I 200 OF).
MI, MI0 815 1500 1040- I 150 1900-2100 925 I700
M2 815 I500 1065-1 175 1950-2 I50 925 I700 Alloy tool steel forgings should always be
M4 815 1500 1095-1175 2000-2 150 925 I700 cooled slowly, as is recommended previously for
M30, M34, M35, M36 815 1500 1065-1175 1950-2150 955 1750 larger forgings of carbon and alloy steels. Micro-
Tungsten high speed tool steels alloyed steels may require "controlled cooling,"
TI 870 1600 1065- I205 1950-2200 955 I750 in which time and temperature are controlled to
T2, T4, T8 870 1600 1095- I205 2000-2200 955 I750
T3 870 I600 1095%I230 2000-2250 955 1750 produce a specific microstructure, and properties,
T5, T6 870 1600 1095- 1205 2000-2200 980 I800 in the finished workpiece.
Low-alloy special-purpose tool steels
L1, L2, L6 815 1500 1040-1 150 1900-2 100 845 1550
L3 815 I500 980- I095 1800-2000 845 1550
Carbon-tungsten special-purposetool steels Forging of Stainless Steels
F2, F3 815 1500 980- 1095 1800-2000 900 1650
Low-carbon mold steels Stainless steels, based on forging pressure and
PI ... .. 1205- I290 2200-2350 1040 I900 load requirements, are considerably more diffi-
P3 ... ... 1040- I 205 1900-2200 845 1550 cult to forge than carbon or alloy steel, primarily
P4 870 I600 1095-1230 2000-2250 900 1650
P20 815 1500 1065-1230 1950-2250 815 I500 because of the greater strength of stainless steels
Other alloy tool steel at elevated temperatures and the limitations on
6G 815 1500 1040-1150 I 900-2 100 845 1550 the maximum temperatures at which stainless
steels can be forged without incurring micro-
(a) The temperature at which to start forging is given as a range, the higher side of which should be used for large sections structural damage. Forging load requirements and
and heavy or rapid reductions, and the lower side for smaller sections and lighter reductions. As the alloy content of the steel
increases, the time of soaking at forging temperature increases proportionately. Likewise, as the alloy content increases, it forgeability vary widely among stainless steels of
becomes more necessary to cool slowly from the forging temperature. With very high alloy steels, such as high speed steels different types and compositions; the most diffi-
and air-hardening steels, this slow cooling is imperative in order to prevent cracking and to leave the steel in a semisoft condition. cult alloys to forge are those with the greatest
Either furnace cooling of the steel or burying it in an insulating medium (such as lime, mica, or diatomaceow earth) is satisfactory. strength at elevated temperatures. Figure 1 com-
(bj Forging temperatures for water-hardening tool steels vary with carbon content. The following temperatures are recommended: pares the forgeability of various types of stainless
for 0.60 to 1.25% C , the range given; for 1.25 to 1.40% C, the low side of the ranee given.
steels.
 Forging of Specific Metals and Alloys / 865

Forging Characteristics
Martensitic Stainless Steels. Forging charac-
teristics of high-chromium martensitic stainless
steels are similar to those of low-alloy steels.
Because they are higher in chromium content,
however, the forging-load requirements for these
stainless grades are 30 to 50% higher. Maximum
forging temperatures are generally 55 to 165 "C
(100 to 300 OF) lower than those for low-alloy
steels. Figure 3 gives recommended forging tem-
perature ranges for various stainless steels. Table
4 lists forging temperatures and relative forging
loads (relative to 4340 low-alloy steel) for var-
ious martensitic alloys. Martensitic stainless
steels are characterized by high hardenability.
Therefore they are subject to cracking and must
be cooled slowly from the forging temperature.
Austenitic stainless steels are more difficult
to forge than carbon and low-alloy steels. They
require greater loads, and their forging-tempera-
ture ranges are narrower. For example, Fig. 4
gives forging pressures for type 304 stainless
steel as a function of the percentage of upset
reduction. Temperature has a marked effect on
the pressure required for any given percentage of
upset, and at any given forging temperature and
percentage of upset, type 304 stainless steel re-
quires at least twice the pressure required for
1020 steel.
Figure 5(a) further emphasizes the effects of
temperature on forging pressure. These data,
Type of
stainless steel
201, 202, 301,
302, 302B. 303,
304. 305. 308.
321, 347 __
309, 310
~
based on an upset reduction of 109'0, show that
at 760 "C (1400 "F) type 304 stainless steel re-
quires only half as much pressure as A-286 (an
iron-base, heat-resistant alloy), although the
curves for forging pressure for the two metals
converge at I100 "C (2000 OF). However, at a
forging temperature of 1100 "C (2000 OF), the
pressure required for a 10% upset reduction on
type 304 is more than twice that required for a
carbon steel (1020) and approximately 60% more
than that required for 4340 alloy steel. Differ-
ences in forgeability, based on percentage of
upset reduction and forging pressure for type
304, 1020, and 4340 at the same temperature
(980 "C, or 1800 OF) are plotted in Fig. S(b).
Forging temperatures are usually adjusted
downward for forging operations requiring small
amounts of deformation. For example, typical
forging temperatures for type 304 stainless steel
for various operations would he as follows:
Operations
Severe reductions (ingot breakdown,
roll forging, drawing, blocking, back
extrusion, etc.)
Moderate reductions (finish forging,
upsetting, etc.)
Slight reductions (coining, restriking,
end upsetting, etc.)
Similar adjustments are made for other austenitic
grades. The temperatures used for slight reduc-
tions seldom exceed 1150 "C (2100 OF), regard-
less of the alloy being forged.
Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels. Be-
cause of the combination of lower forging tem-
perature and greater stiffness, forging of precipi-
tation-hardening stainless steels requires loads 30
(100 OF) or more to prevent additional delta fer-
rite from forming at higher temperature. This is
particularly critical for forging in high-energy-
rate machines.
Process Variables
Heating for Forging. The thermal conductivity
of stainless steels is lower than that of carbon or
low-alloy steels. Therefore, stainless steels take
longer to reach the forging temperature. How-
ever, they should not be soaked at forging tem-
perature, but should be forged as soon as possible
after reaching it. The exact time required for
heating stock of a given thickness to the estab-
lished forging temperature depends on the type
of furnace used.
Gas-fired and electrically heated furnaces are
used with equal success for heating the stock.
The gas should be free from hydrogen sulfide
and other sulfur-bearing contaminants. Oil-fired
furnaces are widely used for heating the series
Forging
temperature 400 stainless steels and the 18-8 varieties, but
'C "F because of the danger of contamination from sul-
fur in the oil, they are considered unsafe for heat-
1260 2300
ing high-nickel grades. Although not absolutely
necessary, heating of stainless steel is preferably
1205 2200 done in a protective atmosphere. As for all steels,
induction heating is used whenever it is econom-
I 120 2050 ical.
D i e Lubrication. Dies should be lubricated be-
fore each blow. For forging in shallow impres-
sions, a spray of colloidal graphite in kerosene or
in low-viscosity mineral oil is usually adequate.
Forging temperature. "F
1200 1400 1600 I800 2000 2200
800

to 50% higher than those for type 4340 steel,

314 and, accordingly, heavier equipment is needed. m 700
316. 317- a 100 ._
403, 410, 416
414, 431-
~
Conversely, the pH grades of stainless steel are
much less sensitive to decarburization than are '@ 600
80
_y

f
405, 420, 4 4 0 -
the higher-carbon, low-alloy steels. In addition, 2 500 v)

they do not scale as much, and thus it is possible m 60

430. 430F. 442, to design some precipitation-hardening stainless h 4M)
4 4 6 ___ m m
PH steels steel forgings for use with as-forged surfaces. .6 300 40 '9
~

Table 5 gives forging temperatures recom- ?

1000 1500 2000 2500 mended for precipitation-hardening stainless 2 200 0
LL
20
Forging temperature, 'F steels. When forging is done rapidly with large 100
reductions in a single operation, it is good prac- 0 0
Fig. 3 Recommended forging and finishing tempera- tice to lower the forging temperature 55 "C 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
tures for stainless steels. Crosshatched bars show
temperature ranges that have been recommended by some Forging temperature, "C
plants hut on which there is not general agreement. Open
bars indicate generally accepted ranges. (a)
600
80 400
500 70
Table 4 Forging temperatures and relative
forging loads (relative to type 4340 steel)
m

.'
a

?
400 60 .'
.-

2
0m
2
.

@
300
for various martensitic stainless steels 50 m
Forging
v)

g 300 a, g 200
temperature a 40 h a
Relative m m
Material m C C
"C "F forging load 30 '9 '9 100
;. 200
4340 1260 23011 1 .o 0
0 0
Y
410 1175 2150 1.2-1.5 v 20 LL

414 I I75 21x1 1.3-1.5 100

10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
416 I I75 2150 1.3-1.5
Greek Ascoloy 1205 2200 1.5-1.7 0 0 Upset reduction. %
420 1205 2200 I .I-I .2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
440A 1150 2100 2.0 Ibl
440B 1150 2100 2.0
Upset reduction, %
440c 1120 2050 2.0 Fig. 5 Forging pressure required for upsetting versus (a)
Lapelloy C 1230 2250 2.0
Fig. 4 Effect of upset reduction on forging pressure for forging temperature and (b) percentage of upset
various temperatures reduction
866 / Forging

Table 5 Recommended forging temperatures for precipitation-hardening stainless steels ing behavior of heat-resistant alloys are flow
Recommended temperature for forgings receiving given nominal amounts of reduction stress and ductility. Because these alloys were
forging designed to resist deformation at high tempera-
temperature Lightia) Moderate(b) Severeic) Variableid)
tures, i t is not surprising that they are very diffi-
Alloy 'C "F "C "F "C OF "C OF "C "F
cult to hot work; ductility is limited, and the flow
Semiaustenitic grades stress is high. Further, any alloying addition that
AM-350 117s 2150 1150 2100 117s 2150 117s 2150 iisn 2100 improves the service qualities usually decreases
AM-355 1205 2200 109s 2000 1175 21x1 1175 2150 109s 2000 workability. These alloys are usually worked with
17-7 PH 1205 2200 1120 2050 117s 2150 120s 2200 106s 1950
1095 the precipitates dissolved; the higher concentra-
PH 15-7MO 1230 2250 1095 2000 iisn 2100 117s 2150 2000
tion of dissolved alloying elements (40 to 50%
Martensitic grades total) gives rise to higher flow stress, higher re-
Stainless W 1230 2250 1120 2050 1205 2200 1205 2200 1120 2050 crystallization temperature, and lower solidus
17-4 PH 1205 2200 IISO 2100 117s 2150 117s 2150 1150 2100
temperature, thus narrowing the useful tempera-
(a) Up to 15%. (b) 15 to 50%. (c) Over 50%. (d) Refers to forgings receiving widely differing reductions. End upsets, for ture range for hot forming. Where ductility is
example, receive large reductions on the upset end while the shaft may remain essentially undeformed. defined as the amount of strain to fracture, the
ductility of these alloys is influenced by the de-
formation temperature, strain rate, prior history
Ordinarily, dies are sprayed manually, but in blast cleaning is usually followed by acid pick- of the material, composition, degree of segrega-
press forging, automatic sprays timed with the ling. The forgings are then thoroughly washed in tion, cleanliness, and the stress state imposed by
press stroke are sometimes used. For deeper cavi- water. Salt bath descaling followed by acid clean- the deformation process.
ties, however, it is often necessary to use a sup- ing and brightening is an efficient method of re- Temperature limits for forging nickel-base,
plemental spray (usually manual) to reach the moving scale. heat-resistant alloys are largely determined by
deep areas of the cavity or to swab the cavity melting and precipitation reactions. As with all
with a conventional forging oil. Forging oils are heat-resistant alloys, an intermediate temperature
Forging of Heat-Resistant Alloys region of low ductility is likely to be encountered
usually mixtures of oil and graphite; the oil
should be free of lead and sulfur. Forging oils Heat-resitant alloys, because of their greater in attempts to forge metals near a temperature
are often purchased as greases and are then di- strengths at elevated temperatures, are more diffi- between regimes of low- and high-temperature
luted with mineral oil to the desired viscosity. cult to forge than most other metals. Some iron- deformation. The region of low ductility often
Any volatile lubricant should be used sparingly. base, heat-resistant alloys, such as 19-9 DL and occurs at temperatures around 0.5 of the melting
With even a slight excess, vapor explosions are A-286, are similar to austenitic stainless steels point, as measured on the Kelvin scale. The di-
likely, and greater amounts can cause explosions in forgeability. Most heat-resisting alloys, how- viding temperature has a physical basis. At hot-
that will eject the workpiece, possibly injuring ever, are more difficult to forge than stainless working temperatures, self-diffusion rates are
personnel. steels, although they can be forged by open-die high enough for recovery and recrystallization to
Glass is sometimes used as a lubricant or billet or closed-die forging, upsetting, extrusion forg- counteract the effects of strain hardening.
coating in press forging. The glass is applied by ing, roll forging, ring rolling, isothermal forging, Iron-Base Alloys. Stock for forgings of the
dipping the heated forging in molten glass or by or hot-die forging. Often, two or more of these iron-base alloys is generally furnished as press-
sprinkling the forging with glass frit. Glass is methods are used in sequence. forged squares or hot-rolled rounds, depending
an excellent lubricant, but its viscosity must be on size. As-cast ingots are sometimes used.
compatible with the forging temperature used. The inclusion content of the alloys has a sig-
Forging Alloys nificant effect on their forgeability. Alloys con-
For optimal results, the viscosity of the glass
Table 6 lists the most commonly forged heat- taining titanium and aluminum can develop ni-
should be maintained at 10 Pa . s (100 cP).
resistant alloys and their forging temperatures tride and carbonitride segregation, which later
Therefore, when different forging temperatures
and forgeability ratings. appears as stringers in wrought bars and affects
are used, a variety of glass compositions must
be stocked. Another disadvantage of glass is that General Characteristics. The two basic mate- forgeability. This type of segregation has been
rial characteristics that greatly influence the forg- almost completely eliminated through the use of
it will accumulate in deep cavities, solidify, and
impair metal flow. Therefore, the use of glass is
generally confined to shallow forgings that re-
Table 6 Forging temperatures and forgeability ratings for heat-resistant alloys
quire maximum lateral flow.
Trimming. When production quantities justify Forging temperature(a1
the cost of tools, forgings are trimmed in dies. Upset and breakdown Finish forging Forgeability
UNS
Hot trimming is preferred for all types of stain- Alloy designation "C "F "C "F rating(b)
less steel because less power is required and be- Iron-base alloys
cause there is less danger of cracking than in A-286 S66286 I 095 2000 1040 1900 1
,old trimming. The precipitation-hardening stain- Alloy 556 R30556 1175 2150 1175 2150 3
less steels must be hot trimmed to prevent flash- Alloy 800 Nnmno I150 2100 1040 I900 1
line cracks, which can penetrate the forging. Nickel-base alloys
Frequently, hot trimming immediately follows N13017 I 120 2050 5
Astroloy I 120 2050
forging, before the workpiece temperature falls Alloy X ~06002 1 I75 2150 I I75 2150 3
below a red heat. Less often, forgings are re- Alloy 214 ... 1 I60 2125 I 040 1900 3
heated to 900 to 955 "C (1650 to 1750 OF) and AIIOY 2311 ... 1205 2200 1205 2200 3
then trimmed. Alloy 600 NO6600 I is0 2100 I 040 I900 1
Cleaning. Stainless steels do not scale as heav- Alloy 718 ~ 0 7 18
7 I095 2000 I o4n I 900 2
ily as carbon or alloy steels, especially if heated Alloy X-750 ~07750 I I75 2150 I 120 2050 2
Alloy 75 I NO775 I I150 2100 I150 2100 3
in a protective atmosphere. Alloy 901 ~09901 I 150 2100 1095 2000 2
However, the tightly adherent, hard, and abra- M-252 NO7252 I 150 2100 I 095 2000 3
sive scale that does form must be removed prior Alloy 41 NO704 I I150 2100 1120 2050 4
to machining, or tool life will be severely im- u-500 ~117500 I175 2150 I175 2150 3
paired. u-700 ... I120 20x1 I120 2050 5
Mechanical or chemical methods, or a combi- Waspaloy NO7001 I160 2125 1040 I900 3
nation of both, can be used to remove scale. Cobalt-base alloys
Abrasive blast cleaning is efficient. However, if Alloy 25 ... 1230 2250 I 230 2250 3
surfaces are not to be machined or passivated, Alloy 188 R30 I88 I 205 2200 1175 2150 3
blasting must be done only with silica sand; the
use of steel grit or shot will contaminate the sur- (a) Lower temperature7 are often used for specific forgings to conform to appropriate specifications or to achieve structural
faces and impair corrosion resistance. Abrasive uniformity. (b) I , most forgeable; 5, least forgeable
 Forging of Specific Metals and Alloys / 867
LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view Click here to view

Temperature, "F N06600). However, these ratings reflect only a

relative ability to withstand deformation without
1400 1600 18W 2000 2200 failure; they do not indicate the energy or pres-
1000
100 m
LL
.-
1ul
sure needed for forging, nor can the ratings be
z 800 120 related to low-alloy steels and other alloys that
P P are considerably more forgeable.
2 600
80
ul
The forging of nickel-base alloys requires
80 ul EP close control over metallurgical and operational
r gm 400
-
C

6
._
p 200
40
m
.-
P
conditions. Particular attention must be given to
control of the work metal temperature. Figure 9
0
LL
U shows ductility (measured by percentage of re-
60 2 0I 0 duction in area) versus temperature curves for
m
._ 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 several nickel-base alloys. Data on transfer time,
P
U Temperature, "C soaking time, finishing temperature, and percent-
40 age of reduction should be recorded. Critical
Fig. 7 Forging pressure versus temperature for A-286. parts are usually numbered, and precise records
Also shown is the effect of increasing tempera- are kept. These records are useful in determining
ture on the tensile strength of the material. Upset strain the cause of defective forgings, and they permit
rate: 0.7 s-' metallurgical analysis so that defects can be
20
LIVE GRAPH avoided in future products.
Click here to view The nickel-base alloys are sensitive to minor
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 o variations in composition, which can cause large
la) Upset reduction, % o 400 .
s
c
._ variations in forgeability, grain size, and final
.
$
7 300 c
._
properties. In one case, wide heat-to-heat varia-
tions in grain size occurred in parts forged from
>r 0
0 Alloy 901 (UNS N09901) in the same sets of
P 30
0
c
2W dies. For some parts, optimal forging tempera-
C
9Rn O C >: tures had to be determined for each incoming
._
0 P
Ic 100 heat of material by making sample forgings and
m ._ PP m
C

5 Y
P P
ul
EP
m m
.-
m P
0
LL
(b) Upset reduction, %
Fig. 6 Effect of upset reduction at four temperatures (a)
on forging load in the forging of A-286 and (b)
the forging pressure for A-286 compared with that for 1020
steel
vacuum melting. Therefore, iron-base alloys can
be forged into a greater variety of shapes with
greater reductions, approaching the forgeability
of AISI type 304 stainless steel.
Temperature has an important effect on forge-
ability. The optimal temperature range for forg-
ing A-286 and similar iron-base alloys is narrow.
Figure 6(a) shows the forgeability of A-286,
based on the forging load required for various
upset reductions at four forging temperatures.
Figure 6(b) shows that, on the basis of forging
pressure, A-286 is considerably more difficult to
forge than 1020 steel, even though A-286 is
among the most forgeable of the heat-resistant
alloys (Table 6). For example, as shown in Fig.
6(b), 1020 steel at 1205 "C (2200 "F) requires
only about 69 MPa (10 ksi) for an upset reduc-
tion of 30%, but for the same reduction at the
same temperature, A-286 requires approximately
172 MPa (25 ksi).
Forging pressures increase somewhat for
greater upset reductions at normal forging tem-
peratures. As shown in Fig. 7, the pressure for
a 20% upset reduction of A-286 at 1095 "C (2000
ul
v) 0 I
0.01 0.1 1 10
fn
ul
EP Strain rate, s ~ '
.- Fig. 8 Specific energy versus strain rate i n the press and
hammer forging of A-286 at three temperatures
U
"F) is approximately 193 MPa (28 ksi), but for
an upset reduction of 50%, the pressure increases
to approximately 241 MPa (35 ksi). Figure 7 also
shows that forging pressure is up to 10 or 12
times greater than the tensile strength of the alloy
at forging temperature.
Strain rates also influence forging pressures.
Figure 8 shows that as strain rate increases, more
energy is required in presses and hammers.
Nickel-base alloys initially consisted of rela-
tively simple nickel-chromium alloys hardened
by small additions of titanium and aluminum for
service to 760 "C (1400 OF). With the develop-
ment of production vacuum-melting techniques,
workable alloys can be produced that contain rel-
atively large amounts of titanium, aluminum, zir-
conium, niobium, and other reactive elements.
Nitrogen and oxygen levels are reduced by vac-
uum melting, which eliminates most of the
nitrides and oxides that contribute to poor for-
geability. Therefore, current nickel-base alloys
consist of numerous compositions containing
larger amounts of hardening elements.
As shown in Table 6, the nickel-base alloys
are, in general, less forgeable than the iron-base
alloys; almost all of the nickel-base alloys re-
quire more force for producing a given shape.
Astroloy (UNS N13017) and Alloy U-700 are the
two most difficult to forge nickel-base alloys. For
a given percentage of upset reduction at a forging
temperature of 1095 "C (2000 OF), these alloys
require approximately twice the specific energy
needed for the iron-base A-286.
In the forgeability ratings listed in Table 6,
Astroloy and U-700 alloys have approximately
one-fifth the forgeability of Alloy 600 (UNS
10
.-
0
'c
examining them after heat treatment for varia-
tions in grain size and other properties.
100
In the forging of nickel-base alloys, the forging
v)
techniques developed for one shape usually must
be modified when another shape is forged from
the same alloy; therefore, development time is
often necessary for establishing suitable forging
and he#-treating cycles. This is especially true
for such alloys as Waspaloy (UNS N07001),
Alloy 41 (UNS N07041), U-500 (UNS N07500),
and U-700.
Cobalt-Base Alloys. Many of the cobalt-base
alloys cannot be successfully forged because they
ordinarily contain more carbon than the iron-base
alloys and therefore greater quantities of hard
carbides, which impair forgeability.
The two cobalt-base alloys listed in Table 6 are
forgeable. The strength of these alloys at elevated
temperatures, including the temperatures at which
they are forged, is considerably higher than that
for iron-base alloys; consequently, the pressures
required in forging them are several times greater
than those for the iron-base alloys.
Even when forged at its maximum forging
temperature, Alloy-25 work hardens; therefore,
forging pressure must be increased with greater
reductions. Accordingly, this alloy generally re-
quires frequent reheating during forging to pro-
mote recrystallization and to lower the forging
pressure for subsequent steps.
Forging conditions (temperature and reduction)
have a significant effect on the grain size of
cobalt-base alloys. Because low ductility, notch
brittleness, and low fatigue strength are associ-
ated with coarse grains, close control of forging
and of final heat treatment is important.
Cobalt-base alloys are susceptible to grain
growth when heated above approximately 1175
"C (2150 OF). They heat slowly and require a
long soaking time for temperature uniformity.
Forging temperatures and reductions, therefore,
depend on the forging operation and the part de-
sign.
The alloys are usually forged with small reduc-
tions in initial breakdown operations. The reduc-
868 / Forging
750 800 850 900 950
Temperature, "C
Fig. 9 Ductility (measured by percentage of reduction in area) versus temperature for several nickel-base, heat-resistant
alloys
tions are selected to impart sufficient strain to
the metal so that recrystallization (and usually
grain refinement) will occur during subsequent
reheating. Because the cross section of a partly
forged section has been reduced, less time is re-
quired to reach temperature uniformity in reheat-
ing, Consequently, because reheating time is
shorter, the reheating temperature can sometimes
be increased 30 to 85 "C (50 to 150 OF) above
the initial forging temperature without harmful
effects. However, if the part receives only small
reductions in subsequent forging steps, forging
should be continued at the lower temperatures.
These small reductions, in turn, must be in excess
of approximately 5 to 15% to avoid abnormal
grain growth during subsequent annealing. The
forging temperatures given in Table 6 are usually
satisfactory.
Conventional Forging
Forging Equipment. The hammers, presses,
upsetters, roll and ring forging machines, and ro-
tary forging machines used in the forging of steel
are also used in the forging of heat-resistant al-
loys, except that more power is needed for
forging.
Dies. Because of the forces required for forg-
ing heat-resistant alloys, special attention must be
given to die design, die material, and diemaking
practice, Die wear can be a major problem, and
die lubrication is very critical.
Heating For Forging. Forging temperature
varies widely, depending on the composition of
the alloy being forged (Table 6) and to some
extent on the heat treatment and end use. Forg-
ing-temperature ranges are relatively narrow, but
temperatures can be increased for better forge-
ability if the end use permits. Excessively high
1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250
forging temperatures cause grain growth in most
heat-resistant alloys and adversely affect subse-
quent heat treatment. Therefore, when maximum
properties are required for end use, forging tem-
peratures must be precisely controlled. Lower
forging temperatures are less likely to cause dam-
age to the workpiece, hut the additional forging
blows required will shorten die life.
Atmosphere protection for heating the forging
stock is desirable hut not essential, because heat-
resistant alloys have high resistance to oxidation
at elevated temperature. Protective atmospheres
provide cleaner surfaces on finished forgings and
therefore minimize subsequent cleaning prob-
lems.
Electrically heated furnaces are often preferred
for heating forging stock because their tempera-
tures can be closely controlled, and the possi-
bility of contaminating the work metal is
minimized. Fuel-fired furnaces are used less
frequently than those heated by electrical resis-
tance. If fuel-fired furnaces are used, the fuel
must have extremely low sulfur content, espe-
cially when heating the nickel-base alloys, or
contamination may occur.
lubricants. Dies should be lubricated before
each forging. For shallow impressions, a spray
of colloidal graphite in water or in mineral oil
is usually adequate. Dies are usually sprayed
manually, although some installations include au-
tomatic sprays that are timed with the press
stroke. Deeper cavities, however, may require the
use of a supplemental spray (usually manually
controlled) to ensure coverage of all surfaces, or
they can he swabbed with a conventional forging
oil. These oils are readily available as proprietary
compounds.
Cooling Practice. Specific cooling procedures
are rarely, if ever, needed after the forging of
heat-resistant alloys. I f forging temperatures are
correctly maintained, the forgings can be cooled
in still air, after which they will be in suitable
condition for heat treating.
Cleaning. Scale and lubricants can be removed
by chemical methods. Salt bath descaling, fol-
lowed by acid pickling and finally sand blasting,
is the procedure most widely used. For abrasive
blasting, sand must be used rather than steel grit.
Isothermal and Hot-Die Forging
Isothermal forging and hot-die forging of heat-
resistant alloys offer a number of advantages.
Closer tolerances than those possible in conven-
tional forging processes can be achieved, result-
ing in reduced material and machining costs. Be-
cause die chilling is not a problem in isothermal
or hot-die forging, lower strain rates (hydraulic
presses) can be used. This lowers the flow stress
of the work material; therefore, forging pressure
is reduced, and larger parts can be forged in ex-
isting hydraulic presses. Additional information
is available in the article "Forging Processes"
in this Section.
Forging of Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum alloys can be forged into a variety
1300
of shapes and types of forgings with a broad
range of final part forging design criteria based
on the intended application. Aluminum alloy
forgings, particularly closed-die forgings, are
usually produced to more highly refined final
forging configurations than hot-forged carbon
andior alloy steels. For a given aluminum alloy
forging shape, the pressure requirements in forg-
ing vary widely, depending primarily on the
chemical composition of the alloy being forged,
the forging process being employed, the forging
strain rate, the type of forging being manufac-
tured, the lubrication conditions, and the forging
and die temperature.
Figure 10 compares the flow stresses of some
commonly forged aluminum alloys at 350 to 370
"C (660 to 700 "F) and at a strain rate of 4 to
10 s - ' to 1025 carbon steel forged at an identical
strain rate hut at a forging temperature typically
employed for this steel. Flow stress represents
the low limit of forging pressure requirements;
however, actual forging pressures are usually
higher. For some low-to-intermediate strength
aluminum alloys, such as 1100 and 6061, flow
stresses are lower than those of carbon steel. For
high-strength alloys, particularly 7xxx series al-
loys such as 7075, 7010, 7049, and 7050, flow
stresses, and therefore forging pressures, are con-
siderably higher than those of carbon steels. Fi-
nally, other aluminum alloys, such as 2219, have
flow stresses quite similar to those of carbon
steels. As a class of alloys, however, aluminum
alloys are generally considered to be more diffi-
cult to forge than carbon steels and many alloy
steels.
Forgeability
Compared to the nickelicobalt-base alloys and
titanium alloys, aluminum alloys are considerably
more forgeable, particularly in conventional forg-
ing process technology, in which dies are heated
to 540 "C (1000 "F) or less. Figure I 1 illustrates
the relative forgeahility of ten aluminum alloys
that constitute the bulk of aluminum alloy forg-
ing production. This arbitrary unit is principally
based on the deformation per unit of energy ab-
 Forging of Specific Metals and Alloys / 869

150 Table 7 Recommended forging

temperature ranges for aluminum alloys
20 Aluminum Forging temperature range
alloy "C "F

125 I100 315-405 600-760

2014 420-460 785-860
2025 420-450 785-840
2219 425-470 800-880
2618 410-455 770-850
15 3003 3 15-405 600-760
100 780-860
4032 4 15-460
5083 405-460 760-860
._ 606 I 430-480 810-900
2 1
Y)

H ui
7010 370-440 700-820
vi 7039 380-440 720-820
E 7049 360-440 680-820
E 75 c
Y)

2
-
10 2
-
7050
7075
360-440
380-440
680-820
720-820
U
U 7079 405-455 760-850
-
50
in flow stress with temperature is even greater;
indicating the principal reason for the relatively
5 narrow metal temperature ranges.
Table 7 lists the 15 aluminum alloys that are
25
most commonly forged, as well as recommended
temperature ranges. All of these alloys are gener-
ally forged to the same severity, although som
alloys may require more forging power andioi
0 0 more forging operations than others. The forging
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 temperature range for most alloys is relatively
narrow (generally < 5 5 "C,or 100 OF), and for
Strain, %
no alloy is the range greater than 85 "C (155
Fig. 10 Flow stresses of commonly forged aluminum alloys and of 1025 steel at typical forging temperatures and OF).
various levels of total strain Effect of Deformation Rate. Aluminum alloy
forgings are produced on a wide variety of forg-
ing equipment. The deformation or strain rate im-
parted to the deforming metal varies considerably
sorbed in the range of forging temperatures typi- nificantly above those presented; however, these ranging from very fast (for example, 2 1 0 s - ' on
cally employed for the alloys in question. Also alloys have limited application in forging because equipment such as hammers, mechanical presses,
considered in this index is the difficulty of they cannot be strengthened by heat treatment. and high-energy-rate machines) to relatively slow
achieving specific degrees of severity in defor- Effect of Temperature. As shown in Fig. 1 1 , (for example, 50.1 s-' on equipment such as
mation as well as the cracking tendency of the the forgeability of all aluminum alloys improves hydraulic presses). Therefore, deformation or
alloy under forging process conditions. There are with increasing metal temperature, and there is strain rate is also a critical element in the suc-
wrought aluminum alloys, such as 1100 and considerable variation in the effect of tempera- cessful forging of a given alloy.
3003, with forgeability that would be rated sig- ture for the alloys plotted. For example, the high- Figure 13 presents the effect of two strain rates
silicon alloy 4032 shows the greatest effect, (10 s - ' and 0.1 s-I) on the flow stresses of two
while the high-strength Al-Zn-Mg-Cu 7xxx alloys aluminum alloys (6061 and 2014) at 370 "C (700
display the least effect. Figure 12 shows the ef- OF). It is clear that higher strain rates increase
fect of temperature on flow stress at a strain rate the flow stresses of aluminum alloys and that the
Forging temperature, "F
of 10 s - ' for alloy 6061, a highly forgeable alu- increase in flow stress with increasing strain rate
700 750 800 850 900 minum alloy. There is nearly a 50% increase in
I is greater for more difficult to forge alloys, such
flow stress between the highest temperature (480 as the 2xxx and 7xxx series. For 6061, the more
"C, or 900 "F, the top of the recommended forg- highly forgeable alloy, the increase in flow stress
ing range for 6061) and 370 "C (700 OF), which with the rapid strain rate is of the order of 70%;
is below the minimum temperature recommended for 2014, the higher strain rate virtually doubles
for 6061. For other, more difficult to forge al- the flow stress.
loys, such as the 2xxx and 7xxx series, the change LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view 150
150
125
20 m
4032 m
125
.- f 100
a
; ;
VI
vi
I
vi
-;
100

75
15
Y)

?
- 75
10 6 B 50
I 7010,7075,.
7049,17050 2
-
50 - 2 -
U
25
U
25
5 "
0
2014.0.1 s
I l
'
l
I I I 0
0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
350 375 400 425 450 475 500 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Strain, %
Forging temperature, "C Strain, %
Fig. 1 3 Flow stress versus strain rate for alloys 2014
Fig. 11 Forgeability and forging temperatures of var- Fig. 12 Flow stress versus strain rate for alloy 6061 at and 6061 at 3 7 0 "C (700 "F) and two different
ious aluminum alloys three temperatures and a strain rate of 10 s-' strain rates
870 I Forging

Table 8 Die temperature ranges for the

forging of aluminum alloys
Die temperature
Forging
orocessleauiornent 'C "F
Open-die forging
Ring rolling 95-205 200-400
Mandrel forging 95-205 200-400
Closed-die forging
Hammen 95- I50 200-300
Upsetters 150-260 300-500
Mechanical presses 150-260 300-500
Screw presses 150-260 300-500
Orbital (rotary) forging 150-260 300-500
Roll forging 95-205 200-400 3 8 m m rndx
Hydraulic presses 3 15-430 600-800

Effect of Die Temperature. Unlike some forg-

ing processes for carbon and alloy steels, the dies
used in virtually all hot-forging processes for alu-
minum alloys are heated in order to facilitate
the forging process. Therefore, die temperature
is another critical element in the forgeability and 3.8 r n r n m a x y i+-
forging process optimization of this alloy class.
Table 8 summarizes the die temperature ranges
typically used for several aluminum forging pro-
cesses. For slower deformation processes, such
as hydraulic press forging, die temperature fre-
quently controls the actual metal temperature dur-
ing deformation, and in fact, aluminum alloys
forged in hydraulic presses are isothermally
forged; that is, metal and dies are at the same
temperature during deformation. Therefore, the
die temperatures employed for hydraulic press
forging exceed those typical of more rapid defor- 3.6 rnm rnax---t( +
mation processes, such as hammers and mechani-
cal presses.

Forging Methods
Most aluminum alloy forgings are produced in
closed dies. The four types of aluminum forgings
shaped in closed dies are blocker-type (finish
forging only), conventional (block and finish
forging or finish forging), high-definition (near-
net shape), and precision (no draft, net shape).
Figure 14 illustrates these closed-die forging
Tolerance, mm (in.)
types. Other forging methods employed include
Characteristic Blocker-tvoe Conventional High-definition Precision
upsetting, roll forging, rotary (orbital) forging,
ring rolling, and extrusion (both hot and cold). Die closure +2.3, - 1.5 + 1.5, -0.8 + 1.25, -0.5 t0.8, -0.25
The 6xxx series of aluminum alloys is selected +
( 0.09, - 0.06) +
( 0.06, - 0.03) ( t 0.05, -0.02) (+0.03, -0.01)
for nearly 75% of extrusion applications. Mismatch 0.5 (0.02) 0.5 (0.02) 0.25 (0.01) 0.38 (0.015)
Straightness 0.8 (0.03) 0.8 (0.03) 0.5 (0.02) 0.4 (0.016)
Flash extension 3 (0.12) 1.5 (0.06) 0.8 (0.03) 0.8 (0.03)
Length and width k0.8 (20.03) 2 0.8 ( ? 0.03) ? 0.8 ( ? 0.03) f0.5, -0.25
Machines and Dies
( t 0 . 0 2 , -0.01)
The types of hammers and presses that are Draft angles 5" 5" 3" I"
used for forging of aluminum alloys are essen-
tially the same as those used for forging of other Fig. 14 Types of aluminum closed-die forgings and tolerances for each. (a)Blocker-type. (b)Conventional. (c) High-
alloys (see the article "Hammers and Presses for definition. (d) Precision
Forging," in this Section). Hydraulic presses are
very widely used in forging of aluminum alloys
because heating of the dies to a temperature near
the workpiece temperature-that is, to about 425
"C (800 OF)-eliminates die chilling. As a result, Forging of aluminum alloys requires the use 0 Temperature control of dies for forging alumi-
the time of contact between the forging and the of dies specially designed for these alloys, for at num is critical; thus, facilities for heating dies
dies, which usually is extensive in hydraulic least three reasons:
presses, does not affect the forging process. I n and controlling die temperature during forging
addition, the easy control of the hydraulic press 0 Aluminum alloys are seldom fullered or bent must be considered in die design.
allows forging to proceed at a moderate speed in the forging sequence; two forging stages,
Finish on dies used for forging of aluminum
and/or permits the forging operation to be preforming and finishing, are most commonly
stopped at any time during the stroke. Thus, a 119Pd
_I__.
alloys is more critical than that on dies used for
part can be forged in the same die, using several Allowances for shrinkage are greater than for steel. Cavities must be highly polished to obtain
forging strokes. steel. acceptable surface finish on the forgings.

Stock Preparation and Heating
The two methods most used for cutting stock
into lengths for forging are sawing and shearing.
Abrasive cutoff can be used, but it is slower than
sawing for cutting aluminum, and, like sawing,
produces burrs.
Gas-fired semimuffle furnaces are the most
widely used for heating aluminum alloys for
forging, mainly because gas is widely available
and is usually the least expensive source of heat.
Furnace design and construction necessarily vary
with the requirements of the operation.
Oil-fired furnaces can be used if gas is not
available. The oil must be low in sulfur content
to avoid high-temperature oxidation, especially if
used in a semimuffle furnace rather than a full-
muffle furnace.
Electric furnaces are entirely satisfactory for
heating aluminum alloys, but in most areas they
cost more to operate than fuel-fired types, and
hence they are seldom used.
Time at temperature is not critical for alumi-
num alloys. Long soaking times provide no ad-
vantage but, except for the high-magnesium al-
loys such as 5083, are seldom harmful. Long
soaking times are sometimes difficult to avoid,
as when a press breaks down. When forging a
high-magnesium alloy, if the operation is delayed
so that soaking time will be more than 4 h, the
billets should be removed from the furnace or
the furnace should be shut down. Before forging
is resumed, the billets should be reheated.
1ubricants
Dies are always lubricated for forging of alu-
minum alloys because aluminum alloys have a
tendency to adhere to steel at elevated tempera-
tures. Lubrication practice is generally the same
as that for forging of other metals: spraying with
colloidal graphite mixed with water, mineral spir-
its, or mineral oils. If metal flow is a problem,
as in forging metal into narrow rib sections, soap
is added to the graphite mixture. State-of-the-art
lubricant application systems have the capability
of applying very precise patterns or amounts of
lubricant under fully automated conditions such
that the forging processes are optimized and re-
peatable.
Trimming
The flash generated in most closed-die alumi-
num forging processes is removed by hot or cold
trimming or sawing, punching, or machining, de-
pending on the size, shape, and volume of the
part being produced. Hot- or cold-trimming tools
are ordinarily used to trim large quantities, espe-
cially on moderately sized forgings that are intri-
cate and may contain several punchouts. The
choice of hot or cold trimming is largely based
on the complexity of the part and on cost. The
trim presses employed are either mechanical or
hydraulic. Trimming dies are usually constructed
of 6G or 6F2 die block steel at a hardness of
approximately 444 to 477 HB. Tools of these
steels are less costly because they are often pro-
duced from pieces of worn or broken forging
dies. Blades for trimming and the edges of trim-
ming dies are frequently hardfaced to improve
their abrasion resistance. In addition to these
grades, 01 tool steel and/or high-alloy tool steel
such as D2 hardened to 58 to 60 HRC have also
been used to trim aluminum alloy forgings and
Forging of Specific Metals and Alloys / 871
may offer longer service lives. The hot trimming Table 9 Relative forgeability ratings of
of aluminum alloys is usually accomplished im- commonly forged copper alloys
mediately after forging without reheating.
Relative
forgeability(a),
Alloy Nominal composition 90
Forging of Copper and Copper Alloys
C10200 99.95 min Cu 65
Copper and copper alloys offer a number of C10400 Cu-0.027 Ag 65
advantages over parts produced by other proc- CI 1000 99.9 min Cu 65
esses, including high strength as a result of work- C11300 Cu-0.027Ag + 0 65
C14500 Cu-0.65Te-0.008P 65
ing, closer tolerances than competing processes,
such as sand casting; and modest overall cost. C18200 Cu-0. IOFe-0.90C4-0.10 80
Si-0.05Pb
The most forgeable copper alloy, forging brass C37700 Cu-38Zn-2Pb I00
(alloy 37700), can be forged into a given shape C46400 Cu-39.2Zn-0.8Sn 90
with substantially less force than required to C48200 Cu-38Zn-0.8Sn-0.7Pb 90
forge the same shape from low-carbon steel. A C48500 Cu-37.5Zn-1.8Pb-0.7Sn 90
less forgeable alloy, such as aluminum bronze, C62300 Cu-lOAl-3Fe 75
can be forged with approximately the same force C63000 Cu- IOAl-5Ni-3Fe 75
C63200 Cu-9Al-SNi-4Fe 70
as that required for low-carbon steel.
C64200 Cu-7AI-1.8Si 80
C65500 Cu-3Si 40
Forging Methods C67500 Cu-39Zn-1.4Fe-ISi-O.IMn 80
Closed-Die Forging. Most copper alloy forg- Ratings are in terms of the most forgeable alloy, forging brass
ings are produced in closed dies using the same ((37700). (a) Takes into consideration such factors as pres-
sequence of operations as that used for forging sure, die wear, and hot plasticity
a similar shape from steel. Excessive flash is pro-
duced, but is easily trimmed and remelted.
Upset forging is used less frequently for cop- Machines
per alloys than for steels, primarily because cop-
per alloys are so easily extruded. A part having Most copper alloy forgings are produced in
a long shaftlike section and a larger-diameter crank-type mechanical presses. With these
head can often be made at less cost by extruding presses, the production rate is high, and less op-
the smaller cross section from a larger section erator skill is needed and less draft is required
than by starting with a small cross section and than in forging copper alloys in hammers.
upsetting to obtain the head. Press size is normally based on the projected
Ring rolling is sometimes used as a means of (plan) area of the part, including flash. The rule
of thumb is 0.5 kN of capacity per square milli-
saving material when producing ring gears or
similar ringlike parts. meter of projected area (40 tonfiin.'). Therefore,
a forging with a projected area of 32.2 cm' (5
in.') will require a minimum of 1780 kN (200
Forging Alloys tonf) capacity for forgings of up to medium se-
Table 9 lists coppers and the copper alloys verity. If the part is complicated (for example,
most commonly forged. They comprise at least with deep, thin ribs), the capacity must be in-
90% of all commercially produced copper alloy creased.
forgings. Forging brass, the least difficult alloy
to forge, has been assigned an arbitrary forgeabil-
Dies
ity rating of 100. Dies designed for forging copper or copper al-
Some copper alloys cannot be forged to any
loys usually differ from those designed for forg-
significant degree because they will crack. ing the same shapes from steel, as follows:
Leaded copper-zinc alloys, such as architectural
bronze, which may contain more than 2.5% Pb, 0 The draft angle can be decreased for forging
are seldom recommended for hot forging. Al- copper (3" maximum and often less than 3")
though lead content improves metal flow, it 0 The die cavity is usually machined to dimen-
promotes cracking in those areas of a forging, sions that are 0.005 in./in. less than those for
particularly deep-extruded areas that are not com- forging steels
pletely supported by, or enclosed in, the dies. 0 The die cavity is usually polished to a better
This does not mean that the lead-containing al- surface finish for forging copper and copper
loys cannot be forged, but rather that the design alloys
of the forging may have to be modified to avoid Die materials and hardnesses selected for
cracking. forging copper alloys depend on part configura-
The solubility of lead in P-brass at forging tion (forging severity) and number of parts to be
temperatures is approximately 2% maximum, but produced, as shown in Table 10.
lead is insoluble in P-brass at all temperatures. Whether the dies are made entirely from a hot-
Consequently, although a lead content of up to work steel such as HI 1 or H I 2 or whether or
2.5% is permissible in Cu-40Zn a-P brasses, lead not inserts are used depends largely on the size
in excess of 0.10% in a Cu-30Zn a-brass will of the die. Common practice is to make the in-
contribute to catastrophic cracking. serts from a hot-work steel and to press them
Other copper alloys, such as the copper-nick- into rings or holders made from a low-alloy, die
els, can be forged only with greater difficulty block steel (Table 10) or L6 tool steel. Hardness
and at higher cost. The copper nickels, primarily of the ring or holder is seldom critical: a range
because of their higher forging temperatures, are of 341 to 375 HB is typical.
sometimes heated in a controlled atmosphere,
thus complicating the process. The silicon
bronzes, because of their high forging tempera- Heating of Billets or Slugs
tures and their compositions, cause more rapid Optimal forging temperature ranges for ten al-
die deterioration than the common forging alloys. loys are given in Table l l . Atmosphere protec-
872 I Forging

Table 10 Recommended steels and hardnesses for dies and die inserts for hammer and Cleaning
press forging of copper and copper alloys Scale and excess lubricants are easily removed
Total quantity lo be forged from copper and copper alloy forgings by chemi-
100 to 10,000 10,000 and over cal cleaning. Pickling in dilute sulfuric acid is
Maximum severity(a) Tool steel Hardness, HB Tool steel Hardness, HB the most common method for cleaning brass and
most other copper alloy forgings, although hydro-
Hammer forging
chloric acid can also be used.
Part I HI I 405-433 HI2 405-448
Aluminum bronzes form a tough, adherent alu-
6G, 6F2 341-375
Part 2 6G, 6F2 341 -375 6G. 6F2 341-375 minum oxide film during forging. An effective
H12(b) 405-448 method of cleaning aluminum bronze forgings is
Part 3 6G, 6F2 269-293 6G, 6F2 302-331 first to immerse them in a 10% solution (by
Part 4 HI I 405-433 HI I 405-433 weight) of sodium hydroxide in water at 7 5 "C
Part 5 6G, 6F2 302-33 I 6G, 6F2(c) 302-331 (170 O F ) for 2 to 6 min. After rinsing in water,
Press forging the forgings are pickled in acid solutions.
Part 1 HI2 477-514 HI2 477-514
6G, 6F2 341-375
Part 2 6G, 6F2 341 -375 HI2 477-514
Forging of Magnesium Alloys
Part 3 Part usually not press forged from copper alloys Magnesium alloys most commonly forged are
Part 4 HI I 405-433 6G. 6F2(d) 341-375 listed in Table 12, along with their forging tem-
Part 5 6G. 6F2 341-375 HI2 477-514 peratures. Magnesium alloys are often forged
within 55 "C (100 "F) of their solidus tempera-
ture. An exception is the high-zinc alloy ZK-60,
which sometimes contains small amounts of the
low-melting eutectic that forms during ingot soli-
dification. Forging of this alloy above approxi-
mately 315 "C (600 OF)-the melting point of
the eutectic-can cause severe rupturing. This
Part 1 Part 2 Part 4 problem can be minimized by holding the cast
ingot for extended periods at an elevated temper-
ature to redissolve the eutectic and to restore a
higher solidus temperature.
The commercial alloys ZK21A, AZ31B. and
AZ61A listed in Table 12 are low-cost magne-
sium alloys suitable for applications in which
slightly lower mechanical properties are accept-
able. AZ31B is slightly more difficult to forge
Part 3 Part 5 than the other two alloys. ZK21A bas good weld-
ability.
(a) Dimensions in illustration are in inches. (b) Recommended for long runs-for example, 50,000 forgings. (c) With either Of the two high-strength alloys in Table 12,
steel, use insert of HI2 at 405 to 448 HB. (d) With either steel, use insert of HI2 at 429 to 448 HB. ZK60A is more widely used because it is inher-
ently fine grained and more workable.
tion during billet heating is not required for most forgeability of copper alloys, die temperature is Of the elevated-temperature alloys in Table 12,
alloys, especially when forging temperatures are generally less critical than for forging aluminum. both E K 3 l A and HM21A are readily forgeable.
below 705 "C (1300 O F ) . For temperatures toward Dies are seldom preheated in ovens. Heating is To ensure good workability, only forging-grade
the top of the range in Table 1 I , a protective usually accomplished by ring burners. Optimal billet or bar stock should be used. This type of
atmosphere is desirable and is sometimes re- die temperatures vary from 150 to 315 "C (300 product has been conditioned and inspected to
quired. An exothermic atmosphere is usually the to 600 OF), depending on the forging temperature eliminate surface defects that could open up dur-
least costly, and it is satisfactory for heating cop- of the specific alloy. For alloys having low forg- ing forging and has been homogenized by the
per alloys at temperatures above 705 "C (1300 ing temperatures, a die temperature of 150 "C supplier to make it forgeable.
OF). (300 OF) is sufficient. Die temperature is in-
Gas-fired furnaces are almost always used, and creased to as much as 315 "C (600 OF) for the Table 12 Recommended forging
furnace design is seldom critical. Open-fired con- alloys having the highest forging temperatures
veyor chain or belt types are those most com- shown in Table 11. temperature ranges for magnesium alloys
Recommended forging temperature(a)
monly used.
Workpiece Forging dies
Lubricants Alloy 'C "F OC "F
Heating of Dies
Dies should be lubricated before each forging Commercial alloys
Dies are always heated for forging copper and 300-370 575-700 260-315 500-600
operation. A spray of colloidal graphite and water ZK21A
copper alloys, although because of the good AZ61A 315-370 600-700 290-345 550-650
is usually adequate. Many installations include a
spray that operates automatically, timed with the AZ31B 290-345 550-650 260-315 500-600
Table 11 Recommended forging press stroke. However, the spray is often inade- High-strength alloys
temperature ranges for copper alloys quate for deep cavities and is supplemented by ZK60A 290-385 550-725 205-290 400-550
Temoerature ranee
swabbing with a conventional forging oil. AZ8OA 290-400 550-750 205-290 400-550

Alloy "F Elevated-temperaturealloys

HM2lA 400-525 750-975 370-425 700-800
C12200 730-845 1350-I550 Trimming EK3 I A 370-480 700-900 345-400 650-750
C I8200 650-760 1200-1400
C37700 650-760 1200- 1400 Brass forgings are nearly always trimmed at Special alloys
C46400 595-705 I 100- 1300 room temperature. Because the forces imposed ZE42A 290-370 550-700 300-345 575-650
C62400 705-815 1300-1500 on the trimming tools are less than those for ZE62 300-345 575-675 300-345 575-675
c64200 730-900 1350-1650 trimming steel forgings, the trimming of brass QE22A 345-385 650-725 315-370 600-700
C67000 595-705 1100-1300 forgings seldom poses problems. Large forgings,
C67300 595-730 1100-1350 especially in small quantities, are commonly (a) The strain-hardening alloys must be processed on a declin-
C67400 595-730 1100-1350
trimmed by sawing off the flash and punching ing temperature scale within the given range to preclude re-
Ch7500 595-705 1100-1300 crystallization.
or machining the web sections

Machines and Dies
Machines. Hydraulic presses or slow-action
mechanical presses are the most commonly used
machines for open-die and closed-die forging of
magnesium alloys. I n these machines, magnesium
alloys can be forged with small corners and fil-
lets, and thin web or panel sections. Corner radii
of 1.6 mm (Yl6 in.), fillet radii of 4.8 mm (Vi6
in.), and panels or webs 3.2 mm (vx in.) thick
are not uncommon. Draft angles required for ex-
traction of the forgings from the dies may be
held to 3" or less.
Magnesium alloys are not usually hammer
forged because they exhibit better hot ductility
at lower strain rates.
Dies. Because forging temperatures for magne-
sium alloys are relatively low (see Table 12),
conventional low-alloy hot work tool steels are
satisfactory materials for forging dies.
Magnesium alloys are good conductors of heat,
and therefore are readily chilled by cold dies,
causing the alloys to crack. Because die contact
during forging is extensive and is maintained for
a prolonged period, dies must be heated to tem-
peratures not much lower than those used to heat
the stock (see Table 12).
Heating for Forging
In most instances, the mechanical properties
developed in magnesium forgings depend on the
strain hardening induced during forging. Strain
hardening is accomplished by keeping the forging
temperature as low as is practical; however, if
temperatures are too low, cracking will occur.
The temperature ranges generally used in the
initial heating of magnesium alloys for forging
are listed in Table 12. The temperature selected
depends on the nature and size of the part, the
amount of working that is required, and the num-
ber of operations involved. In a multiple-opera-
tion process, the forging temperature should be
adjusted downward for each subsequent opera-
tion, to avoid recrystallization and grain growth.
I n addition to controlling grain growth, the re-
duction in temperature allows for residual strain
hardening following the final operation.
Heating can be done with fuel-fired or electri-
cally heated furnaces. Inert or reducing atmo-
spheres are not needed at temperatures below 480
"C (900 OF).
Because forging temperatures are well below
the melting points of the various alloys, no fire
hazard exists when temperatures are controlled
with reasonable accuracy. It is important, how-
ever, the uniformity of temperature be main-
tained-at least throughout the final heating
zone-and that large gradients and hot spots be
avoided in the preliminary heating zones. Fur-
naces that are equipped with fans for recirculat-
ing the air within the furnace provide the greatest
uniformity of heating.
Forging Practice
Forging pressures for upsetting magnesium
alloy billets between flat dies are shown in Fig.
15. At normal press forging speeds, the forging
pressure first increases and then decreases
slightly with increased upset reduction, probably
because work-metal temperature increases during
forging.
Forging temperature has a marked effect on
forging-pressure requirements. Figure 16 shows
the magnitude of this effect for magnesium alloy
Forging of Specific Metals and Alloys / 873
Forging temperature, "F
400 500 600 700 800 900
50 1 2 - 200 1 Lo
'-
Magnesium !i
v)
E
Q
0 0
C
f 50 .-
P alloy 6061 P
9 0 U
200 250 300 350 400 450 500
or Forging temperature, "C
c
Fig. 16 Effect of forging temperature on forging pres-
sure required for upsetting to a 10% reduction
at hydraulic press speeds for a magnesium alloy and an
aluminum alloy
Table 13 Approximate forging pressures
required for a 10% upset reduction of
0 20 40 60 80 100
various materials at normal forging
temDerature in flat dies
(C) Reduction, %
Forging Forging
temperature pressure
Fig. 15 Forging pressures required for the upsetting of
magnesium alloy billets hetween flat dies. (a) Work metal "C 'F MPa ksi
Alloy AZ80A; strain rate: 0.1 1 s-I. (b) Alloy AZ61A; strain 1020 steel 1260 2300 55 8
rate: 0.1 1 s-I. (c) Alloy AZ31 B; strain rate: 0.7 s-' 4340 steel 1260 2300 55 8
Aluminum alloy 6061 455 850 69 10
Magnesium alloy AZ31B 370 700 I10 16
AZ31B in comparison with aluminum alloy 6061. Type 304 stainless steel 1205 2200 I52 22
As Table 13 shows, at normal forging tempera-
tures, AZ3 1 B requires greater forging pressure
than carbon steel, alloy steel, or aluminum, and
then rinsed. This treatment is adequate for most
requires less than stainless steel. Magnesium al-
surface inspection requirements. After inspection,
loys flow less readily than aluminum into deep
the forgings can be protected for shipping pur-
vertical die cavities. If two dies are needed for
poses by dipping in dichromate.
a typical aluminum structural forging, the same
part in a magnesium alloy may require three dies
for successful forging. The lubricants and lubri- Forging of Titanium Alloys
cation conditions used are similar to those used Titanium alloys can be forged into essentially
in forging of aluminum alloys. the same shapes as are forgeable from steel and
other metals. For the same amount of metal flow,
Trimming however, more power is required than for alloy
steels such as 4340. This difference between tita-
Magnesium alloy forgings are usually trimmed nium alloys and alloy steel is illustrated in Fig.
by band sawing, because (a) sawing is usually 17, which summarizes the effect of strain rate
cheaper than die trimming, especially for and temperature on forging pressure for several
shortrun operation, and (b) die trimming must be titanium alloys and 4340 steel at their usual forg-
done hot, which often is inconvenient in a se- ing temperatures. Forging pressure increases in
quence of operations. However, die trimming is an approximately linear relation with the loga-
sometimes preferred because of high-production rithm of the strain rate, as shown by the behavior
operation or intricate design of the forging. of the Ti-13V-I ICr-3AI (beta) alloy. Thus, forg-
Under these conditions, the forging is either ing pressure for a given strain rate can be esti-
heated to 205 to 260 "C (400 to 500 OF) or is mated by interpolating or extrapolating data
trimmed while still hot from the forging opera- available from other strain rates. The comparative
tion. data are in agreement with forging experience,
Whether the trimming is normal or close can which indicates that an alloy such as Ti-6AI-4V
affect the optimum trimming temperature. For requires 1v2 to 2 times the equipment capacity
most applications the trimming tools are adjusted needed for forging low-alloy steels to comparable
for a closer trim than for similarly shaped forgings shapes.
of other metals. If the trimming temperature is As Fig. 18 shows, the pressure required for
too high, the flash will tear and have a smeared forging titanium alloys rises at a faster rate as
appearance; if the temperature is too low, flashline the temperature of the work metal decreases than
cracks will occur that go deep into the forging. does the pressure required for forging alloy steel.
Trimming in dies at or near room temperature
should never be attempted. Hot trimming can be
done before or after the forgings are quenched, Forging Alloys
whichever produces best results. The titanium alloys that are forged most often
are given in Table 14. This table also gives the
range of forging temperatures, as well as the beta
Cleaning transus temperature, for each alloy. The beta
After the forgings have been sandblasted to re- transus temperature establishes the maximum
move the die lubricant, they are dipped in a solu- temperature to which an alloy can be heated
tion of 8 6 nitric acid and 2% sulfuric acid, and without developing a new microstructure that
874 I Forging
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Temperature, "F
1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
6oo 80

1 I I I I
700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Temperature, "C

Fig. 18 Effect of forging temperature on forging pres-

sure for three titanium alloys and 4340 alloy
steel

Strain rate, in./in. per minute

may result in reduced final properties. Alpha-beta
Fig. 17 Effect of strain rate on forging pressure for several titanium alloys and4340 steel at various forgingtemperatures alloys can be strengthened by heat treatments that
cause some of the beta phase to transform into
alpha, finely dispersed in the beta phase. Re-
Table 14 Recommended forging temperature ranges for commonly forged cently, several beta and near-beta alloys have
titanium allow been developed that have excellent properties.
Dt Forging temperature(b1 These alloys can he forged at temperatures lower
Alloy "C 'F Process(a) "C OF than those required for alpha-beta alloys.
- All of the titanium alloy types exhibit a strong
ainear-a alloys dependence on flow stress, which in turn is
Ti-C.P.(c) 915 1675 C 815-900 1500- I650 highly dependent on temperature and strain rate
Ti-5A1-2.5Sn(c) I050 1925 C 900- 10 10 1650- I850
Ti-5A1-6Sn-2Zr-1Mo-0. ISi 1010 I850 C 900-995 1650- 1925 (Fig. 19 and 20). For the alpha, near-alpha, and
Ti-6AI-2Nb- ITa-0.8Mo 1015 1860 C 940- 1050 1725-1825 alpha-beta alloys, microstructure can also he an
B 1040-1 120 1900-2050 important consideration, particularly at the slower
Ti-6AI-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo( + O.ZSi)(d) 990 1815 C 900-975 1650- I790 strain rates. At strain rates in the range of 0.001
B I010- 1065 1850- I950 to 0.1 per second, a 2.5 X increase in the primary
Ti-SAIL 1Mo-IV I040 1900 C 900- 1020 1650-1870 alpha grain size could double the flow stress.
IMI 685 (Ti-6Al-5Zr-O.SMo-0.25Si)(e) 1030 I885 CiB 980-1050 1795- 1925 Beta or metastable alloys have become widely
IMI 829 (Ti-5.5A1-3.5Sn-3Zr-lNb-O.25Mo-0.3Si)(e) 1015 I860 CiB 980-1050 1795- 1925 accepted in the forging industry within the last
IMI 834 (Ti-5.5A1-4.SSn-4Zr-0.7Nh-O.SMo-0.4Si-0.06C)(e)
1010 1850 CiB 980- 1050 1795-1925
15 to 20 years. They have some forging advan-
a-p alloys tages over the other alloy systems in that some
Ti-6AI-4V(c) 995 1825 C 900-980 1650- 1800 of the primary forging is done in the beta-phase
B 10 10- I065 1850-1950 field, which requires lower forging pressures, and
Ti-6AI-4V ELI 975 I790 C 870-950 1600-1740 they have lower beta transus temperatures (see
n 990- I045 1815-1915 Table 14). F o r example, Ti-lOV-2Fe-3A1, when
Ti-6AI-6V-2Sn 945 1735 C 845-9 15 1550- I675
Ti-6AI-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo 940 I720 C 845-915 1550-1675 forged at 815 "C (1500 OF) has a flow stress
B 955- 1010 1750-1850 comparable to that of Ti-6AI-4V at 925 "C (1700
Ti-6AI-2Sn-2Zr-2Mo-2Cr 980 1795 C 870-955 1600-1750 OF). The forging pressures of alpha, near-alpha,
Ti- 17 (Ti-5AI-ZSn-ZZr-4Cr-4Mo(f) 885 1625 C 805-865 1480- 1590 and alpha-beta alloys could be significantly re-
B 900-970 1650-1775 duced by forging above the beta transus, but con-
Corona 5 (Ti-4.5A1-5Mo-I SCr) 925 I700 C 845-9 15 1550- 1675 cerns over the effect on properties prohibits this
B 955-1010 1750-1850 practice. There are also concerns about micro-
IMI 550 (Ti-4A1-4Mo-2Sn) 990 1810 C 900-970 1650- 1775
structural uniformity throughout the part.
IMI 679 (Ti-2AI-I ISn-4Zr-IMo-0.25Si) 945 I730 C 870-925 1600- I700
IMl 700 (Ti-6Al-SZr-4Mo- ICu-O.2Si) 1015 I860 C 800-900 1470-1650
pinear-pimetastable p alloys Conventional Forging
Ti-XAI-XV-2Fe-3AI 775 1425 CIB 705-980 1300-1800 The forging machines, die design, and die-
Ti- IOV-2Fe-3AI 805 1480 C 705-785 1300- 1450 heating practices used in conventional forging of
B 8 15-870 1500- 1600 titanium alloys are similar to those used in forg-
Ti-13V-I ICr-3AI 675 1250 CiB 650-955 1200- I750 ing of alloy steels except that the forging pres-
Ti- 15V-3Cr-3A1-3Sn 770 1415 cin 705-925 1300-1700
CIB 705-980 1300-1800
sures are higher. High degrees of dependency of
Beta C (Ti-3AI-SV-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr) 795 1460
Beta I11 (Ti-4.5Sn-6Zr-Il.SMo) 745 1375 CiB 705-955 1300-1750 flow stress on temperature and strain rate also
Transage 129 (Ti-2AI-I 1.5V-2Sn-I IZr) 720 1325 CiB 650-870 1200- 1600 require that these alloys not he allowed to lose
Transage 175 (Ti-2.7Al- 13V-7Sn-2Zr) 760 1410 cin 705-925 1300-1700 temperature during forging in relatively low-
speed machines (i.e., in hydraulic presses). In
(a) C, conventional forging processes in which most or all of the forging work is accomplished below the p, of the alloy for high-rate forging (i.e., in hammers), there is a
the purposes of desired mechanical property development. This forging method is also referred to as a-p forging. B, p forging danger of overheating as a result of heat genera-
processes in which some or all of the forging is conducted above the of the alloy to improve hot workability or to obtain tion due to large amounts of plastic deformation.
desired mechanical property combinations. CIB, either forging methodology (conventional or @)is employed in the fabrication Thus, depending on the forging machine being
of forgings or for alloys, such as p alloys, that are predominately forged above their @,hut may he finish forged at subtransus
temperatures. (b) These are recommended metal temperature ranges for conventional a-p or @ forging processes for alloys, for used, the initial stock temperature must be prop-
which the latter techniques are reported to have been employed. The lower limit of the forging temperature range is established erly selected so as not to increase the temperature
for open-die forging operations in which reheating ib recommended. (c) Alloys for which there are several compositional of the forging during deformation above the beta
variations (primarily oxygen or other interstitial element contents) that can affect both @,and forging temperature ranges. (d) This transus temperature. Thus, conventional forging
alloy is forged and used both with and without the silicon addition; however, the and recommended forging temperatures are of titanium alloys requires much closer tempera-
essentially the same. (e) Alloys designed to he predominately p forged. (f) Ti-I7 has been classified as an a-@and a? a near- ture and process control than are necessary in
@ titanium alloy. For purposes of this article, it is classified as an a-p alloy. forging of alloy steels.
 Forging of Specific Metals and Alloys / 875
LIVE GRAPH
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400 Both a soda barium glass and a borosilicate

glass are reported to provide complete fusion and
50 excellent surface protection. This coating is re-
50
._ 2 300 tained during forging, where it acts as a lubri-
2
m
3W
40
v)
Y
5 I 40
cant. The working temperature of the glass coat-
vi
vi
E
E
c
c
c
200 30 ing i s taken as the temperature at which the
viscosity is 0.1 Pa . s (100 cP). Glass coatings
m
2 3 20 soften between 675 and 760 "C (1250 and 1400
-g
30
200 G OF).
LL
G 100
10 Prolonged heating should be avoided for all
20 titanium alloys. If an unscheduled delay such as
t
I"V
"" 0 0 a press breakdown occurs, stock should be re-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 moved from the furnace, and then it should be
(a) Strain, % reheated when forging is resumed.
(a) Strain, %

Cleaning
600 40
80 Cracks or surface imperfections should be re-
m moved by grinding after forging operations.
n 200 30 Grinding normally is done at room temperature
5 400 60
vi after the metal is air cooled from the forging
E 40 20 temperature. Liquid-penetrant inspection or etch-
c
1W ing can be used as an aid to visual inspection of
200 the surface for defects.
-
U
20 10
The oxide layer that forms on titanium at forg-
n 0 ing temperatures is brittle and can promote crack-
0 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 ing of the underlying metal in subsequent bend-
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ing or forging. Consequently, it is often desirable
(b) Strain, % M Strain, % to remove the oxide between successive forging
operations.
400 Grit blasting is a reasonably effective method
250 of removing this oxide layer, which can vary in
h thickness from 0.13 to 0.76 mm (0.005 to 0.030
300 200 in.). The blasting is done with zircon sand (100
vi
to 150 mesh) at an air pressure of 275 kPa (40
E
c psi), although other types of grit are also used.
150
:2 w
v,

-
U
1 I I I
0 10 20 30 40
(c) Strain, %
Fig. 19 Effect of forging temperature o n flow stress of
titanium alloys at l o i s strain rate. (a) a-alloy
Ti-8AI-1Mo-1V. (b) a+ alloy Ti-6AI-4V. (c) Metastable p-
alloy Ti-lOV-2Fe-3AI
Dies
Forging of titanium alloys requires the use of
specially designed dies, for the following rea-
sons:
Shrinkage allowance in die sinking is 0.100 in.
per foot for forging titanium alloys, compared
with 0.187 in. per foot for dies used for forg-
ing steel.
0 Titanium alloys fill die contours less readily
than alloy steel, stainless steel, or aluminum
alloys: therefore, the die impressions for forg-
ing titanium alloys must have larger radii and
fillets. For intricate or close-tolerance forging,
more forging steps, and therefore more dies,
are usually needed for titanium alloys than for
steel.
0 Dies for forging titanium alloys must be more
rugged than for steel because greater force is
required. Dies for forging titanium alloys are
commonly about 50% thicker than dies used
for the same depth and severity of impression
for forging steel. If the die is not made consid-
erably thicker for titanium alloys, the number
of resinkings that can be made without risk of
die breakage will be fewer.
0 Maintaining a good surface finish on dies is
more important for forging titanium than for
100
I I
50 60
50
n generated, resulting in erosion of the titanium
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
(c) Strain, %
Fig. 20 Effect of three strain rates (0.001,0.1,and 1O is)
on flow stress of three titanium alloys forged
at different temperatures. (a)a-alloy Ti-8AI-1 Mo-l V at 955
"C (1 750 "F). (h) a-P alloy Ti-6AI-4V at 900 "C (1 650 "F).
(c) Metastable P-alloy Ti-lOV-2Fe-3AI at 81 5 "C (1 500 "F)
steel because of the relatively poor flow char-
acteristics of titanium.
Practices for die-material selection, die harden-
ing, and die heating are similar to those used in
forging of alloy steels.
Preparation and Heating of Stock
Production of sound forgings from titanium al-
loys requires that all surface defects on stock be
removed. Therefore, all billets should be rough
machined or rough ground on all surfaces, and
bars should be turned or centerless ground to en-
sure that all surfaces are free from defects. Saw-
ing is the preferred method for cutting stock to
length.
Heating of titanium alloys is critical, both in
terms of providing protection against harmful
contaminants, such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon,
and hydrogen, and of controlling temperature
within narrow limits. Although heating in vac-
uum or in a suitably inert atmosphere is feasible,
billets are often precoated with a glass-type coat-
ing material and heated in the usual manner.
Salt bath descaling followed by acid pickling
i s an effective method for removing scale from
titanium alloys. The process must be closely con-
trolled, however, or the work metal may become
embrittled. Also, titanium racks must be used;
with steel racks, electric rotential would be
work metal.
Isothermal and Hot-Die Forging
Because the forging behavior of titanium alloys
i s highly temperature-dependent, as illustrated in
Fig. 17 for various alloys, it is desirable to forge
these alloys under isothermal conditions (dies at
the same temperature as the forging) or under
hot-die conditions (dies slightly below forging
temperature). Thus, the part can be forged at low
speeds to reduce flow stress and forging pressure,
without much danger of die chilling. The effect
of strain rate on flow stress is shown in Fig. 20.
Isothermal or hot-die forging, however, requires
expensive die-heating systems and die materials
that can maintain their strength at temperatures
from 815 to 925 "C (1500 to 1700 OF). Die mate-
rials that are suitable for this purpose are heat-
resisting alloys such as Waspaloy, Udimet 700,
Astroloy IN-100, and Inconel 71 3C.
In isothermal and hot-die forging, stringent de-
mands are placed on forging lubricants and stock
coatings as well as on die lubrication. Various
glass mixtures are used for coating the billets.
In addition, i t is often necessary to apply an addi-
tional "die-separation agent" to the stock prior
to forging so that the forged part can be removed
from the die without distortion. Several isother-
mal forging lubricantsicoatings are commercially
available, and many others have been developed
by various companies active in this technology
and are considered proprietary.