Pramote Dechaumphai, S. Sucharitpwatskul (2018) - Finite Element Analysis With ANSYS Workbench

Finite Element Analysis
with ANSYS Workbench
Pramote Dechaumphai
Sedthawat Sucharitpwatskul
α
Alpha Science International Ltd.
Oxford, U.K.
Finite Element Analysis with ANSYS Workbench
280 pgs.
Pramote Dechaumphai
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chulalongkorn University
Pathumwan, Bangkok
Thailand
National Metal and Materials Technology Center
National Science and Technology Development Agency
KlongLuang, Pathumthani
Thailand
Copyright © 2018
ALPHA SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL LTD.
7200 The Quorum, Oxford Business Park North
Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2JZ, U.K.
www.alphasci.com
ISBN 978-1-78332-369-2
E-ISBN 978-1-78332-433-0
Printed from the camera-ready copy provided by the Authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written
permission of the publisher.
PREFACE
The book “Finite Element Analysis with ANSYSWorkbench” is written for students
who want to use the software while learning the finite element method. The book
is also suitable for designers and engineers before using the software to analyze
realistic problems.
The book contains twelve chapters describing different analyses of engineering
problems. These problems are in the fields of solid mechanics, heat transfer and fluid
flows. In each chapter, the governing differential equations and the finite element
method are presented. An academic example is used to demonstrate the ANSYS
procedure for solving it in detail. An application example is also included at the end
of each chapter to highlight the software capability for analyzing realistic problems.
The ANSYS files for application problems can be downloaded from the book
website:
https://goo.gl/BDSBRQ
These files can be modified to increase understanding on how to use the
software.
The authors would like to thank the ANSYS, Inc., USA for providing the
software to prepare this book and the CAD-IT Consultants (Asia) Pte Ltd for the
book distribution. The authors appreciate Dr. Edward Warute Dechaumphai for
proof-reading the book manuscript.
Pramote Dechaumphai
CONTENTS
Preface iii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Solving Engineering Problems 1
1.1.1 Problem Ingredients 2
1.1.2 Solution Methods 3
1.2 Finite Element Method 4
1.2.1 What is the Finite Element Method? 4
1.2.2 Finite Element Method Procedure 5
1.3 ANSYS Software 6
1.3.1 ANSYS Workbench 7
1.3.2 Screen and Tool Bars 7
1.3.3 Analyzing steps 9
1.4 Advantages of Finite Element Method 11
Chapter 2 Truss Analysis 13

2.1 Basic Equations 13
2.1.1 Differential Equation 13
2.1.2 Related Equations 14
2.2.1 Finite Element Equations 15
2.2.2 Element Types 15
2.3 Academic Example 17
2.3.1 Two Truss Members in One Dimension 17
2.3.2 Two Truss Members in Two Dimensions 29
2.4 Application 39
2.4.1 Twenty-one Truss Members in Two Dimensions 39
Chapter 3 Beam Analysis 41

vi Contents

3.3.1 Two Beam Members in Two Dimensions 45
3.3.2 Twenty-one Beam Members in Two Dimensions 55
3.4 Application 56
3.4.1 Racing Car Frame Structure 56
Chapter 4 Plane Stress Analysis 61

4.1.1 Differential Equations 61
4.3.1 Plate with Circular Cut-out 66
4.4 Application 77
4.4.1 Stress in Motorcycle Chain Wheel 77
Chapter 5 Plate Bending Analysis 81

5.3.1 Simply-supported Plate under Uniform Loading 86
5.4 Application 96
5.4.1 Stress in Shelf Angle Bracket 96
Chapter 6 Three-Dimensional Solid Analysis 99

6.3.1 Simple 3D Solid Problem 105
6.4 Application 114
6.4.1 Stress in Aircraft Structural Component 114
Contents vii
Chapter 7 Vibration Analysis 117
7.3.1 Vibration of Thin Plate 124
7.4 Application 132
7.4.1 Modal Analysis of Passenger Car Frame 132
Chapter 8 Failure Analysis 135

8.1 Buckling 136
8.1.1 Fundamentals 136
8.1.2 Academic Example 138
8.1.3 Application 147
8.2 Fatigue and Life Prediction 150
8.2.1 Fundamentals 150
8.2.2 Academic Example 153
8.2.3 Application 162
Chapter 9 Heat Transfer Analysis 165

9.3.1 Plate with Specified Edge Temperatures 171
9.4 Application 179
9.4.1 Three-dimensional Heat Transfer Through Fins 179
Chapter 10 Thermal Stress Analysis 185

viii Contents
10.3.1 Thermal Stress Analysis of Thin Plate 190

10.4 Application 202
10.4.1 Thermal Stress in Combustion Engine Cylinder 202
Chapter 11 Incompressible Flow Analysis 207

11.1.2 Solution Approach 209
11.2 Finite Volume Method 209
11.2.1 Finite Volume Equations 210
11.2.2 SIMPLE Method 211
11.3.1 Lid-Driven Cavity Flow 212
11.3.2 Flow past Cylinder in Channel 222
11.4.1 Flow in Piping System 227
Chapter 12 Compressible Flow Analysis 231

12.2.1 Finite Volume Equations 234
12.2.2 Computational Procedure 236
12.3.1 Mach 3 Flow over Inclined Plane 238
12.3.2 Mach 3 Flow over Cylinder 251
12.4.1 Flow over Shuttle Nose and Cockpit 255
Bibliography 259
Index 263
Chapter
1
Introduction
1.1 Solving Engineering Problems

Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) has played an
important role in engineering design and analysis. Designers and
engineers nowadays use CAE software packages to improve their
product quality. The software packages help reducing designed
time and material consumption while increasing the product
strength and life time. Trial-and-error process, based solely on
intuition of designers and engineers, is minimized or eliminated.
Most of CAE software packages employ the finite
element and finite volume methods to provide design and analysis
solutions. These methods are based on engineering mathematics
together with the application of numerical methods. The output
numerical solutions are converted and displayed graphically so that
2 Chapter 1 Introduction
the simulated results can be understood easily. Without knowing

how the software solves the problem, it is difficult for new users to
be confident with the validity of output solutions.
Mathematics and engineering governing equations
embedded in these CAE software packages represent the nature of
the problem being considered. As an example of fluid flow
problem, mass and momentums must be conserved at any location
in the flow domain. Such conservations are expressed in form of
partial differential equations that are taught in fluid flow courses.
This means users should have some background in mathematics
together with the understanding of their physical meanings. By
employing the finite volume method, these partial differential
equations are transformed into a large set of algebraic equations. A
computer program is developed to solve these algebraic equations
for the flow solutions. The computed solutions are displayed as
color graphics on computer screen.
Similarly, users need to understand the equilibrium
equations before analyzing a structural problem. These equilibrium
equations are again in form of the partial differential equations as
seen in many solid mechanics textbooks. The finite element
method transforms these differential equations into their
corresponding algebraic equations. A computer program is
developed to solve such algebraic equations for the deformed shape
and stresses that occur in the structure.
The explanation above indicates that users should have
backgrounds in mathematics and physics of the problem being
solved. Users are also needed to understand the finite
element/volume method prior to use any CAE software package.
They can then convince themselves on the solutions generated by
the software. This is one of the main reasons that most universities
are offering the finite element/volume method courses to
engineering students.
1.1.1 Problem Ingredients
Solutions to an engineering problem depend on the

three components:
(a) Differential Equations. The differential equations

interpret and model physical behavior of the problem into
mathematical functions. For example, if we would like to
determine temperature distribution of a ceramic cup containing hot
coffee, we need to solve the differential equation that describes the
conservation of energy at any location on the cup. The differential
equation contains partial derivative terms representing conduction
heat transfer inside the cup material. Such differential equation is
not easy to solve using analytical approaches.
(b) Boundary Conditions. The temperature distribution
on the cup depends on the coffee temperature inside the cup and the
surrounding ambient temperature outside the cup surface.
Different boundary conditions thus affect the cup temperature
solution.
(c) Geometry. Cup shapes also affect their temperature
distribution, even though they are made from the same material and
placed under the same boundary conditions. The cup temperature
changes if the cup is larger or thicker.
The three components above always affect the solutions
of the problem being solved. In undergraduate classes, we learned
how to solve simplified forms of differential equations subjected to
simple boundary conditions on plain geometries to obtain exact or
analytical solutions. For real-life practical problems, they are
governed by coupled differential equations which are quite
sophisticated. Their boundary conditions and geometries are
complicated. Numerical methods such as the finite element and
finite volume methods are employed to provide accurate
approximated solutions.
1.1.2 Solution Methods
Methods for finding solutions can be categorized into

two types:
(a) Analytical Method. The analytical method herein
refers to a mathematical technique used to find an exact or
analytical solution for a given problem. The technique can provide
solutions only for simple problems as taught in undergraduate

courses where differential equations, boundary conditions and
geometries are not complicated. Most problems are limited to one
dimensional problems so that their governing equations can be
simplified from partial to ordinary differential equations.
(b) Numerical Method. If the differential equations,
boundary conditions and geometry of a given problem are
complicated, solving with analytical method is not feasible. We
need to find an approximate solution from a numerical method.
There are many numerical techniques for finding solutions to
complex problems. The popular techniques widely used are the
finite element and finite volume methods. This is mainly because
both techniques can handle problems with complex geometry
effectively.
Both the finite element and finite volume methods
transform the governing differential equations into algebraic
equations. In the process, many numerical techniques are needed.
The techniques include solving a large set of algebraic equations,
understanding concepts of the interpolation functions, determining
derivatives and integrations of functions numerically, etc. Details
of these techniques are taught in undergraduate numerical method
courses and can be found in many introductory numerical method
textbooks.
1.2 Finite Element Method

Because most of CAE commercial software packages
employ the finite element method to solve for solutions, we will
introduce the method in this section.
1.2.1 What is the Finite Element Method?
The finite element method is a numerical technique for
finding approximated solutions of problems in science and
engineering. These problems are governed by the three
components including differential equations, boundary conditions
and geometries.
The method starts by dividing the problem domain or

geometry into a number of small elements. These elements are
connected via nodes where the unknowns are to be determined.
The finite element equations for each element are derived from the
governing differential equations describing physics. These finite
element equations are assembled into a large set of algebraic
equations. The boundary conditions are then imposed to the set of
algebraic equations to solve for solutions at each node.
We will understand the procedure of the finite element
method in details in the following section.
1.2.2 Finite Element Method Procedure

The finite element method procedure generally consists
of 6 steps:
Step 1: The first step is to construct the domain geometry of the

given problem. The geometry may consist of straight lines, curves,
circles, surfaces or solid shapes in three dimensions. Different
software packages have their unique ways to create geometry.
Users may have to spend some times to familiarize with the
software. A finite element mesh is then generated on the
constructed geometry. Depending on the complexity of the
geometry, a mesh may consist of various element types such as
line, triangular or brick element. These elements are connected at
nodes for which the problem unknowns are located.
Step 2: The second step is to select the element types. For

examples, a line element may consist of two or three nodes, or a
triangular element may have three or six nodes. The number of
element nodes affects the interpolation functions used in that
element. Selecting an element with more nodes will increase the
number of unknowns and thus the computational time. However,
the solution accuracy can also increase when a more complicated
interpolation function is used.
Step 3: The third step is the most important step of the finite
element method. This step is the derivation of the finite element
equations from the governing differential equations. The derived

finite element equations are in the form of algebraic equations that
can be computed numerically. The transformation process must be
carried out correctly so that the derived algebraic equations can
yield accurate solutions.
Step 4: The finite element equations from all elements are then
assembled to become a large set of algebraic equations.
Assembling element equations must be done properly. This is
similar to placing jigsaw pieces at appropriate locations to yield the
complete picture.
Step 5: The boundary conditions of the problem are then imposed

on the set of algebraic equations before solving for the nodal
unknowns. The nodal unknowns are the displacements for
structural problem and are the temperatures for heat transfer
problem.
Step 6: Other quantities of interest can then be solved. For

structural problem, stresses in the structure can be determined after
the displacements are known. For heat transfer problem, heat
fluxes can be computed once the nodal temperatures are obtained.
The six steps above indicate that the method is quite
general and suitable for a large class of problems in science and
engineering. The three problem ingredients which are the
differential equations, boundary conditions and geometry are
handled in the third, fifth and first step of the method, respectively.
1.3 ANSYS Software

ANSYS software was first developed in 1970 by John
Swanson who was an engineer at Westinghouse Astronuclear
Laboratory. The software was originally for stress analysis of
nuclear reactor components. He later founded Swanson Analysis
System, which was named as ANSYS, Inc. His ANSYS software
then became an industry leading finite element program for
analyzing engineering problems and optimizing products. At the
same time, NASTRAN (NAsa STRuctural ANalysis program) was

also popular and being used by NASA Engineers. I remembered
Dr. Swanson came to NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton,
Virginia to promote his software while I was an engineer there. He
gave coffee cups with the early yellow/black ANSYS logo to
NASA engineers working in the CAE department.
Nowadays, ANSYS is a software widely used all over
the world for analyzing a large class of problems in many fields.
This is mainly because the software is easy to learn and use.
Various problems can be solved conveniently while solutions are
displayed graphically on the computer screen.
1.3.1 ANSYS Workbench

In the early days of ANSYS development, the Disk
Operating System (DOS) was the most widely used operating
system on computers. ANSYS users needed to type long and
specific commands through keyboards. These commands were
required to construct model geometry, such as lines, arcs, surfaces,
volumes, etc. Various commands were also needed to create
meshes, apply boundary conditions and execute the problem for
solutions. Using the software for analyzing a problem at that time
was not convenient at all.
Development of Windows environment has provided
the ease of using the software. With mouse and keyboard, users
can interact with the software graphically. Lately, ANSYS has
introduced the Workbench function which further simplifies the use
of the software via Graphic User Interface (GUI). The ANSYS
Workbench is employed to solve various types of problems
presented as examples in this book.
1.3.2 Screen and Tool Bars

The starting workbench window consists of the menu
and tool bars at the top. The large two areas below are the Toolbox
and Project Schematic regions as shown in the figure.
The frequently used menu items are:

File Create a new file, open an existing file, save the
current file, import existing model, etc.
View Arrange the window layout, customize the toolbox,
etc.
Tools Set the license preference, select options of
appearance, languages, graphics interaction, etc.
Units Select unit systems, define user’s units, etc.
Help Get Help from ANSYS.
The toolbox region on the
left side of the screen contains
numerous systems. These include
the analysis, component, custom and
external connection systems with
design exploration. The analysis
system consists of several tools for
solving different classes of problems
such as static and transient structural
analyses, buckling and modal
analyses, steady-state and transient
thermal analyses, fluid flow analysis.
These analytical tools are shown in
the figure.
The project schematic region on the right side of the

screen is the working area. This larger region is for the user to
view what is happening at different stages starting from creating
geometry domain, discretizing domain into a number of small
elements, applying boundary conditions, solving for solutions and
displaying results.
1.3.3 Analyzing steps

The analyzing steps via the Workbench follow the
standard finite element procedure. As an example of analyzing a
static structural problem, we double-click at the Static Structural
under the Analysis Systems in the Toolbox window. A small cell
of Static Structural will appear in the Project Schematic window
as shown in the figure.
The cell consists of seven items as follows:

1. Static Structural Perform static analysis of a structure.
2. Engineering Data Provide engineering data associated with
the problem, such as the material modulus
of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, coefficient of
thermal expansion, etc.
3. Geometry Create model geometry of the problem by

constructing lines, arcs, circles, surfaces,
etc. This step is normally time consuming
especially for complex configuration. An
imported CAD model file could help
reducing the effort.
4. Model Assign materials and generate a mesh by
discretizing the model into a number of
small elements. The process is performed
automatically.
5. Setup Specify boundary conditions such as the
constraints and loadings, as well as some
specific analysis settings.
6. Solution Solve the problem for solutions. This step
is executed automatically if the information
provided in the preceding steps is complete.
7. Results Display solutions in different forms, such as
color contours, vectors and surface plots.
The check mark symbol ( ) will appear on the right

side of the step if that step has been carried out correctly. ANSYS
Workbench uses different symbols to explain status of the step as
follows:
Nothing is done because upstream data is not available.

Refresh is needed since upstream data has changed.
Attention is required. User interaction is needed.
Update is required because upstream data was modified.
Everything is OK.
Solution is interrupted. Need correction to resume
action.
Solution is in progress.
1.4 Advantages of Finite Element Method 11
We will follow the above procedure, step by step, to

analyze different types of problems in the following chapters.
These include structural, heat transfer and fluid flow problems
using one-, two- and three-dimensional finite element models. We
will find that, if we performed each step correctly, the ANSYS
Workbench will show the check mark symbol ( ) on the right side
of the step. But if we see other symbols, we need to go back and
fix that step before moving on. The process thus ensures us that
everything has been done appropriately before obtaining the final
solutions.
1.4 Advantages of Finite Element Method

The finite element method is popular and widely used
by scientists and engineers all over the world for analyzing various
types of problems. Examples of problems are as follows.
(a) Stress analyses of large-scale structures such as bridges,
ships, trains, aircrafts, automobiles and buildings.
Structural analysis for small-scale products are such as
automotive and electronic parts, furniture, machine
equipment, etc.
(b) Vibration and dynamic analyses of high-voltage power
transmission towers, expressway signs under strong
wind, crash simulation of automobiles, turbine blades
operating under high pressure and temperature, etc.
(c) Fluid analyses of air flows over cities, air ventilation in
large halls, inside offices, cleanrooms, computer cases,
etc.
(d) Electromagnetic analyses around power transmission
lines, electric motors, sensitive electronic devices, etc.
(e) Bio-mechanic analyses of blood flow in human hearts
and veins, artificial joints and bones, etc.
(f) Analyses of other problems in which their experiments

are dangerous to human or too costly for multiple tests,
such as hazardous chemical reaction in gas chambers,
prediction of bomb explosion phenomena, flow field
around hypersonic aerospace plane, etc.
Advantages of the finite element method as highlighted
above have led to many commercial software packages. Users of
these software packages must have good background and
understanding of the method prior to using them. Basic
mathematical theories and the finite element method for structural,
heat transfer and fluid flow analyses will be presented in the
following chapters with examples. Understanding materials in
these chapters is encouraged before using the ANSYS Workbench
with confidence.
Chapter
2
Truss Analysis
Analysis of truss structures is normally used as the first

step toward understanding the finite element method. The analysis
is simple because the truss (rod or spring) element contains only a
displacement unknown in its axial direction at each node. The
finite element equations are easy to derive and problems with few
elements can be solved by hands.
2.1 Basic Equations

2.1.1 Differential Equation
A one-dimensional equilibrium equation, in the x-
direction of a truss member without the inclusion of its body force,
is governed by the equilibrium equation,
14 Chapter 2 Truss Analysis
 x
 0
x
where  x is the truss axial stress.
2.1.2 Related Equations

The truss stress varies with the strain  x by the Hook’s
law,
 x  E x
where E is the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus. The
strain  x is related to the displacement according to the small
deformation theory as,
u
x 
x
where u  u ( x) is the displacement that varies with the distance x
along the length of the truss member. Thus, the stress can be
written in form of the displacement as,
u
x  E
x
The governing differential equation, for the case of constant
Young’s modulus, becomes,
 2u
E  0
x2
For a truss member that lies only in the x-direction, the
displacement distribution u  u ( x) can be derived from the
differential equation above. This is done by performing integra-
tions twice and applying the problem boundary conditions. The
stress of the truss member can be then determined. However, if the
problem contains many truss members oriented in three
dimensions, it is not easy to determine their deformed shape and
member stresses. The finite element method offers a convenient
way to find the solution as explained in the following section.
2.2.1 Finite Element Equations

Finite element equations can be derived from the
governing differential equation by using the Method of Weighted
Residuals (MWR). The idea of the method is to transform the
differential equation into the corresponding algebraic equations by
requiring that the error is minimum. These algebraic equations
consist of numerical operations of addition, subtraction, multi-
plication and division. Such operations allow the use of calculators
to determine solutions for small problems. For larger problems, a
computer program must be developed and employed.
The derived finite element equations are normally
written in matrix form so that they can be used in computer
programming easily. The finite element equations for the truss
element are,
 K u  F 
where  K  is the element stiffness matrix; u is the column
matrix or vector that consists the nodal displacement unknowns;
and  F  is the column matrix or vector that contains the nodal
loads. These matrices depend on the element types used as
explained in the following section.
2.2.2 Element Types

The standard two-node truss element is shown in the
figure. The element lies in the x-coordinate direction and consists
of a node at each end. The element length is L with the cross-
sectional area of A and made from a material that has the Young’s
modulus of E . At an equilibrium condition, the forces at node 1
and 2 are F1 and F2 , causing the displacements of u1 and u 2 in its
axial direction, respectively.
u1 u2
F1 F2
1 A, E 2
x
L
The displacement distribution is assumed to vary
linearly along the element axial x-direction in the form,
u 
u ( x)  N1 ( x) u1  N2 ( x) u2   N1 ( x) N2 ( x)   1 
u2 
  N ( x )  u
(1 2) (21)
u ( x) u2 where N1 ( x ) and N2 ( x) are the

element interpolation functions.
For this two-node element, they
u1
are,
x
1 2 N1 ( x )  1 
L
x
x
L and N2 ( x) 
L
A truss element may contain more than two nodes.
As an example, the three-node truss element, as shown in the
figure, assumes the displacement distribution in the form,
u ( x) u3 u ( x)  N1 ( x) u1  N2 ( x) u2
 N3 ( x) u3
u1 u2  u1 
  N1 ( x) N2 ( x) N3 ( x)  u2 
1 3  
2 u3 
xL L   N ( x )  u 
(13) (31)
2 2
where N1 ( x ) , N2 ( x) และ N3 ( x) are the interpolation functions
expressed by,
3 x 2 x2 4 x 4 x2
N1 ( x )  1   2 ; N2 ( x)   2 ;
L L L L
x 2 x2
N3 ( x )   
L L2
The assumed displacement distribution of the three-
node element is more complicated than that of the two-node
element. Thus, the three-node element can provide higher solution
accuracy. However, the element requires more computational time
because it contains more nodal unknowns.
The finite element equations for the two-node element
are,
AE  1 1  u1   F1 
      
L  1 1  u2   F2 
If we have a finite element model consisting of 10 elements, we
need to establish 10 sets of finite element equations. These element
equations are then assembled to form up a system of equations.
The problem boundary conditions are applied before solving for the
displacement unknowns at nodes.
If a finite element model containing many truss
elements is in two or three dimensions, the finite element equations
above are needed to transform into to two or three dimensions
accordingly. The transformation causes the finite element matrices
to become larger leading to a larger set of algebraic equations.
Such the larger set of algebraic equations requires more computer
memory and computational time. However, these requirements do
not pose any difficulty to current computers. Commercial software
packages today have been developed to analyze complex truss
structures containing a large number of elements effectively.
2.3 Academic Example

2.3.1 Two Truss Members in One Dimension
A model with two truss members connected together in
one dimension is shown in the figure. The two truss members have
the lengths of 0.5 and 1.0 m, cross-sectional areas of .002 and .001
m2, and made from materials with Young’s modulus of 5 107 and
10 107 N m 2 , respectively. The left end of the model is fixed at
a wall while the connecting point and the right end are subjected to
the forces of 300 and 500 N, respectively. By using only one two-
node element to represent each truss member, determine the
deformed configuration and the truss member stresses.
A1  .002 m 2 A2  .001 m 2
E1  5 10 7 N m 2 E2  10  10 7 N m 2
500 N
1 2 300 N 3 x
1 2
0.5 m 1.0 m
We will employ the ANSYS Workbench to analyze this

problem by going through the steps in details as follows.
(a) Starting ANSYS Workbench

 Open the ANSYS Workbench, set the Units menu on the
upper tab to Metric (kg,m,s,C,A,N,V).
 On the Analysis Systems window, click twice on the Static
Structural item. A new small box will appear on the
Project Schematic window.
 Retype the name in the lower blue tab as the desired project
name, e.g., 1D Truss Problem, and hit Enter.
 Right click on the Engineering Data tab and select the
Edit… option, the A2: Engineering Data window will
appear. Double click on Click here to add a new material
and type in a new material name, e.g., “Material 1”, and hit
Enter.
 Click at the Isotropic Elasticity under Linear Elastic and
drag it to the Property list at the bottom of the window.
Enter the Young’s Modulus value as 5e7 and hit Enter,
enter the Poisson Ratio value as 0.3 and hit Enter, and
close this window.
 Repeat the same process to provide data of the second
material with the Young’s Modulus of 10e7 and Poisson
Ratio of 0.3 and assign the name as “Material 2”.
 Then, close the Engineering Data tab and click at the
Project tab on the upper menu, it will bring back to the
main Project Schematic window.
(b) Creating Geometry
 Right click on the Geometry tab and select the Properties

option, the Properties of Schematic window will open.
Select the Line Bodies under the Basic Geometry Options.
Then, close this small window.
 Right click on the Geometry tab and select the New
Geometry…. This will launch the ANSYS Design
Modeler (green logo DM).
 On DM window, set unit in the Units menu on the upper
tab to Meter.
 On the Tree Outline window, right click on XYPlane and
select Look at. The X-Y-Z coordinates on the Model View
in 3D view will become X-Y coordinates in 2D view.
 Select the Sketching tab below the Tree Outline window,

the Sketching Toolboxes will appear in the same place.
 Select the Settings tab and then Grid, activate the buttons
Show in 2D and Snap. The grid will appear on the main
window. Grid snapping provides convenience for drawing
model geometry.
 Change the Major Grid Spacing to 1 m and hit Enter,
Minor-Steps per Major to 2 and hit Enter, and Snaps per
Minor to 1 and hit Enter.
 Enlarge the scale by clicking at the Box Zoom icon on the

upper part of the screen (icon with plus sign on the
magnifying glass) and draw a box with appropriate size to
zoom in. Click it again after appropriate scale is shown on

the window. The model can be moved around using the
Pan icon, the four arrows icon on the upper part of the
screen.
 Click on Modeling tab, and then click the New Sketch icon
(a small blue geometry symbol with * on the upper part of
the DM window) to create Sketch1 which will appear under
XYPlane. Note that this name Sketch1 can be deleted or
renamed by right clicking on it and selecting an option.
 Click on Sketch1 to start drawing the first line for the left
truss element.
 Click the Sketching tab and select Draw. Choose Line to
create the first line with the end coordinates of (0,0) and
(0.5,0). This is done by first clicking at the coordinates of
(0,0), move the cursor to the coordinates of (0.5,0), and
click the mouse again. Click on Generate (the icon with
yellow lightning on the upper-left part of the screen). The
first line will become dark green.
 If the model contains many lines that have same material
property and cross-sectional area, the same process can be
used to create the additional lines.
 The next important step is to click the Concept tab on top
of the screen and select Lines From Sketches.
 Then, select Sketch1, this line will become yellow.
 Click Apply icon on the right side of the Base Objects tab
in the Details View window at the lower left of the screen.
The line will become cyan, then click on Generate. The
right side of the Base Objects tab will show 1 Sketch. The
1 Part, 1 Body item will appear in the Tree Outline
window.
 To draw the second line representing the right element,
select New Sketch, the item Sketch 2 will pop up beneath
Sketch 1. The second line that connects between the
coordinates of (0.5,0) and (1.5,0) can be drawn using the
same process. Then, select Concept and Lines From
Sketches.
 Select Sketch 2, this second line will become yellow.
Before clicking on Apply button, be sure to change Add
Material on the right side of Operation in the Details
View window to Add Frozen. Without doing this, by
default, the two lines would become a single line and only
one material property is allowed.
 Click on Base Objects again, the Apply button appears.
Select Sketch 2 and click Apply, the second line will
become cyan. The 2 Parts, 2 Bodies will appear in the
Tree Outline window.
 Double-click on 2 Parts, 2 Bodies, the two items under the

same name of Line Body appear beneath it. Note that these
two line bodies are not connected yet. To connect them
together, hold Ctrl key and select both Line Body. Then,
right click and select Form New Part. The two line bodies
will be connected to become 1 Part, 2 Bodies.
 At this point, we now have a model consisting of two lines.
 Next step is to create the cross sections of the two lines.
For the left line, select Rectangular item in Cross Section
under the Concept tab. In the Details of Rect1 window,
change the base value B to 0.05 and hit Enter, the height
value H to 0.04 and hit Enter. A blue rectangular cross
section will appear on the main Graphic window. Then,
click Generate.
 Repeat the same process to create the cross section of the

right line by selecting Rectangular in Cross Section under
Concept tab. In the Details of Rect2 window, change the
base B value to 0.04 and the height H value to 0.025.
 Next, assign the cross sections Rect1 and Rect2 to the two
line bodies. Double click at 1 Part, 2 Bodies and select the
first Line Body, assign Rect1 to the Cross section
selection in the Details of Line Body window. Similarly,
select the second Line Body, assign Rect2 to the Cross
section selection in the Details of Line Body window.
 Save file as 1D Truss Problem through the File button at
the upper left of the screen, and close the DM window.
(c) Assigning Material Properties and Creating Mesh

 On the main Project Schematic window, double click on
Model, the truss model will appear back on the main
window.
 Double click on Geometry cell, the Part 1 item will pop
up. Click on this Part 1, two lines of Line Body will pop
up. Click on the first Line Body and select Material 1 (the
name assigned earlier containing material properties of left
element) which is on the right-hand-side of Assignment
under Material in the Details of “Line Body” window.
The left line will become green.
 Repeat the same process to assign Material 2 containing

material properties of the right element to the second Line
Body.
 Select Mesh under Model section, the Details of “Mesh”
window will appear on the lower left of the screen. Select
Element Size under Sizing and change the value on the
right column to 10 and hit Enter. This input value of 10 m
is to ensure that each line body is modelled by using only 1
element. Right click at the Mesh again and select Generate
Mesh. A finite element mesh with only two truss elements
will appear.
 Save the project and close the DM window.
(d) Applying Boundary Conditions, Solving for and Display-

ing Solutions
Setup, the truss model will appear back on the main
window.
 We first apply the fixed boundary condition at the left end
by selecting Analysis Settings under Static Structural.
Click on the Support tab on the upper menu bar with Fixed
Support option, then select Vertex icon (box with arrow
and green dot). Move the cursor to the center of the left end
edge and click at it, a small green spot will appear. Then,
click Apply button next to the Geometry button under the
Details of “Fixed Supports” window.
 Repeat the same process to constrain the displacements in

the Y- and Z-directions of the middle and right nodes. This
is done by selecting Analysis Setting under Static
Structural. Select Displacement under Supports tab, hold
Ctrl key and click at the middle and right nodes. Then,
click Apply and change the value of Displacement to 0
only for Y and Z Component.
 To apply the boundary condition of the force at the middle
node, click on the Analysis Settings, select the Loads tab
on the upper menu bar with Force option, and select Vertex
icon. Move the cursor to the middle node and click at it.
Select Components option on the right side of Define By in
the Details of “Force” window. Click Apply button, and
input X Component as 300 and hit Enter.
 Similarly, the boundary condition for applying force of 500

N at the right node can be performed in the same way.
 For truss analysis, all the nodes must be the hinge type
which is free to rotate. Click Tools at the upper tab and
select Options…. Select Connections and change the right
side of Fixed Joints to No and click OK.
 The problem is now ready to solve for solution. Right click
on the Solution item under Static Structural and select the
Solve tab.
 Click the Solution item, the Deformation tab will appear
on the lower menu bar. Click on this Deformation tab and
Select the Total option, the Total Deformation item will
pop-up beneath the Solution item. Right click at the Total
Deformation item and select Evaluate All Results, the
displacement solution in form of color fringe plot will
appear.
 Note that the node and element numbers can be displayed
by clicking at the Preferences tab on the upper part of the
screen. Then, select Node Numbers and Element
Numbers under Mesh Display and click Enter.
 Nodal displacement values can also be exported as a text
file by right clicking on Total Deformation or Directional
Deformation. Then, select Export… and Export Text
File, respectively.
 Solution of displacement values can be displayed by

selecting the Probe tab on the upper bar of the screen.
Move the mouse to the desired location and click at it, the
corresponding displacement value will appear.
 To display element stresses, right click on Solution and
select Insert, Beam Tool and Beam Tool, respectively, a
Beam Tool item will appear beneath Solution item.
 Right click on this Beam Tool item, select Insert, Beam
Tool, Stress and Direct Stress. Select Unaveraged on the
right side of Display Option in the Details of “Direct
Stress 2” box. Right click on Direct Stress 2 item and
select Evaluate All Results, the uniform element stresses
will be displayed.
2.3.2 Two Truss Members in Two Dimensions

A two-dimensional truss model consisting of only two
members is shown in the figure. The two members have the same
cross-sectional area of .0004 m2 and made from the same material
with the Young’s modulus of 7 1010 N m 2 . The lower right
hinge is subjected to a horizontal force of 500 N pulling to the right
and a downward force of 2500 N. Each member is modelled by a
two-node truss element. We will use ANSYS Workbench to solve
for the deformed shape of the truss structure and the stresses that
occur in each member.
A  .02  .02  .0004 m 2

E  7 1010 N m 2
1m
2500 N
500 N
X
1m
When using ANSYS to solve a truss structure, it is

important to keep in mind that the truss element allows only axial
loading. The connection between truss members must be hinge
type which is free to rotate. The truss element is different from the
beam element that allows bending. We will use the beam elements
to analyze frame structures in the following chapter.


name, e.g., Two Truss Element Problem, and hit Enter.
pop-up. Double click on Click here to add a new
material and type in a new material name, e.g., “My
Aluminum Material”, and hit Enter.
Enter the Poisson Ratio value as 0.3 and hit Enter, and
close this window. Then, close the Engineering Data tab
and click at the Project tab on the upper menu, it will bring
back to the main Project Schematic window.


tab to Meter.

the Sketching Toolboxes will pop-up in the same place.
window. Grid snapping provides convenience for drawing
model.
 Change the Major Grid Spacing to 1 m and hit Enter,
Minor-Steps per Major to 2 and hit Enter, and Snaps per
Minor to 1 and hit Enter.
zoom in. Click it again after appropriate scale is shown on
the window. The model can be moved around using the
Pan icon, the four arrows icon on the upper part of the
screen.
 Click on Sketch1 to start drawing the two truss elements.
(1,0). This is done by first clicking at the coordinates of
(0,0) on the model, move the cursor to the coordinates of
(1,0), and click the mouse again. Then, follow the same
procedure to create the second line with the end coordinates
of (0,1) and (1,0). Click on Generate (the icon with yellow
lightning on the upper-left part of the screen). The desired
two lines will become dark green.
 The next important step is to go to the Concept tab on top
 Select the Sketch1, the two lines will become yellow.
in the Details View at the lower left of the screen. Both
two lines will become cyan. Then, click on Generate. The
window.
 We now have a model consisting of two lines.
 Next step is to create the truss cross section. Select

Rectangular item in Cross Section under the Concept tab.
In the Details of Rect1 window, change the base value B to
0.02 and hit Enter, the height value H to 0.02 and hit
Enter. A blue rectangular cross section will appear on the
main Graphic window. Then, click Generate.
 Next, assign this cross section to the Line Body. Double

click at 1 Part, 1 Body and select the Line Body, assign
Rect1 to the Cross section selection in the Details of Line
Body window.
 Save file as Two Truss Element Problem, and close the
DM window.

Model, the truss model will appear back on the main
window. Click on the Z arrow head to display the model in
2D.
 Double click on Geometry item, the Line Body item will
pop-up. Select the Line Body item and select “My
Aluminum Material” (the name assigned earlier containing
material properties of this problem) which is on the right-
hand-side of Assignment under Material in Details of
“Line Body” window. The truss model will become green.
at Element Size under Sizing and change the value on the
right column to 10 and hit Enter. This input value of 10 m.
is to ensure that each truss is modelled by only 1 element.
Right click at the Mesh again and select Generate Mesh.
A finite element mesh with only two truss elements will
appear.


ing Solutions

Setup, the truss model will appear back on the main
window. Click on Show Mesh tab on the upper tool bar to
display the mesh.
 Next, the boundary conditions of displacement constraint at
the two left ends can be applied. This will be done, one at a
time, starting from the lower left end.
 Select Analysis Settings under Static Structural. Select
the Supports tab on the upper menu bar with Displacement
option, then select Vertex icon (box with arrow and green
dot). Move the cursor to the lower left end and click at it,
the left end will become green. Click Apply button next to
the Geometry button under the Details of “Displacement”
window. Change X, Y and Z Component to Constant as
0.
 Repeat the same process to apply boundary condition of

zero displacement for X, Y and Z Components at the upper
left end.
zero displacement only for the Z Component at the lower
right end. Note that the Z displacement must be zero for all
nodes of the 2D planar truss problems.
 Repeat the similar process to apply boundary condition of
the two applied forces at the right hinge by first selecting
the Analysis Settings, select the Loads tab on the upper
menu bar with Force option, and select Vertex icon. Move
the cursor to the right hinge and click at it. Select
Components option on the right side of Define By in the
Details of Force window. Click Apply button, and input X
Component as 500 and hit Enter, Y component as -2500
and hit Enter. Note that, mesh can be shown by clicking
the Show Mesh icon on the upper menu bar.
 This problem is a truss analysis, thus all the nodes must be

the hinge type which are free to rotate. Click Tools at the
upper tab and select Options…. Select Connections and
change the right side of Fixed Joints to No and click OK.
the Solution item and under Static Structural and select
the Solve tab.

solution in form of color fringe plot will appear as shown in
the figures as isometric view.
 Note that the node and element numbers can be displayed

by clicking at the Preferences tab on the upper part of the
screen. Then, select Node Numbers and Element
Numbers under Mesh Display and click Enter.
 To show displacement components such as the Y-displace-
ment, click Deformation tab and select Directional. The
Directional Deformation will appear beneath the Solution
item. Right click at Directional Deformation and change
X Axis on right side of Orientation in the Details of
“Directional Deformation” box to Y Axis. Then, select
Evaluate All Results, model deformation in the Y-
direction will appear.
 Nodal displacement values can also be exported as a text
file by right clicking on Total Deformation or Directional
Deformation. Then, select Export… and Export Text
File, respectively.
 Solution of Displacement values can be displayed on the

screen by selecting the Probe tab on the upper bar of the
screen. Move the mouse to the desired location and click at
it, the corresponding displacement value will appear.
 To display element stresses, right click on Solution and
select Insert, Beam Tool and Beam Tool, respectively, a
Beam Tool item will appear beneath Solution item.
 Right click on this Beam Tool item, select Insert, Beam
Tool, Stress and Direct Stress. Select Unaveraged on
right side of Display Option in the Details of “Direct
Stress 2” box. Right click on Direct Stress 2 item and
select Evaluate All Results, the element stresses will be
displayed.
2.4 Application 39
2.4 Application
2.4.1 Twenty-one Truss Members in Two Dimensions
The same process used for analyzing the two truss

members in the preceding example can be employed to solve a
more complicated truss structure. A truss structure, as shown in the
figure, consists of 21 members. All members have the same cross-
sectional area of .01 m2 and made from a structural steel material
with the Young’s modulus of 2  1011 N m 2 . The structure is
supported by the hinges at the left and right ends, and is subjected
to different vertical loadings as shown in the figure.
A  .1 .1  .01 m 2
Y
E  2 1011 N m2 5m 1m
5m
X
1000 N 1000 N
2000 N 2000 N
4000 N
The finite element model consisting of 21 two-node truss
elements can be constructed easily by using the Line command.
The boundary conditions of fixed x- and y-displacements at the left
and right end hinges and the concentrated forces at lower nodes of
the model can be applied conveniently as shown in the figure.
Once the problem has been set up, solutions of the

deformed shape and stresses in the truss members can be obtained
without difficulty as shown in the figures. The figures show the
deformed shape and identify the truss members that have high
stresses. Users can change the member cross-sectional areas or
apply other types of boundary conditions to obtain different
solutions. These solutions will increase understanding of the
problem behaviors that change with the geometry and boundary
conditions.
Chapter
3
Beam Analysis
Frame structures such as high-voltage power trans-

mission towers, large bridges and tall buildings use beams to
provide high strength at low weight. Most of the beam cross
sections are in I, L, U, C, O and rectangular shapes with different
areas and moments of inertia. In an undergraduate strength of
materials course, analytical solutions of the deflection and stress of
a single beam under simple loadings and boundary conditions are
normally derived by using conventional approach. However, for a
complicated frame structure with many beam members oriented in
three dimensions, it is difficult to obtain solutions by following
such approach. The finite element method through the use of a
software can provide solutions effectively as explained in this
chapter.
42 Chapter 3 Beam Analysis
3.1 Basic Equations

A beam that lies in the x-direction with its cross section
in the y-z plane is shown in the figure. The beam is subjected to a
distributed load p( x) causing the deflection of w in the z-direction
and the displacement of u in the x-direction.
z
p ( x)
z
w
u
x y
If beam deflection is small, the small deformation

theory stating that the plane sections before and after deflection
remain plane is applied. This lead to the relation such that the
displacement u can be written in form of the deflection w as
u   z w x . In addition, if the beam is long and slender, the
deflection w may be assumed to vary with x only, i.e., w  w( x) .
These two assumptions yield to the equilibrium equation of the
beam deflection as,
2  2 w 
 E I   p
x 2  x 2 
where E is the beam Young’s modulus, and I is the moment of
inertia of the cross-sectional area. As an example, the moment of
inertia of the rectangular cross section is I  b h3 12 where b and
h is the width and height of the cross section, respectively.

The stress  x along the axial x-coordinate of the beam
varies with the strain  x according to the Hook’s law as,
 x  E x
Since the strain is related to the displacement and deflection as,

u 2 w
x   z 2
x x
Then, the stress can be determined from the deflection as,
2 w
x  E z
x2
For a typical beam in a three-dimensional frame
structure, its deflection may be in a direction other than the z-
coordinate. In addition, the beam may be twisted by torsion caused
by the applied loads or affected by other members. These
influences must be considered and included for the analysis of three
dimensional beam structures.

Finite element equations can be derived directly from
the beam governing differential equation by using the method of
weighted residuals. Detailed derivation can be found in many
finite element textbooks including the one written by the same
author. The derived finite element equations are in the form,
 K     F 
where  K  is the element stiffness matrix;   is the element
vector containing nodal unknowns of deflections and slopes; and
F  is the element vector containing nodal forces and moments.
These element matrices depend on the selected beam element types
as explained in the following section.
3.2.2 Element Types

The basic beam bending element with two nodes is
shown in the figure. Each node has two unknowns of the
deflection w and slope  .
w1 w2 Distribution of the
1 2 deflection w is assumed
E, I in the form,
1 2
x
L
 w1 
 
 
w( x)   N1 N2 N3 N4   1    N ( x )   
 w2  (1 4) (41)
2 
where the element interpolation functions are,
x 2 x 3 2
N1  1  3    2   x   1 
x
; N2 
L L L 
x 2 x2  x 
N3     3  2 
x
; N4    1
L  L L L 
These interpolation functions lead to the finite element equations

as,
 6 3L 6 3L   w1   F1   1 
       
2 EI 3L 2 L2 3L L2   1   M1  p0 L  L 6 
      
L3  6 3L 6 3L   w2   F2  2  1 
 
3L L2 3L 2 L2  2   M 2   L 6 
where F1 and F2 are the forces, while M1 and M2 are the moments,
at node 1 and 2, respectively. The last vector contains the nodal
forces and moments from the distributed load p0 which is uniform
along the element length.
The finite element equations above can be used to
determine beam bending behavior. If a problem contains only few
beam elements, we can use a calculator to solve for the solution.
However, if a problem consists of many beam elements, we need to
develop a computer program to solve for the solution instead. For
a frame structure containing a large number of beam elements
oriented in three dimensions, the element matrices as shown above
must be transformed into three dimensions too. The sizes of

element matrices increase and the element equations now contain
more unknowns. Developing a computer program is thus a must in
order to analyze practical problems.
We will use ANSYS through the Workbench to solve
for beam solution behaviors. We will start with simple academic
type example containing only few elements before analyzing a
more realistic problem in three dimensions.

3.3.1 Two Beam Members in Two Dimensions
A two-dimensional frame structure consisting of two
members is shown in the figure. The two members have the same
cross-sectional area of .0004 m2 and made from the same material
with the Young’s modulus of 7 1010 N m 2 . The lower right end
is subjected to a horizontal force of 500 N pulling to the right and a
downward force of 2500 N. Each member is modelled by a two-
node beam element. We will use ANSYS Workbench to solve for
the deformation shape and the stresses that occur in the members.
A  .02  .02  .0004 m 2

E  7  1010 N m 2
1m
2500 N
500 N
X
1m

name, e.g., Two Beam Element Problem, and hit Enter.
pop-up. Double click on Click here to add a new material
and type in a new material name, e.g., “My Aluminum
Material”, and hit Enter.
close this window.
 Close the Engineering Data tab and click at the Project tab
on the upper menu, it will bring back to the main Project
Schematic window.


tab to Meter.
window. Grid snapping provides convenience when
drawing model.
 Make sure that the Major Grid Spacing is set to 1 m,
Minor-Steps per Major is 2, and Snaps per Minor is 1.
 Enlarge scale by clicking at Box Zoom icon on the upper

part of the screen (icon with plus sign on the magnifying
glass) and draw a box with appropriate size to zoom in.
Click it again after appropriate scale is showing on the
window.
 Next, we draw the two beam elements. Click on Sketch1.
(1,0). This is done by clicking at the coordinates of (0,0) on
the model, move the cursor to the coordinates of (1,0), and

click the mouse again. Then, follow the same procedure to
create the second line with the end coordinates of (0,1) and
(1,0). Click on Generate (the icon with yellow lightning on
the upper-left part of the screen). The desired two lines will
become dark green.
 Select the Sketch1, the two lines will become yellow.
two lines will become cyan. Then, click on Generate. The
window.
 We now have a model consisting of two lines.
 The next step is to create the beam cross section. Select

0.02 m and hit Enter, the height value H to 0.02 m and hit
main Graphic window.

Body window.
 Save file as Two Beam Element Problem, and close the
DM window.

Model, the beam model will appear back on the main
window.
pop-up. Select the Line Body item and select “My
Aluminum Material” (the name assigned earlier containing
“Line Body” window. The beam model will become
green.
Element Size under Sizing and change the value on the
right column to 0.2 and hit Return so that the generated
element length is approximately 0.2 m. Right click at the
Mesh again and select Generate Mesh. A finite element
mesh with the 2-node beam elements will appear as shown

in the figure.

ing Solutions

Setup, the beam model will appear back on the main
window.
 Next, the boundary conditions of constraints on the two left
ends can be applied. This will be done, one at a time,
starting from the lower left end.
the Supports tab on the upper menu bar with Fixed
Support option, then select Vertex icon (box with arrow
and green dot). Move the cursor to the lower left end and
click at it, the left end will become green. Click Apply
button next to the Geometry button under the Fixed
Support window.

fixed support at the upper left end. This is done by
selecting the Analysis Settings. Select the Supports tab on
the upper menu bar with Fixed Support option, then select
Vertex icon (box with arrow and green edge). Move the
cursor to the upper left and click at it, the upper left end will
become green. Click Apply button next to the Geometry
button under the Fixed Support window.
 Repeat the similar process to apply boundary condition of
the two applied forces along the right connection by first
selecting the Analysis Settings, select the Loads tab on the
upper menu bar with Force option, and select Vertex icon.
Move the cursor to the right connection and click at it.
Select Components option on the right side of Define By
in the Details of “Force” window. Click Apply button,

and input X Component as 500 and hit Enter, Y
component as -2500 and hit Enter. Note that, mesh can be
shown by clicking the Show Mesh icon on the upper menu
bar.
 It is noted that these beam elements are connected as fixed
joints. This can be verified by clicking the Tools button on
the top menu. Select Options… and follow by
Connections. The right-hand-side of the Fixed Joints item
must be Yes.
the Solve tab.
pop-up beneath the Solution item.
 Right click on Solution, select Insert, select Beam Tool,

and Beam Tool. The Beam Tool will pop-up beneath the
Solution item.
 Right click on Solution and select Solve, the program will
start to solve the model.
 After completion, click Total Deformation beneath the

Solution item, the deformed model with show on the main
window.
 Click the Direct Stress to show the axial stress results that
occur in beams.
 Double click on Beam Tool item beneath the Solution
item, the Direct Stress, Minimum Combined Stress and
Maximum Combined Stress items will pop-up.
 Click the Minimum Combined Stress to show the
combination of the direct stress and minimum bending
stress results that occur in beams.
 Similarly, click on the Minimum Combined Stress and

Maximum Combined Stress to display these stresses,
respectively, on the two beams as shown in the figures.
3.3.2 Twenty-one Beam Members in Two Dimensions

The same process used for analyzing the two beam
members in the preceding example can be employed to solve a
more complicated frame structure. A frame structure, as shown in
the figure, consists of 21 members. All members have the same
cross-sectional area of .01 m2 and made from a structural steel
material with the Young’s modulus of 2  1011 N m 2 . The frame
structure is fixed at the lower left and right ends and subjected to
five vertical loadings as shown in the figure.
A  .1 .1  .01 m 2 Y
E  2 1011 N m2
5m 1m
5m
X
1000 N 1000 N
2000 N 2000 N
4000 N
The finite element model consisting of 21 two-node beam
elements can be constructed easily by using the Line command.
The boundary conditions of the complete constraint at the left and
right ends and the concentrated forces at lower nodes of the model
can be applied conveniently as shown in the figure.
Once the problem has been set up, solutions of the
deformed shape and stresses in the beam members can be obtained
without difficulty as shown in the figures. The figures show the
deformation shape and stresses that occur in these beam members.
3.4 Application
3.4.1 Racing Car Frame Structure
A racing car frame structure is made from structural

steel material that has the density of 7,850 Kg m 3 , the Young’s
modulus of 2 1011 N m 2 and the Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. The
engine and driver weights, as shown in the figure by the spheres at
the front and middle of the frame structure, are 10 and 75 Kg,
respectively. The deformed configuration and member stresses are
to be determined when the forces from the weights are triple,
simulating while the structure drops into a road pit-hole. We will
use ANSYS through the Workbench to analyze the problem.
3.4 Application 57
We start from importing the CAD model of the frame

structure which consists of straight and curved lines as shown in
the figure. These lines are then assigned as circular pipe with the
diameter and thickness of 25.4 and 1.5 mm, respectively.
We then create a finite element model which contains

many beam elements as shown in the figure.
We apply the simply-supported boundary conditions at

the eight locations denoted by small square symbols as shown in
the figure. The applied forces from the engine and driver are
transferred to the rectangular frames surrounding them. The
additional forces when the frame structure drops into a pit-hole are
embedded through the vertical acceleration with the magnitude of
34.445 m sec 2 .
The computed member stresses are displayed on the

deformed frame structure as shown in the figure. The solution
indicates the locations where high stresses occur. Such solution
3.4 Application 59
helps engineers to understand the frame structure behavior. They

can further improve the design by modifying the frame structure
configuration, changing member diameters, selecting different
materials, etc. The analysis is performed and the process is
repeated until engineers satisfy with their design.
Chapter
4
Plane Stress Analysis
Determination of deformation and stresses for two-

dimensional elasticity problems is rather difficult by using the
conventional approach. The finite element method alleviates such
difficulty especially for problems with complicated geometry. This
chapter begins with the governing differential equations of the
plane stress problem. Finite element equations and their element
matrices are derived for a simple triangular element. ANSYS with
its Workbench are employed to solve for solutions of examples in
both academic and application problems.
4.1 Basic Equations

4.1.1 Differential Equations
The equilibrium conditions at any point of a membrane
that lies in x-y plane, under in-plane forces with exclusion of body
forces, are governed by the two partial differential equations,
62 Chapter 4 Plan Stress Analysis
 x  xy
  0
x y
 xy  y
and   0
x y
where  x and  y is the normal stress in the x and y direction,
respectively, while  xy is the shearing stress. The basic unknowns
of the two equations above are the u and v displacement in the x-
and y-direction, respectively.

The normal stresses  x and  y together with the shear-
ing stress  xy can be written in forms of the strain components
according to the Hook’s law as,
 x  1  0   x 
  E   
    y    1 0    y   C   
  1  
2 
 0 0 (1  ) 2   xy 
(31) (33) (31)
 xy 
where  x and  y is the normal strain in the x- and y-direction,
respectively, while  xy is the shearing strain. The elasticity matrix
C  depends on the material Young’s modulus E and the
Poisson’s ratio  . For small deformation theory, these strain
components varies with the displacement u and v in the x- and y-
direction as,
u v u v
x  ; y  ;  xy  
x y y x
The stress-strain relations and strain-displacement
relations above lead to the two partial differential equations in the
forms,
  E  u v     E  u v 
           0
x 1  2  x y   y  2(1  )  y x 
   
  E  u v     E  u v  
          0
x  2(1  )  y x   y 1  2  x y  
   
which could be solved for the two displacement components u and
v in the x- and y-direction, respectively. Determination of the
strain components  x ,  y ,  xy and stress components  x ,  y ,  xy
can then be followed.

Finite element equations can be derived by applying the
method of weighted residuals to the partial differential equations.
Detailed derivation can be found in many finite element textbooks
including the one written by the same author.
The derived finite element equations are written in
matrix form as,
 K     F 
vector containing the nodal displacement unknowns of u and v ;
and  F  is the element vector containing the nodal forces in the x-
and y-direction. Number of equations and sizes of these element
matrices depend on the element type selected. These element
equations are formed up for every element before assembling them
together to become a large set of simultaneous equations.
Boundary conditions of the problem are then imposed before
solving them for the displacement solutions of u and v at nodes.
4.2.2 Element Types

Triangular and quadrilateral elements are the two
popular element types used in the plane stress analysis. The
triangular element may contain three or six nodes, while the
quadrilateral element may consist of four or eight nodes as shown
in the figures.
3 3
4
5
2 2
6
1 1
3 7 3
4 4
6
8
2 2
1 1 5
The three-node triangular element is the simplest two-

dimensional element to understand. Both u and v displacements
are assumed to vary as flat planes over the element as shown in the
figure.
u ( x, y )
v ( x, y ) 3
u2
v2
2
Displacement
t
y
1
x
u ( x, y )  N1 ( x , y )u1  N 2 ( x , y )u2  N 3 ( x , y )u3

v ( x, y )  N1 ( x , y ) v1  N 2 ( x , y ) v2  N 3 ( x , y ) v3
where N1 , N 2 , N3 are the element interpolation functions,
1
Ni ( x, y )  (ai  bi x  ci y ) i  1, 2, 3
2A
and A is the element area,
1
A   x2 ( y3  y1 )  x1 ( y2  y3 )  x3 ( y1  y2 ) 
2
In the above equations, xi , yi ; i  1, 2, 3 are coordinates of the
three nodes. The parameters ai , bi , ci ; i  1, 2, 3 depend on the
nodal coordinates as follows,
a1  x2 y3  x3 y2 b1  y2  y3 c1  x3  x2
a2  x3 y1  x1 y3 b2  y3  y1 c2  x1  x3
a3  x1 y2  x2 y1 b3  y1  y2 c3  x2  x1
The finite element equations corresponding to the
three-node triangular element above are,
 K     F 
(66) (61) (61)
where the element stiffness matrix  K  can be determined from,
 K    B T  C   B  t A
(66) (63) (33) (36)
 b1 0 b2 0 b3 0
1 
where  B  0 c1 0 c2 0 c3 
(36) 2A  
 c1 b1 c2 b2 c3 b3 
 T  u1 v1 u2 v2 u3 v3 
(61)
and  F T   F1x F1 y F2 x F2 y F3x F3 y 

(61)
Similarly, the finite element equations for the four-node

quadrilateral element can be determined in the same way, except
the process is more complicated. These element matrices suggest
that it is nearly impossible to solve plane stress problems by hands
even though they contain only few elements. Developing a finite
element computer program is thus required. A model with few
hundred elements can be solved easily by using a computer
program. We will employ ANSYS through its Workbench to
analyze plane stress problems in the following sections. We will
find that the software can provide solutions conveniently and
effectively for model containing a large number of elements.

4.3.1 Plate with Circular Cut-out
A rectangular plate with dimensions of 1.4  1 m is
shown in the figure. The plate has a circular cut-out with radius of
.2 m at its center. The plate is made from a material that has the
Young’s modulus of 7  1010 N m 2 and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3.
The plate is subjected to the uniform loadings of 7 107 N m2
along the left and right edges.
y
 0  7 107 N/m 2
1m x
.2 m
1.4 m
Since the problem has its solution symmetry, the upper
right quarter of the plate can be used for analysis. Model of the
upper right quarter is shown in the figure with symmetrical
boundary condition along the left and bottom edges.
y
 0  7 107 N/m 2
.5 m
.2 m
 x
.7 m
Steps for analyzing this problem by employing the
ANSYS Workbench are as follows.

name, e.g., Plane Stress Problem, and hit Enter.

Change the Analysis Type under the Advanced Geometry

Options from 3D to 2D. Then, close this small window.

tab to Meter.
drawing model.
zoom in. Click it again after appropriate scale is showing
on the window.
 Click again on the same New Sketch icon to create
Sketch2.
 Next we draw the rectangle. Click on Sketch1.
 Click the Sketching tab and select Draw. Choose
Rectangle to create a rectangle with the vertices of (0,0)
and (.7,.5). This is done by clicking at the coordinates of
(.7,.5), and click the mouse again. Click on Generate (the
icon with yellow lightning on the upper-left part of the
screen). The desired rectangle will pop up in dark green.
 Next we draw the circle. Click the Modeling tab and select
Sketch2. Then click the Sketching tab.
 Select the Draw tab and choose Circle. Draw a circle with
center at the coordinates of (0,0). Do not worry about the
size of the circle, it will be taken care later. Then, click the
Generate button.
 Select the Dimensions tab and choose Radius. Left click
on the circle that just drew, drag the mouse outward without
releasing the mouse until seeing an arrow with notation R1,
then release the mouse. The desired circle will pop up in
dark green.
 On the Details View window that just appears on the lower

left of the DM screen, adjust the radius to 0.2 and hit Enter.
Click on Generate, the circle will radius of 0.2 will appear.

of the screen and select Surfaces From Sketches.
 Press the Ctrl key to select both the Sketch1 and Sketch2,
the rectangle and circle will become yellow.
rectangle and circle will become cyan. The right side of the
Base Objects tab will show 2 Sketches.
 Then, click on Generate. We now have both rectangular
and circular surfaces.
 The next step is to subtract the circle from rectangle. Click

on the Create tab located at the upper part of the screen,
and select Boolean.
 In the Details window, select the Operation tab and choose
Subtract. Note that, under the Operation tab (shown as
Not Selected at present), the Target Bodies will become
rectangle (which is Sketch1) while the Tool Bodies will
become the circle (in Sketch2).
 Click on the Not Selected tab next to the Target Bodies
tab, the Apply and Cancel tabs will appear.
 Go to Tree Outline window, click twice at the 2 Parts, 2
Bodies and select the first Surface Body tab that represents
the rectangle (which is Sketch1), the rectangle area become
yellow. Click Apply tab, the right side tab will say 1 Body
while the rectangle will become dark green.
 Click on the Not Selected tab next to the Tool Bodies tab,
the Apply and Cancel tabs will appear.
 Go to Tree Outline window again, select the second
Surface Body tab that represents the circle (which is
Sketch2), the circle area become yellow. Click Apply tab,
the right side tab will say 1 Body while the circle will
become dark green.
 The, click Generate, a quarter of the plate with circular cut-
out is displayed.
 Save file as Plane Stress Problem, and close the DM
window.

Model, the solid plate model will appear back on the main
window.
 Double click on Geometry item, the Surface Body item
will pop-up. Select the Surface Body item and select “My
Material” (the name assigned earlier containing material
properties of this problem) which is on the right-hand-side
of Assignment under Material in Details of “Surface
Body” window. The plate model will become green.

window will appear on the lower left of the screen. Click at
Relevance with the value of 100. Right click at the Mesh
again and select Generate Mesh. A finite element mesh
with most of 4-node quadrilateral elements will appear as
shown in the figure.

ing Solutions
 Next, the boundary conditions of constraints along the

bottom and left edges can be applied. This will be done,
one at a time, starting from the bottom edge.

Setup. Select Analysis Settings under Static Structural.
Select the Supports tab on the upper menu bar with
Frictionless Support option, then select Edge icon (box
with arrow and green edge). Move the cursor to the bottom
edge and click at it, the edge will become green. Click
Apply button next to the Geometry button under the
Frictionless Support window.

frictionless support along the left edge. This is done by
the upper menu bar with Frictionless Support option, then
select Edge icon (box with arrow and green edge). Move
the cursor to the left edge and click at it, the left edge will
button under the Frictionless Support window.
 Note that the mesh can be displayed by clicking on the
Show Mesh button on the upper menu bar.

uniform loading along the right edge by first selecting the
Analysis Settings, select the Loads tab on the upper menu
bar with Pressure option, and select Edge icon. Move the
cursor to the right edge and click at it. Click Apply button,
and change Magnitude value to -7e7, and hit Enter. If
preferred, mesh can be shown by clicking the Show Mesh
icon on the upper menu bar.

the Solve tab.

the figure.
 Click the Solution item, the Stress tab will appear on the
lower menu bar. Click on this Stress tab and Select the
Equivalent (von-Misses) option, the Equivalent Stress
item will pop-up beneath the Solution item. Right click at
the Equivalent Stress item and select Evaluate All
Results, the solution in form of color fringe plot will appear
 The normal stress in X-direction is displayed by selecting

the Solution item and then the Stress tab with Normal
option and select X Axis under the Orientation in the
Details of Normal Stress window.
 The normal stress in Y-direction is displayed by selecting

option and select Y Axis under the Orientation in the
Details of Normal Stress window.
 The shear stress is displayed by selecting the Solution item

and then the Stress tab with Shear option.
4.4 Application 77
4.4 Application
4.4.1 Stress in Motorcycle Chain Wheel
A motorcycle chain wheel as shown in the figure is
made from steel. The steel material has the Young’s modulus of
2  1011 N m 2 and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. The chain wheel is
subjected to an applied torque at the center and the chain resistant
force along one side of the outer rim. The ANSYS file of this
problem can be downloaded from the book website.
The analysis starts from importing the CAD file of the

chain wheel. The two-dimensional mesh is then generated on the
mid-plane of the wheel by using the Mid-Surface command. The
finite element model contains mostly the four-node quadrilateral
elements with very few three-node triangular elements as shown in
the figure.
The boundary conditions consist of constraining the

right half of the outer rim and applying the torque of 39 N-m at the
wheel center as highlighted in the figure.
4.4 Application 79
The predicted von-Mises stress on the deformed wheel

is shown in the figure. Detailed stresses in the two inserts indicate
the locations of high stress that should be concerned. Such
solutions also provide insight into the problem. Engineers may
alter the design configuration to reduce the stress or to further
increase the strength.
Chapter
5
Plate Bending Analysis
Plate bending analysis is needed for design of new

products and corrugated structures today. Examples are drinking
water bottles, soda cans, high pressure gas containers, automotive
bodies, airplane fuselage, etc. Analysis solutions of these problems
are difficult to obtain in the past by using the classical method. At
present, the finite element method has played important role for
providing detailed solutions. The method has become an essential
tool to engineers for designing new products and analyzing
complicated structures.
This chapter begins with the differential equation and
related equations for solving plate bending problems. The finite
element formulation is described by using a simple plate bending
element for the ease of understanding. An academic plate bending
problem is then analyzed by employing ANSYS Workbench. A
shelf angle bracket that we have seen in our everyday life is used as
82 Chapter 5 Plate Bending analysis
an application example at the end of the chapter to demonstrate the

advantages of the finite element method.
5.1 Basic Equations

Derivation of the differential equation for plate bending
is similar to that for the beam bending as explained in Chapter 3. A
thin plate with its thickness of h that lies in the x-y plane is shown
in the figure. The plate is subjected to the pressure of p ( x, y ) on
the upper surface causing the deflection of w in the z-direction and
the in-plane displacement of u and v in the x- and y-direction,
respectively.
p ( x, y )
u
x
v
w
y h
z
The basic assumption of plane section remains plane

before and after deflection leads to the relations of u   z  w  x
and v   z  w  y . Together with the additional assumption of the
deflection w that varies with x and y only, w  w( x, y ) , the
governing differential equation representing equilibrium condition
of plate bending can be derived in the form,
2 Mx 2 Mxy 2 M y
 2   p
x2 x y y2
where the bending moment components are,
5.1 Basic Equation 83
 2 w 2 w   2 w 2 w 
M x   D  2  2  ; M y   D  2  2 
 x y   x y 
2 w E h3
M xy  D(1  ) ; D 
x y 12(1  2 )
In these bending moment component equations, D
represents the plate flexural rigidity that depends on the Young’s
modulus E, the Poisson’s ratio  , and the plate thickness h .
Substituting these bending moment component equations into the
governing differential equation above yields the final form of the
plate differential equation. The final form is of fourth-order
differential equation containing only one unknown of the deflection
w.

From the relations of the in-plane displacements u and
v with the deflection w, the strain components become,
u 2 w
x   z
x x2
v 2 w
y   z 2
y y
u v 2 w
 xy     2z
y x x y
Then, the stress components are,
E E  2 w 2 w 
x  ( x  y )      z
1  2 1  2  x2 y 2 
E E  2 w 2 w 
y  ( x   y )     z
1  2 1  2  x2 y 2 
E E  2 w 
 xy   xy     z
2(1  ) 1   x y 

method of weighted residuals to the governing differential
equation. Detailed derivation can be found in many finite element
textbooks including the one written by the same author. The
application leads to the finite element equations in matrix form as,
 K    FQ   FM   Fp 
vector containing nodal deflections in the z-direction and rotations
about the x- and y-coordinates;  FQ  is the element vector of the
nodal shearing forces;  FM  is the element vector of the nodal
bending moments; and  Fp  is the element vector containing nodal
loads from the applied pressure p ( x, y ) .
5.2.2 Element Types

Size of the matrices in the finite element equations
above depends on the element type selected. Element types could
be in triangular or quadrilateral shapes as shown in the figures.
These elements may consist of only corner nodes as well as
additional nodes on their edges.
3 7 3
4
4 6
5
8
2
2
6
1 1 5
We will consider the four-node rectangular element as

shown in the figure because it is one of the simplest element type.
The element has dimensions of a  b with the thickness of h . Each
node contains three unknowns which are the deflection w in the z-
direction and the rotations  x and  y about the x- and y-
coordinates, respectively. Thus, the element has a total of 12
unknowns.
y
3
4
z
b
w1  y1 h
1 x
 x1 2
a
Distribution of the deflection is assumed in the form,

w( x, y)   N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10 N11 N12   
where  T   w1 x1  y1 w2 x 2  y 2 w3 x3  y3 w4 x 4  y 4 

The element interpolation functions, Ni , i  1 to 12 ,
are rather complicated. As an example,
xy x2 y xy2 x3 y xy3
N7   3 2 3 2 2 3  2 3
ab ab ab ab ab
This leads to a complicated element stiffness matrix with lengthy
coefficients, such as,
D  a2 b2 
K77   60 2  60 2  30  42(1  ) 
15ab  b a 
Derivation of element matrices must be performed carefully.
Symbolic manipulation software can help alleviating such task.

5.3.1 Simply-supported Plate under Uniform Loading
A square plate with the dimensions of 2  2 m and
thickness of 0.01 m is shown in the figure. The plate is made from
a material that has the Young’s modulus of 7.2  1010 N/m 2 and
Poisson’s ratio of 0.25. The plate is simply supported along its
four edges and is subjected to a uniform pressure of 1, 200 N/m 2 .
We will employ ANSYS through the Workbench to solve for the
plate deflection and stresses.
z y
E  7.2 1010 N m2
  0.25
x 2m
2
p  1200 N /m
2m h  0.01 m
Steps for analyzing this plate bending problem by

employing the ANSYS Workbench are as follows.

name, e.g., Simply-supported Plate, and hit Enter.

material and type in a new material name, e.g., “My Plate
Enter the Young’s Modulus value as 7.2e10 and hit Enter,
close this window.
Schematic window.

tab to Meter.

drawing model.
on the window.
 Next we draw the square. Click on Sketch1.
 Click the Sketching tab and select Draw. Choose
Rectangle to create a square with the vertices of (-1,-1) and
(1,1). This can be done by clicking at the coordinates of (-
1,-1) on the model, move the cursor to the coordinates of
(1,1) and click it again. Click on Generate (the icon with
desired square will pop up in dark green.

 Select the Sketch1, the square will become yellow.
in the Details View at the lower left of the screen. The
square will become cyan. The right side of the Base
Objects tab will show 1 Sketch.
 Then, click on Generate. We now have the desired square
surface.
 Click SurfaceSk1 and change the value of Thickness in the

Details View window to 0.01 and hit Enter.
 Click ISO tab and Zoom tab on the upper menu bar so that
the model is displayed in three dimensions.
 Save file as Simply-supported Plate, and close the DM
window.

Model, the thin plate model will appear back on the main
window.
Plate Material” (the name assigned earlier containing
“Surface Body” window. The plate model will become
green.
with most of 4-node quadrilateral elements will appear as

ing Solutions
 Next, the boundary conditions of simply support along the

four edges can be applied. These will be done, one at a
time, starting from the top edge.
the Supports tab on the upper menu bar with Simply
Supported option, then select Edge icon (box with arrow
and green edge). Move the cursor to the top edge and click
at it, the edge will become green. Click Apply button next
to the Geometry button under the Details of Simply
Support window.
 Repeat the same process to apply simply-supported boun-

dary condition along the other three edges.

uniform loading on the plate surface by first selecting the
bar with Pressure option, and select Face icon. Move the
cursor to the plate face and click at it. Click Apply button,
and change Magnitude value to 1200, and hit Enter. If
preferred, mesh can be shown by clicking the Show Mesh
icon on the upper menu bar.

the Solve tab.
solution in form of color fringe plot will appear.
Equivalent (von-Mises) option, the Equivalent Stress
 The normal stress on the top surface in X-direction is

displayed by selecting the Solution item and then the Stress
tab with Normal option. Select X Axis under the
Orientation and follow by Top under Position in the
Details of Normal Stress window. Right click at the
Normal Stress item and select Evaluate All Results, the
the figure.
 The normal stress on the bottom surface in Y-direction is

displayed by selecting the Solution item and then the Stress
5.1 Basic Equation 95
tab with Normal option. Select Y Axis under the

Orientation, and then select Bottom under Position in the
Details of Normal Stress window. Right click at the
Normal Stress item and select Evaluate All Results, the
the figure.
 The shear stress on the top or bottom surface is displayed

by selecting the Solution item and then the Stress tab with
Shear option. Right click at the Shear Stress item and
select Evaluate All Results, the solution in form of color
fringe plot will appear as shown in the figure.
5.4 Application
5.4.1 Stress in Shelf Angle Bracket

A shelf angle bracket with the thickness of 1 mm, as
shown in the figure, is made from a material that has the Young’s
modulus of 2 1011 N m 2 and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. The vertical
side of the bracket is fixed on a wall by screws at the three holes as
shown in the figure. The horizontal side supports a vertical load of
100 N. We will use ANSYS through the Workbench to solve for
the deformed shape and the stress that occurs in the bracket.
Since the bracket is made from a thin metal sheet, we

use the plate bending elements to model it. We first import the
CAD model and discretize it into many small elements as shown in
the figure.
5.4 Application 97
The next step is to impose the boundary condition of

fixed support along rims of the three holes. On the upper
surface, we impose the boundary condition of the frictionless
support with the vertical load of 100 N. These imposed
boundary conditions are shown in the figure.
The computed von-Mises stress distribution on the

deformed shape is displayed in the figure. As expected, the
maximum stress occurs at the inner corner of the bracket. Since the
ANSYS files of this problem can be downloaded from the book
website, users can modify the problem to obtain different solutions.
As an example, the stress is reduced if the bracket thickness is
increased. Changing problem geometry and boundary conditions
can increase understanding of the solution behaviors. This often
leads to improvement of the design and efficiency of the products.
Chapter
6
Three-Dimensional
Solid Analysis
Determination of stresses in a three-dimensional elastic

solid is difficult in the past even when its shape is uncomplicated.
This is because their solutions must be solved from the three
coupled partial differential equations. The finite element method
helps finding these solutions effectively. This chapter begins with
the governing differential equations of the three-dimensional elastic
solid and the related equations. The finite element equations are
presented and different finite element types are highlighted.
ANSYS software through its Workbench is then employed to
analyze simple and application problems.
100 Chapter 6 Three-Dimensional Solid Analysis
6.1 Basic Equations

The equilibrium conditions at any location of a three-
dimensional elastic solid in x-y-z coordinate system, with exclusion
of body forces, are governed by the three partial differential
equations,
 x  xy  xz
   0
x y z
 xy  y  yz
   0
x y z
 xz  yz  z
   0
x y z
where  x ,  y , z are the normal stress components in the x, y,
z coordinate directions, and  xy ,  xz ,  yz are the shearing stress
components.
The three differential equations of the problem suggest
that there must be three basic unknowns. These unknowns are the
displacement components u ( x, y, z ), v ( x, y , z ) and w( x, y, z ) in
the x, y and z coordinate directions, respectively. Thus, the stress
components in the differential equations must be written in forms
of the three displacement components prior to solving them.

The six stress components can be written in forms of
the six strain components according to the Hooke’s law as,
   C   
(61) (66) (61)
where     x  y  z  xy  xz  yz 
T
and  T   x  y  z  xy  xz  yz 
The matrix C  is the elasticity matrix which depends on the
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
The six strain components are written in terms of the

three displacement components based on the small deformation
theory as,
u u v
x  ;  xy  
x y x
v u w
y  ;  xz  
y z x
w v w
z  ;  yz  
z z y
The six strain-displacement relations are substituted
into the six stress-strain relations, so that the stress components can
be written in terms of the displacement components. These stress
components are then further substituted into the three governing
differential equations. The final three governing differential
equations are now in forms of the three displacement components.
The three displacement components thus can be solved from the
three differential equations.

method of weighted residuals to the three partial differential
equations. Detailed derivation can be found in many finite element
textbooks including the one written by the same author. It is noted
that the finite element equations can also be derived by using the
variational method. The method is based on the minimum total
potential energy principle. This later method was often used to
derive the finite element equations for solid problems in the past.
The derived finite element equations are written in
matrix form as,
 K     F 
vector containing the nodal displacements u, v and w in the x, y
and z coordinates, respectively; and  F  is the element vector

containing the nodal forces in the x, y and z coordinates.
Sizes of the element matrices and the number of
element equations depend on the element types selected. Popular
element types are described in the following section.
6.2.2 Element Types

Tetrahedral and hexahedral elements are often used in
the analysis. The tetrahedral element contains four or 10 nodes
while the hexahedral element may consist of eight or 20 nodes as
shown in the figures. Elements with more number of nodes
provide higher solution accuracy but require extra computational
time. For complicated three-dimensional solid models, the
tetrahedral elements are normally used because the mesh is easier
to generate. For model with simple geometry, the hexahedral
elements are preferred because they can provide a more accurate
solution accuracy.
Since there are 3 displacement unknowns at each node,

a problem containing only few elements is almost impossible to
solve by hands. A computer program is needed to carry out the
analysis for solutions.
For ease of understanding, the four-node tetrahedral
element is explained herein. The element contains 12 displacement
unknowns as shown in the figure.
w4
4 v4
u4
w3
w1 v3
3
v1 u3
z
u1 1 w2
y
x v2
u2 2
Distribution of the u displacement component over the

element is assumed in the form,
u ( x, y , z )   N1 N 2 N 3 N 4  u
where the interpolation functions are,
1
Ni   ai  bi x  ci y  di z  i  1, 2,3, 4
6V
In the equation above, V is the element volume, the parameters a i ,
bi , c i , di depend on the nodal coordinates xi , yi , z i . The
element vector u contains the nodal displacements in the x-
coordinate direction,
uT  u1 u 2 u3 u 4 
Distribution of the v and w displacement components
over the element are in the same form as,
v( x, y, z )   N1 N 2 N3 N 4  v
w( x, y, z )   N1 N 2 N 3 N 4  w
where vT  v1 v2 v3 v4 
wT   w1 w2 w3 w4 
Thus, the element vector of nodal unknowns contains the total of
12 unknowns as,
 T  u1 v1 w1 u 2 v2 w2 u3 v3 w3 u 4 v4 w4 
The element vector containing the six strain compo-
nents can be determined from,
    B   
(61) (612) (121)
where the matrix  B  is called the strain-displacement matrix

which relates the six strain components with the 12 nodal
displacements. The element stiffness matrix  K  can then be
determined from,
K    B C   B V
T
(1212) (126) (66) (612)
These element matrices are determined for all elements before

assembling them to become a large stiffness matrix of the system
equations. Boundary conditions are then applied and the system
equations are solved for all nodal displacement solutions u i , v i ,
wi .
Once all nodal solutions u i , v i , wi are obtained, the
element stresses are determined from,
   C   B   
(61) (66) (612) (121)
The same process is applied for the hexahedral element

but the number of equations is larger. For example, the 8-node
hexahedral element contains 24 equations while the 20-node
element consists of 60 equations. Developing a computer program
is thus a must for solving a problem. We will use the ANSYS
software through its Workbench to analyze three-dimensional solid
problems in the following sections.

6.3.1 Simple 3D Solid Problem
A three-dimensional solid with simple geometry is
shown in the figure. The solid is made from a material that has the
Young’s modulus of 107 psi and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. The left
end face of the cylinder is fixed to a wall while the upper right face
of the solid block is subjected to the applied pressure of 2,000 psi.
We will employ ANSYS software with its Workbench to analyze
the problem for the deformed shape and stresses that occur in the
model.
1
p
4
E  10 7psi
  0.3
3
p  2, 000 psi
Y
Fixed 4
1 X
2
6
Z

upper tab to U.S.Customary (lbm,in,s,F,A,lbf,V).
name, e.g., Solid Stress Problem, and hit Enter.
Aluminum Material”, and hit Enter.
Change the unit of Young’s Modulus to psi and enter the
value of 1e7 and hit Enter, enter the Poisson Ratio value as
0.3 and hit Enter, and close this window.
Schematic window.

DesignModeler Geometry…. This will launch the
ANSYS Design Modeler (green logo DM).
tab to Inch.
 On the Tree Outline window, select on XYPlane. Select

the Sketching tab below the Tree Outline window, the
Sketching Toolboxes will pop-up in the same place.
window in two dimensions. Grid snapping provides
convenience when drawing model.
 Make sure that the Major Grid Spacing is set to 1 in,
on the window. Also pan the drawing frame by clicking at
the Pan icon on the upper part of the screen (icon with four
opposite arrows) so that the model will be fitted inside the
window. Click it again after appropriate frame is obtained.
XYPlane representing the lower square. Note that this
name Sketch1 can be deleted or renamed by right clicking
on it and selecting an option.
 Click again on the same New Sketch icon to create Sketch2

and Sketch3 to represent the upper rectangle and the circle,
respectively.
 Next, we draw the lower square with the size of 4×4 in.
 Click on Sketch1 then click the Sketching tab and select
Draw. Choose Rectangle to create the lower square with
the vertices of (-2,-2) and (2,2). This is done by clicking at
the coordinates of (-2,-2) on the model, move the cursor to
the coordinates of (2,2), and click it again. Click on
Generate (the icon with yellow lightning on the upper-left
part of the screen). The lower square will pop up in dark
green.
 Next, we draw the upper rectangle. Click on Sketch2 then
click the Sketching tab and select Draw. Choose
Rectangle to create this upper rectangle with the vertices of
(-2,2) and (-1,6). This is done by clicking at the coordinates
of (-2,2) on the model, move the cursor to the coordinates of
(-1,6), and click it again. Click on Generate (the icon with
upper rectangle will pop up in dark green.
 Then, we draw the circle. Click the Modeling tab and
select Sketch3. Then click the Sketching tab.
 Select the Draw tab and choose Circle. Draw a circle with
center at the coordinates of (0,0). Do not worry about the
size of the circle, it will be taken care later. Then, click the
Generate button.
 Select the Dimensions tab and choose Radius. Left click
on the circle that just drew, drag the mouse outward without
releasing the mouse until seeing an arrow with notation R1,
then release the mouse. The desired circle will pop up in
dark green.
 On the Details View window that just appears on the lower
left of the DM screen, adjust the radius to 1 and hit Enter.
Click on Generate, the circle will radius of 1” will appear.
 Click on Modeling tab, and then click Generate.
 The next step is to extrude the lower square and upper

rectangles for 2” and the cylinder for 8” into the z-direction.
Click on the ISO tab on the upper menu bar so that the
model is shown in isometric view
 Select Sketch1 and click Extrude to make a solid body of
the lower square with thickness of 2”. Click Apply next to
the Geometry under the Details View window, and change
the FD1 value under the Details of Extrude1 window to be
2, and hit Enter. Then, click Generate so that the lower
square becomes a 3D solid in dark grey as shown in the
Figure.
the upper rectangle with thickness of 2”. Click Apply next
to the Geometry under the Details View window, and
change the FD1 value under the Details of Extrude2
window to be 2, and hit Enter. Then, click Generate so
that the upper rectangle becomes a 3D solid in dark grey.
the circle with thickness of 8”. Click Apply next to the
Geometry under the Details View window, and change the
FD1 value under the Details of Extrude3 window to be 8,
and hit Enter. Then, click Generate so that the circle
becomes a solid cylinder in dark grey.
 Save the project as 3D Solid Stress and close the DM
window.
 The model is ready for meshing, but before that, we will
specify the boundary conditions on model geometry first.

Model, the 3D solid model will appear back on the main
window.
 Double click on Geometry item, the Solid item will pop-
up. Select the Solid item and select “My Aluminum
of Assignment under Material in Details of “Solid”
window. The 3D solid model will become green.


with three-dimensional elements will appear as shown in
the figure.

ing Solutions
 Next, the boundary conditions of the fixed left end and the
pressure load can be applied. This will be done, one at a
time, starting from the left end face.
Setup. Select Analysis Settings under Static Structural.
Select the Supports tab on the upper menu bar and select
Fixed Support item, then select Face icon (box with arrow
and green face). Move the cursor to the left end face and
click at it, this face will become green. Click Apply button
next to the Geometry button.
 Select Analysis Settings under Static Structural again.

Select the Loads tab on the upper menu bar and select
Pressure item, then select Face icon (box with arrow and
green face). Move the cursor to the upper right face and
click at it, this face will become green. Change the
Magnitude value to 2000 psi and click Apply button next
to the Geometry button.

the Solve tab.


the figure.
6.4 Application
6.4.1 Stress in Aircraft Structural Component

A structural component in an aircraft wing is made
from aluminum material that has the Young’s modulus of
7 1010 N m2 and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. The component is held
by internal screws at the two holes on the left portion of the figure.
The component is subjected to an offset loading of 100 N at the
other end. Since the ANSYS files of this problem can be
downloaded from the book website, users can study the model in
6.4 Application 115
details. Users can further understand the solution behaviors by

modifying the boundary conditions.
With the imported CAD model, a finite element mesh

is generated as shown in the figure. The mesh consists of 5,221
tetrahedral elements and 9,881 nodes. Since there are three
displacement unknowns of u , v, w at each node, the problem thus
contains the total of 29,643 equations before applying the boundary
conditions.
The model is constraint as fixed support at the two

holes as shown by the symbol A in the figure. An offset loading is
applied at the other end as indicated by the symbol B.
With the mesh and applied boundary conditions, the

analysis can be performed. The computed von-Mises stress is
displayed on the deformed model as shown in the figure. The
stress distribution suggests that the design is appropriate. This can
be seen by a relatively uniform stress on the right structural portion
of the model.
Chapter
7
Vibration Analysis
Vibration and dynamics analyses play important role in

structural and machine design. A stay-cable bridge and a computer
hard disk drive under certain conditions may vibrate with large
amplitude. Inappropriate design can cause structural failure and
machine breakdown. Study of vibration and dynamics behaviors is
thus important to new structural and machine design today.
Structures and machines are normally comprised of
truss, beam, plate and solid components. The finite element
method is a widely used tool to provide detailed solution behaviors
effectively. In this chapter, we start by reviewing a standard
vibrational problem that we have learnt in our undergraduate
courses. We then look at the differential equations that govern the
vibration behaviors of the truss, beam, plate and solid components.
Simple finite elements and their element equations are introduced
118 Chapter 7 Vibration Analysis
before using ANSYS software to solve an academic type problem.

Benefits of the method and software are demonstrated by analyzing
a practical application of an automobile frame structure.
7.1 Basic Equations

A classical example that we have learnt in the vibration
course is the harmonic oscillation of a mass-spring system as
shown in the figure. By using the Newton’s second law, the
differential equation that describes the mass movement u in the x-
direction with time t can be derived as,
k
k
t
m u
u0
m
x
u
x T
d 2u
m  ku  0
dt 2
d 2u
or,  2 u  0
dt 2
where  2  k m represents the square of the circular frequency,
i.e.,
k
 
m
In the above equation, m is the mass and k is the
spring stiffness. The general solution of the governing differential
equation is,
u (t )  A sin  t  B cos  t
where A and B are constants that can be determined from the initial
conditions. As an example, if the initial displacement and velocity
are u0 and zero, respectively, the mass movement behavior is as
For an oscillating cycle of T, the frequency f that
represents the cycles per second, or Hertz, is,
1
f 
T
Thus, the circular frequency  and the frequency f are related by,
  2 f
    
(rad sec) (2 rad cycle) (cycles sec)
The value of  above is also known as the natural circular
frequency. The oscillation in this classical example is called free
vibration.
If the mass is subjected to an
external force F (t ) in the form,
k F (t )  F0 sin  f t
then, the governing differential equation of
the mass-spring system becomes,
m
u (t ) d 2u
m  ku  F0 sin  f t
dt 2
F (t )
The general solution of this differential equation is,

( F0 sin  f t ) k
u (t )  A sin  t  B cos  t 
1  ( f  )2
The last term in the solution above suggests that the oscillating
magnitude u (t ) becomes very large if the applied forcing frequency
f is closed to the natural frequency  of the system. Knowing
the natural frequency  of the system is thus important to avoid an
uncontrollable vibration caused by the external force.
The idea above could be applied to problem with

complicated geometry. The frequency f of the external forces is
often difficult to control while the natural frequency  of the
system is controllable. Since we know that the natural frequency of
the system depends on the overall stiffness and mass, we can alter
either the system stiffness or mass. The system mass is not easy to
change in general but its stiffness can be altered by modifying,
(a) the model geometry
(b) the material
(c) the boundary conditions
The finite element method can provide natural frequency solutions
conveniently for different model configuration, materials and
boundary conditions. The method is thus suitable for vibration
analysis of complicated structures.
Since the structures often consist of the truss, beam,
plate and solid components, we will look at the differential
equations that govern their vibration behaviors as follows.
1D Truss
 2u  2u
A  EA
t 2 x 2
The displacement u  u ( x , t ) varies with the axial coordinate x of
the truss and time t,  is the material density, A is the cross-
sectional area, and E is the material Young’s modulus.
1D Beam
2w 4w
A  EI
t 2 x 4
The deflection w  w( x , t ) varies with the axial coordinate x of the
beam and time t,  is the material density, A is the cross-sectional
area, E is the material Young’s modulus and I is the moment of
inertia of area.
2D Plate
2w Eh 3   4 w 4w 4w 
h 2   2 
t 12(1   2 )  x 4 x 2 y 2 y 4 
The deflection w  w ( x , y , t ) varies with the coordinates x, y and
time t,  is the material density, h is the plate thickness, E is the
material Young’s modulus and  is the Poisson’s ratio.
3D Solid
 2u  x  xy  xz
 2   
t x y z
 2v  xy  y  yz
 2   
t x y z
 w
2  xz   z
 2  
yz

t x y z
The displacement components u  u ( x , y , z , t ), v  v ( x , y , z , t ), w 
w ( x , y , z , t ) vary with the coordinates x, y , z and time t . The
quantities  x ,  y ,  z are the normal stress components while  xy ,
xz ,  yz are the shearing stress components.

After the displacement unknowns are solved from the
above differential equations, the stresses can be determined by
using the related equations as follows.
1D Truss
The stress  is determined from the computed dis-
placement u as,
u
  E
x
1D Beam
The stress  of the beam is determined at any z
coordinate from the computed deflection w as,
2w
   Ez
x 2
2D Plate
The stress components  x ,  y ,  xy of the plate are
determined at any z coordinate from the computed deflection w
as,
E  2w 2w 
x    
1   2  x 2 y 2 
z
E  2w 2w 
y    
1   2  x 2 y 2 
z
E  2 w 
 xy    x y  z
1   
3D Solid
The three normal stress components  x ,  y ,  z and
three shearing stress components  xy , xz ,  yz are determined from
the computed displacement components u , v, w as,
E  u v w 
x  (1   )  
(1   )(1  2 )  x y z 
E  u v w 
y     (1   )  
(1   )(1  2 )  x y z 
E  u v w 
z     (1   )
(1   )(1  2 )  x y z 
E  u v 
 xy  
2(1   )  y x 
E  u w 
 xz    
2(1   )  z x 
E  v w 
 yz  
2(1   )  z y 

The finite element equations for the truss, beam, plate
and solid elements can be derived by applying the method of
weighted residuals to their differential equations. Detailed deriva-
tion can be found in many finite element textbooks including the
one written by the same author. The derived finite element
equations are in the same form of,
 M    K    F 
where  M  is the element mass matrix;  K  is the element stiffness
matrix;  F is the element load vector;   is the element vector
containing nodal unknowns; and  is the element vector contain-
ing nodal accelerations.
After assembling all element equations together and
applying the boundary conditions, solutions of the element nodal
unknowns   at different times can be determined using the
method of: (a) modal superposition, and (b) recurrence relations.
The modal superposition method involves determination of the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors as the first step. The recurrence
relations method employs the finite difference approximation to
transform the acceleration vector  into the nodal unknown
vector   . Details of these two methods are omitted herein for
brevity. They can be found in many advanced finite element
method books including the book written by the author.
7.2.2 Element Types

Truss, beam, plate and solid elements are presented in
the preceding chapters. With their element interpolation functions,
the corresponding element stiffness matrix  K  and element load
vector  F can be derived. The mass matrix  M  that arises in
this chapter for analysis of vibration problems is in the form of an
integral over element domain  as,
M      N   N  d 
T
where  N  is the element interpolation function matrix of the

element type selected. As an example, the mass matrix correspond-
ing to the two-node truss element with the length of L and cross-
sectional area of A in chapter 2 is,
 AL  2 1 
M  
6  1 2 
Similarly, the mass matrix of the two-node beam element with the
length of L and cross-sectional area of A in chapter 3 is,
 156 22 L 54 13L 

 AL  22 L 4 L2 13L 3L2 
M   
420  54 13L 156 22 L 
 
 13L 3L2 22 L 4 L2 
The mass matrices of other element types can also be determined in
the same way. It is noted that many symbolic manipulation
software packages, such as MATLAB, Mathematica, Maple,
Maxima, etc., can be used to derive the mass matrices for many
element types in closed-form expressions. The element matrices in
closed-form expressions can help reducing the computational time.
Several finite element computer programs have been
developed to analyze structural vibration and dynamics problems in
the past. We will employ ANSYS through its Workbench to
analyze an academic type and realistic problems in the following
sections.

7.3.1 Vibration of Thin Plate
A square plate with the dimensions of 1  1 m and
thickness of 0.01 m is shown in the figure. The plate is made from
a material that has the Young’s modulus of 10.92  106 N m 2 and
Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. The plate is clamped along its four edges.
We will employ ANSYS through the Workbench to determine its
frequencies and the corresponding mode shapes. It is noted that

this example is a classical problem often used to study plate
vibration because their exact solutions are available. Understand-
ing their solution behaviors will provide confidence prior to
analyzing problems with more complicated geometry.
  1 Kg/m 3
E  10.92  10 6 N/m 2
v  0.3 1m
h  0.01 m
X
1m

 On the Analysis Systems window, click twice on the
Modal item. A new small box will appear on the Project
Schematic window.
name, e.g., Plate Modal Analysis, and hit Enter.
material and type in a new material name, e.g., “My Plate
 Click at the Density under Physical Properties and drag it
to the Property list at the bottom of the window. Enter the
Density value as 1 and hit Enter.

Enter the Young’s Modulus value as 10.92e6 and hit
Enter, enter the Poisson’s Ratio value as 0.3 and hit Enter.
Then, close the Engineering Data tab and click at the
 Right click on the Geometry tab and select the New Geo-
metry…. This will launch the ANSYS Design Modeler
(green logo DM).

tab to Meter.
on the window.
 Next we draw the square. Click on Sketch1.
 Click the Sketching tab and select Draw. Choose Rectan-

gle to create the square with the vertices of (0,0) and (1,1).
This is done by clicking at the coordinates of (0,0) on the
model, move the cursor to the coordinates of (1,1) and click
the mouse again, the square domain will appear. Click on
Generate (the icon with yellow lightning on the upper-left
part of the screen). The desired square will pop up in dark
green.
 Then, click on Generate. We now have the desired square
domain.
 Click SurfaceSk1 and change the value of Thickness in the
Detail View window to 0.01 and hit Enter.
 Click ISO tab and save file as Plate Modal Analysis, then
close the DM window.

Model, the thin plate model will appear back on the main
window.

Plate Material” (the name assigned earlier containing
“Surface Body” window. The plate model will become
green.

will appear as shown in the figure.

ing Solutions
 Next, the boundary conditions of the four clamped edges
can be applied. These will be done, one at a time, starting
from the top edge.
 Select Analysis Settings under Modal. Select the Sup-
ports tab on the upper menu bar with Fixed Support
option, then select Edge icon (box with arrow and green
edge). Move the cursor to the top edge and click at it, the
edge will become green. Click Apply button next to the
Geometry button under the Details of “Fixed Support”
window.
 Repeat the same process to apply clamped-supported

boundary condition along the other three edges.
the Solution item and under Modal and select the Solve
tab.

first mode shape with the frequency of 57.789 Hz in form of
color fringe plot will appear as shown in the figure.
 Change Mode item under Definition in the Details of

“Total Deformation” Window to 2, right click at the Total
second mode shape with the frequency of 119.72 Hz in
form of color fringe plot will appear as shown in the figure.
 Change Mode item under Definition in the Details of

“Total Deformation” Window to 4, right click at the Total
fourth mode shape with the frequency of 176.54 Hz in form

of color fringe plot will appear as shown in the figure.
7.4 Application
7.4.1 Modal Analysis of Passenger Car Frame
A passenger car frame as shown in the figure composes

of thin metal sheets. The metal sheets have the Young’s modulus
of 2  1010 N m 2 and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. We will use ANSYS
7.4 Application 133
through its Workbench to solve for the natural frequencies and

mode shapes.
We import a CAD file containing the car frame

geometry and construct a finite element model for it. We select
plate bending elements that allow bending together with plane
stress elements for in-plane movement. By using the element size
of approximately 5 cm, the finite element model consists of 10,147
elements and 10,068 nodes as shown in the figure. Since there are
6 unknowns of the three displacements and three rotations at each
node, the problem thus contains the total of 60,408 equations.
Before analyzing the problem, we change the value of

Max Modes to Find under Options in the Details of “Analysis
Setting” window to 10. The software will determine the solutions
up to the first ten modes. Solutions of the first and tenth modes are
shown in the figures.
Results from the modal analysis provide important

information to designers on the natural frequencies and their mode
shapes. Designers can modify the geometry to avoid a large
amplitude that may occur when the natural and forcing frequencies
are closed to each other. Since the ANSYS files of this problem
are available from the book website, readers are can explore the
solution behaviors by changing the problem geometry and
boundary conditions to increase understanding.
Chapter
8
Failure Analysis
Failure analysis is important in structural and machine

design. Large structures and machine components may fail under
repeated loading. This can occur even though the magnitude of the
repeated load is much less than the critical static load. In this
chapter, we will employ the finite element method via ANSYS
Workbench to predict life of structural components caused by
buckling and fatigue. We will use academic examples as well as a
practical application to demonstrate capability of the software for
failure analysis.
For static loading, the popular failure theory of a
ductile material is the maximum shear stress theory. Based on the
Tresca criterion, the theory states that,
max   yield 2
where max is the maximum shear stress and  yield is the yield
stress.
136 Chapter 8 Failure Analysis
The distortion energy theory is another popular theory.

With the von-Mises criterion, the theory states that,
 max   yield
where max is the maximum von-Mises stress.

It is noted that the maximum stresses above are reduced
by the safety factor n for problems in application.
8.1 Buckling
8.1.1 Fundamentals
Buckling is a common failure of frame structure caused
by too high compressive loading. Beam buckling is an academic
example often shown in undergraduate class because it is easy to
understand. A beam with the length of L and moment of inertia of
I is made from material that has the Young’s modulus of E. The
beam is constrained at the left end while the right end is subjected
to a compressive load of P as shown in the figure.
E, I
P
The critical bucking load Pcr according to the Euler’s

formula is,
Pcr   2 EI k L2
where k is the factor depending on the end boundary conditions.
For examples, k  1 when both ends are pinned or hinged, and
k  0.7071 when the left end is clamped.
The lowest critical buckling load, sometimes called the
Euler’s critical load, causes the beam to bend in one direction as
shown in the preceding figure. The lowest critical bucking load is,
8.1 Buckling 137
Pcr ( mode 1)   2 E I L2
This critical bucking load corresponds to the first mode shape.
For the second mode, the beam shape is similar to an S-
curve as shown in the following figure. The corresponding
buckling load is,
Pcr ( mode 2)  4 2 E I L2
E, I
P
For higher modes, the beam shapes behave in the same fashion but
are more complicated.
The example above contains only a single beam, deter-
mination of its mode shapes and critical buckling loads is not
difficult. For a complicated structure with many beams and plates,
the classical method cannot provide solution effectively. The finite
element method offers a convenient way to yield the mode shapes
with critical buckling loads. The method starts from deriving finite
element equations for all elements in the structural model. These
element equations are in the algebraic form of,
 M    K    0
where  M  is the mass matrix;  K  is the stiffness matrix;   is
the vector containing nodal unknowns; and  is the vector con-
taining nodal accelerations.
Then, the eigenvalue problem is solved from,
 K    2 M   0
where  denotes the natural frequency. The equations above lead
to the eigenvalues i and corresponding eigenvectors. Details for
finding the eigenvalues and eigenvectors can be found in advanced
finite element textbooks, including the book written by the author.
We will use ANSYS through its Workbench to find the

eigenvalues, eigenvectors together with the critical buckling loads
and mode shapes by using an academic example of a single beam
in the following section.
8.1.2 Academic Example

A rectangular shape beam with the length of 1 m and
cross-sectional dimensions of 0.02  0.01 m is shown in the figure.
The beam material is the structural steel that has the Young’s
modulus of 2  1011 N m2 . The left end is clamped into a wall
while the right end is simply supported so that it can move only in
its axial direction. The right end is subjected to a compressive
force of P = 1 N. We will employ ANSYS to determine the critical
buckling loads at different mode shapes.
y
h
P
x b
L
L  1 m ; E  2  1011 N m2 ; P  1N
b  .02 m  1 3
 I  b h  1.666667 109 m4
h  .01 m  12

name, e.g., Beam Buckling Analysis, and hit Enter.
8.1 Buckling 139

material and type in a new material name, e.g., “My Beam
enter the Poisson’s Ratio value as 0.3 and hit Enter, and

 Right click on the Geometry tab and select the Properties,
the Properties of Schematic window will appear. Activate
the Line Bodies under the Basic Geometry Options and
close this small window.
tab to Meter.

on the window.
8.1 Buckling 141
 Next we draw the beam model. Click on Sketch1.
(1,0). This is done by clicking at the coordinates of (0,0) on
the model, move the cursor to the coordinates of (1,0) and
click the mouse again. Click on Generate (the icon with
desired line will become dark green.
 If the model is too small to see, it can be enlarged by
clicking at the Box Zoom icon on the upper part of the
screen. Click it again after finishing.
 Select the Sketch1, the line will become yellow.
 Click Apply icon on the right side of the Details of Line1
tab in the Details View at the lower left of the screen. The
line will become cyan. Then, click on Generate. The right
side of the Base Objects tab will show 1 Sketch. The 1
Part, 1 Body item will appear in the Tree Outline window.
 We now have the required beam model.

 The next step is to create the beam cross section. Select
0.02 m and hit Enter, the height value H to 0.01 m and hit
main Graphic window.

Body window.
 Save file as Beam Buckling Analysis, and close the DM
window.

Model, the beam model will appear back on the main
window.
pop-up. Select the Line Body item and select “My Beam
of Assignment under Material in Details of “Line Body”
window. The beam model will become green.
8.1 Buckling 143

at Element Size under Sizing and change the value on the
right column to 0.1 and hit Enter so that the generated
element length is approximately 0.1 m. Right click at the
Mesh again and select Generate Mesh. A finite element
mesh with the 2-node beam elements will appear as shown
in the figure.

ing Solutions

Setup, the beam model will appear back on the main
window.
 Next, the boundary conditions on both ends can be applied.
This will be done, one at a time, starting from the left end.
Supported option, then select Vertex icon (box with arrow
and green dot). Move the cursor to the left end and click at
it, the left end will become green. Click Apply button next
to the Geometry button under the Details of “Fixed
Support” window.
 Repeat the similar process to apply the constraints of no

translation in the y- and z-direction at the right end. Select
the Analysis Settings and select the Supports tab on the
upper menu bar with Displacement option, then select
Vertex icon (box with arrow and green dot). Move the
cursor to the right end and click at it, the right end will
button under the Details of Displacement window. Change
Y Component and Z Component to Constant with the
value of 0 and hit Enter.
 Repeat the similar process to apply the boundary condition
of axial compressive force at the right end by selecting the
bar with Force option, and select Vertex icon. Move the
cursor to the right end and click at it. Click Apply button
and change Vector on the right-hand-side of Define By to
Components. Then, input X Component as -1 and hit
Enter. Note that, mesh can be shown by clicking the Show
Mesh icon on the upper menu bar.
8.1 Buckling 145

the Solve tab.
 Click the Solution item, then click on Deformation tab on
the upper menu bar and select the Total option, the Total
Deformation item will pop-up beneath the Solution item.
 Right click on Solution and select Evaluate All Results,
the program will start to solve the model.
 After completion, the computed displacement will be shown
on the main window.
 Save file and close the DM window.
(e) Eigenvalue Buckling Part
 The eigenvalue buckling analysis can be now performed.

The data from the static structural analysis (model, mesh,
solution, etc.) can be transferred directly to the buckling
analysis.
 Drag the Eigenvalue Buckling icon from the Analysis
Systems Toolbox window and drop it on to the Solution
cell of the highlighted Static Structural in the Project
Schematic window.
name, e.g., Eigenvalue Buckling, and hit Enter.
 Double click on Setup under Eigenvalue Buckling, a new

window of Multiple System appears. Right click on
Solution under Eigenvalue Buckling and select Solve, the
buckling analysis is now performed.
 Click on Solution and select Total Deformation under
Deformation tab. Right click on Total Deformation and
select Evaluate All results, the fundamental mode shape
will appear as shown in the figure with the computed Load
Multiplier of 6727.2.
 Because the input force P is 1 N, this means the critical load
is 6727.2 N.
8.1 Buckling 147
 Right click on Mode button in Total Deformation window

and change 1 to 2. Right click on Total Deformation and
select Evaluate All results, the second mode shape will
appear as shown in the figure with the computed Load
Multiplier of 19,881.
8.1.3 Application
Buckling of Detergent Bottle
A detergent bottle, lying down in the horizontal z-
direction as shown in the figure, is made from polyethylene
material that has the Young’s modulus of 1.1109 N m 2 and the
Poisson’s ratio of 0.42. The bottle is subjected to an external
compressive loading in the z-direction of 5 Kg. In addition, the
bottle has to support hydrostatic pressure of the liquid detergent

with the density of 106 Kg mm3 . We will employ ANSYS
through its Workbench to analyze the possibility of buckling when
the bottle thickness is 0.5 mm.
Using the imported CAD file of the bottle, we begin by

discretizing the model into a number of small plate elements with
their element sizes of approximately 5 mm. The generated finite
element mesh consists mostly of the quadrilateral elements with
few triangular elements. The mesh contains a total of 4,385
elements and 4,193 nodes. Users may change the element sizes, if
preferred, by downloading the ANSYS files from the book website.
8.1 Buckling 149
The next step is to apply the problem boundary

conditions. As shown in the figure, we fix the bottle base (A
symbol) and apply the compressive load of 49.05 N in the z-
direction (B symbol). The hydrostatic pressure from the liquid
detergent inside the bottle is applied in the z-direction (C symbol).
The computed von-Mises stress is displayed on the

bottle deformed shape. The maximum stress occurs at the bottle
neck as shown in the figure.
The critical buckling load is then determined by

following the same procedure as explained in the preceding
academic example. The computed load multiplier as shown in the
figure is 3.3892. This means the critical bucking load of the bottle
is 166.24 N because the applied load is 49.05 N. In another word,
the bottle won’t buckle if the applied compressive load is less than
166.24 N.
This example highlights benefits of the finite element

method to provide information necessary for the design of
complicated model. The ANSYS software though the use of its
Workbench helps the analysis process to proceed with ease.
8.2 Fatigue and Life Prediction
8.2.1 Fundamentals
Fatigue is one of the common problems that causes
structural failure. The failure may occur even though the stress is
less than the yield or ultimate stress if the structure is under cyclic
loading. As shown in the figure, the cyclic stress varies up and
down with cycles, where max is the maximum stress, mim is the
minimum stress, m is the mean stress, and  a is the alternating
stress.
Stress
a
 max
m
 min
Cycles
The stress variation behavior as shown in the figure

creates fatigue leading structural failure. Life of a structural part or
machine component is usually predicted by using the S-N curve of
the test specimen as shown in the figure.
Stress
S-N curve
e
Endurance limit
Se
Cycles
Ne
If the computed effective stress  e is less than the

endurance limit stress Se , the structural part or machine component
is safe. In the opposite way, if the computed effective stress  e is
larger than the endurance limit stress Se , we can determine the
number of cycles before the structural part or machine component
will fail.
The criteria to estimate that a structural part or machine
component may fail are suggested by: (a) Soderberg, (b) Goodman,
and (c) Gerber, as follows.
(a) Soderberg criterion states that a structural part or

machine component is safe if,
a  1
 m 
Se y n
where Se is the endurance limit stress,  y is the yield stress and n
is the design safety factor.
(b) Goodman criterion states that a structural part or
a  1
 m 
Se u n
where  u is the ultimate stress.
(c) Gerber criterion states that a structural part or
2
a   1
  m 
Se  u  n
The three criteria when n  1 are plotted as shown in
the figure. The Soderberg criterion is the most conservative
measure while the Goodman and Gerber criteria are the lesser ones,
respectively.
a
Gerber
Se
Goodman
Soderberg
m
y u
If the computed stress does not meet one of the criteria

above, the structural part or machine component may fail at a
limited time. Its limited life is normally estimated in form of the
stress cycles. As an example, if we follow the Goodman criterion,

the effective stress e is determined from,
a  1
 m 
e u n
The computed effective stress e is used to further determine the
number of cycles Ne from the S-N curve as shown earlier. Thus,
the life of the structural part or machine component can be
predicted. We will employ an academic example and an
application problem to demonstrate life prediction of a structural
part and a machine component in the following sections.
8.2.2 Academic Example

A U-shape plate with its thickness of 0.02 m is shown
in the figure. The plate is made of structural steel material with the
Young’s modulus of 2  1011 N m2 and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. The
plate is clamped along the left edge while the right edge is
subjected to a cyclic pressure loading of 108 Pa. We will use
ANSYS software through the Workbench to estimate the plate life
in form of the pressure cycles.
y E  2 1011 N/m 2 ,   0.3, t  .02 m
.2 R  .05
 
p  108 Pa
.2
x
.2 .6 .2


name, e.g., Life Prediction, and hit Enter.
pop-up. Use the default material of Structural Steel with
the Young’s Modulus value as 2e11 and Poisson’s Ratio
value as 0.3, and close this window. Then, close the
Engineering Data tab and click at the Project tab on the
upper menu, it will bring back to the main Project
Schematic window.

tab to Meter.
Show in 2D and Snap, the grid will appear on the main
drawing model.
 Change the Major Grid Spacing to 1 m, Minor-Steps per
Major is 5, and Snaps per Minor is 1.
on the window.

 Click on Sketch1, then click the Sketching tab and select
Draw.
 Choose Line to create the lower line with the end
coordinates of (0,0) and (1,0). This is done by clicking the
mouse at the coordinates of (0,0) on the model, move the
cursor to the coordinates of (1,0), and click the mouse
again. Then, follow the same procedure to create all other
lines, and click Generate.
 The left fillet is created by selecting Modify tab, then
change the Radius to 0.05 and hit Enter. Click at the
corner to create the fillet. Follow the same procedure for
the right fillet.
 Next, click Extrude to make a solid body of the plate with

thickness of 0.02. Click Apply next to the Geometry under
the Details View window, and change the FD1 value under
the Details of Extrude1 window to be 0.02, and hit Enter.
Then, click Generate so that the plate becomes a 3D solid
in dark grey.
 Click ISO tab to display model in 3D and save the file as
Life Prediction, then close the DM window.
(c) Generating Mesh
 On the Project Workbench window under Project Sche-

matic, click twice on Model.
 On the pop-up Outline window, select Mesh.
 Change the value on the right-hand-side of Relevance
under the Details of Mesh window to 100.
 Click Update on the menu bar above the Outline window,
a mesh will be generated.

ing Solutions
 The boundary conditions of the edge constraints and

loading can now be applied. These will be done, one at a
time, starting from the fixed left edge.
Support option, then select Face icon (box with arrow and
green face). Move the cursor to the left edge and click at it,
the edge will become green. Click Apply button next to the
Geometry button under the Details of “Fixed Support”
window.
 Next, apply the loading on the right edge. This is done by

selecting the Loads tab on the upper menu bar with
Pressure option, then select Face icon (box with arrow and
green face). Move the cursor to the right edge and click at
it, the edge will become green. Click Apply button next to
the Geometry button under the Details of “Pressure”
window and input the value of 1e8 and hit Enter. Click
Show Mesh button on the upper tab to display mesh on the
model.
 Note that the right edge is constrained so that it can’t move

in the z-direction. This can be done by selecting the
Supports tab on the upper menu bar with Displacement
option, then select Face icon (box with arrow and green
face). Move the cursor to the right edge and click at it, the
edge will become green. Click Apply button next to the
Geometry button under the Details of “Displacement”
window and change the Z Component to be Constant as 0.

the Solve tab.

deformed shape will appear as shown in the figure.
 To show the maximum principal stress, click the Solution

item, then Stress tab and select the Maximum Principal
option, the Maximum Principal Stress item will pop-up
beneath the Solution item. Right click at the Maximum
Principal Stress item and select Evaluate All Results, the
maximum principal stress will be plotted on the deformed
shape as shown in the figure.
(e) Fatigue Analysis Part
 To perform fatigue analysis, right-click on Solution under

Static Structural. Select Insert, Fatigue, and Fatigue
Tool. In the Detail of “Fatigue Tool”, set the Mean Stress
Theory to None.
 Right-click on Fatigue Tool in the Outline, and select

Insert, then Life. Right click on Life and select Evaluate
All results, the life in form of cycles will appear as shown
in the figure.
 Follow the same procedure by right-clicking on Fatigue

Tool, and selecting Insert, then Safety Factor. Right click
on Safety Factor and select Evaluate All results, the life

in form of cycles will appear as shown in the figure.
8.2.3 Application
Fatigue and Life Prediction of Piston Rod
A piston rod lying in the x-y-z coordinates as shown in
the figure is made from a material that has the Young’s modulus of
2 1011 N m2 and Poisson’s ratio of 0.3. The rod is subjected to a
force from the piston pin with the magnitude of 20,000 N in the
negative y-direction. We will use ANSYS through its Workbench
to estimate the life span of this piston rod.
We start by importing the CAD file of the piston rod.

A finite element mesh is constructed from the CAD model by
assigning the element size of 1 mm. The generated mesh, as shown
in the figure, consists of 93,575 tetrahedral elements.
We apply the boundary condition of the compressive

force from piston pin (A symbol) along the inner surface of the pin
tube as shown in the figure. The applied force has magnitude of
20,000 N in the negative y-direction. We also apply the fixed
boundary condition along the inner surface of the crankshaft tube
(B symbol) at the other end of the rod.
The analysis is performed to determine the deformation

shape and maximum principal stress. The figure shows that the
maximum principal stress occurs at the outer surface connecting

between the pin tube and axial bar of the rod.
The computed stress is the used to estimate the life

span of the rod. The predicted life in form of the loading cycles is
shown in the figure. Result indicates that the location of maximum
stress has the shortest life span.
Since the ANSYS files are available from the book

website, users may alter the boundary conditions by changing
magnitude and direction of the applied force. This will increase
understanding of the solution behaviors. Such understanding may
lead to shape modification of the piston rod. The modified rod
shape with lower stress will increase its life span.
Chapter
9
Heat Transfer Analysis
Heat transfer problem is one of the simplest problems

normally used to study the finite element method. This is mainly
because the heat transfer problem contains only one basic unknown
of the temperature. The temperature has a clear physical meaning
which is easy to understand.
Solving a heat transfer problem by using analytical
method in the past was difficult. Exact solution is not available if
the problem has complicated boundary conditions. The finite
element method helps alleviating such difficulty, especially when
the geometry of the problem is complicated.
In this chapter, we begins by reviewing the governing
differential and related equations of heat transfer problem. The
finite element method for analyzing the heat transfer problem is
described. Typical element equations and popular element types
are presented. ANSYS through its Workbench is then employed to
solve academic example and application problem.
166 Chapter 9 Heat Transfer Analysis
9.1 Basic Equations

The conservation of energy at any location in an iso-
tropic three-dimensional solid is described by the differential
equation,
T    T    T    T  
c   k  k    Q  0
 x  x  y  y  z  z  
k
t
 
where  is mass density of the solid material, c is the specific
heat, k is the thermal conductivity coefficient, Q is the internal
heat generation rate per unit volume, and T is the temperature that
varies with the coordinates x, y, z and time t .
For steady-state heat transfer, the differential equation
above becomes,
  T    T    T 
k  +  k  + k  +Q  0
 x  x  y  y  z  z 
If heat transfer occurs only in the two-dimensional x-y plane with
constant thermal conductivity coefficient k , the differential equa-
tion reduces to,
2T 2T Q
+  
x2 y2 k
which is in form of the Poisson’s equation. In addition, if there is
no internal heat generation, the governing differential equation
reduces further to,
2T 2T
+  0
x2 y2
which is called the Laplace’s equation.
Even though the Laplace’s equation above looks very
simple, its exact solution T ( x, y ) is still difficult to derive especial-
ly when the problem geometry is complicated.

The governing differential equations in the preceding
section are derived by using the Fourier’s law. The law relates the
conduction heat flux components with the temperature gradients.
For isotropic material, the conduction heat flux in the x-direction is,
T
qx  k
x
Boundary conditions of heat transfer at the domain
surface may consist of,
(a) Specified temperature,
T  Ts
where Ts may be constant or varies with x-, y-, z-coordinates and
time t.
(b) Specified heat flux,
q   qs
where qs is the specified heat flux which must be in equilibrium
with the conduction heat flux q at the surface.
(c) Convection heat transfer,
q  h(Ts  T )
where h is the surface convection coefficient and T is the
surrounding medium temperature.
(d) Radiation heat transfer,
q   (Ts4  T4 )
where  is the surface emissivity and  is the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant.
For transient heat transfer, an initial condition is
needed,
T ( x, y, z,0)  T0 ( x, y, z)
where T0 is the initial temperature of the solid.

method of weighted residuals to the governing differential
equation. Details of the derivation can be found in many finite
element textbooks including the one written by the author. The
derived finite element equations in matrix form are,
C T   K    K    K T 
c h r
 Qc   QQ   Qq   Qh   Qr 

where C  is the capacitance matrix;  K c  is the conduction
matrix;  K h  is the convection matrix;  K r  is the radiation matrix;
T is the vector containing rate of change of nodal temperatures;
T  is the vector containing nodal temperatures; Qc  is the
conduction load vector; QQ  is the heat generation load vector;
Qq  is the specified heating load vector; Qh  is the convection
load vector; and Qr  is the radiation load vector.
These element matrices and load vectors depend on
element types as described in the following section.
9.2.2 Element Types

The one-dimensional two-node rod element is shown in
the figure. The finite element matrices and load vectors can be
derived in closed form, such as,
Q qs h(T  T )  (T 4  T4 )
p
1 2
x
L A
 cAL  2 1 1
kA  1
C   ;  Kc  
6 1 2 L  1
1 
QAL 1 q pL 1 hT pL 1
QQ   2 1 ; Qq   s2 1 ; Qh   2 1
  
These closed-form matrices and vectors can be used to develop a
finite element computer program directly.
The three-node triangular element is a simple element
type for learning the finite element method in two dimensions. The
element consists of a node at each corner as shown in the figure.
The finite element matrices and load vectors can be derived in
closed form. Examples of these matrices and load vectors are,
h(T  T )
qs 3  (T 4  T4 )
Q
2
y
t
x 1
2 1 1 1
 cAt  QAt  
C   1 2 1 ; QQ   1
12   3 
1 1 2  1
2 1 1 1
hA  hT A  
 Kh   1 2 1 ; Qh   1
12   3 
1 1 2 1
 b1b1  c1c1 b1b2  c1c2 b1b3  c1c3 
kt 
 Kc   b1b2  c1c2 b2b2  c2c2 b2b3  c2c3 
4A  
 b1b3  c1c3 b2b3  c2c3 b3b3  c3c3 
where bi , ci ; i =1, 2, 3 are the coefficients that depend on the
nodal coordinates xi , yi and A is the element area. Details for
determining these coefficients and area are given in chapter 4.
The four-node quadrilateral element, as shown in the

figure, is a popular two-dimensional finite element. This is because
the quadrilateral element can provide a more accurate solution as
compared to two triangular elements. However, numerical integra-
tion is needed to compute the finite element matrices and load
vectors.
h(T  T )
qs 4
3
 (T 4  T4 )
Q
y
1
2
x t
The four-node tetrahedral element is a simple element

type. The element contains four faces with a node at each corner as
shown in the figure. The element matrices and load vectors can be
derived in closed form ready for computer programming.
Examples of an element matrix and a load vector are,
4 qs
Q h(T  T )
 (T 4  T4 )
1 3
z
y 2
x
2 1 1 1 1
 cV 1 2 1 1 QV 1
C  
20 1 1 2

1
; QQ   
4 1
 
1 1 1 2 1
where V is the element volume.
The hexahedral element is a widely used element for

analyzing three-dimensional problems. The element consists of
eight nodes and six faces as shown in the figure. The element can
provide higher solution accuracy as compared to the tetrahedral
element. Because the element employs more complicated inter-
polation functions, its element matrices and load vectors must be
determined by using numerical integration.
5 qs
h(T  T )
6 8
7  (T 4  T4 )
1
2 4
z
y
x 3

9.3.1 Plate with Specified Edge Temperatures
A rectangular plate with the dimensions of 2  1 m and
thickness of 0.01 m has specified temperatures along the four
edges as shown in the figure. The plate is made from a material
that has the thermal conductivity coefficient of 1 W m-C . We
will employ ANSYS through its Workbench to determine the

temperature distribution in the plate. This example is an academic
example for which the exact temperature solution is in the simple
form of,
sin( x 2) sinh( y 2)
T ( x, y ) 
sinh( 2)
Y T  sin( x 2)
1T 0 k 1
T 0
X
T 0
2

Steady-State Thermal item. A new small box will appear
on the Project Schematic window.
name, e.g., Plate with Specified Edge Temperatures, and
hit Enter.
pop-up. Double click on Click here to add a new mate-
rial and type in a new material name, e.g., “My Ideal
 Click on the Isotropic Thermal Conductivity under Ther-

mal and drag it to the Property list at the bottom of the
window. Enter the Isotropic Thermal Conductivity value
as 1 and hit Enter.
 Then, close the Engineering Data tab and click on the


tab to Meter.
 On the Tree Outline window, select on XYPlane and
Select the Sketching tab below the Tree Outline window,
Minor-Steps per Major is 1, and Snap per Minor is 1.
on the window.
 Click on Modeling tab, and then click on the New Sketch

icon (a small blue geometry symbol with * on the upper
part of the DM window) to create Sketch1 which will
appear under XYPlane. Note that this name Sketch1 can
be deleted or renamed by right clicking on it and selecting

an option.
 Next, to draw the rectangle with the size of 2×1, click on
Sketch1.
 Click on the Sketching tab and select Draw. Choose
Rectangle to create a rectangle with the vertices of (0,0)
and (2,1). This is done by clicking at the coordinates of
(2,1), and click the mouse again. Click on Generate (the
icon with yellow lightning on the upper-left part of the
screen). The desired rectangle will pop-up in dark green.

 Select Sketch1, the rectangle will become yellow.
rectangle will become cyan. The right side of the Base
 Then, click on Generate. We now have rectangular domain
of the plate.
 Save file as Plate with Specified Edge Temperatures, and
close the DM window.

Model, the plate model will appear back on the main
window.
will pop-up. Select the Surface Body item and change the
Thickness to 0.01 and hit Enter. Then, change select the
material name as “My Ideal Material” (the name assigned
earlier containing material properties of this problem)
which is on the right-hand-side of Assignment under
Material in Details of “Surface Body” window. The plate
model will become green.

window will appear on the lower left of the screen. Change
the Relevance value under the Details of “Mesh” window
to 100. Right click at the Mesh again and select Generate
Mesh. A finite element mesh with the 4-node quadrilateral
elements will appear as shown in the figure.
(d) Applying Boundary Conditions, Solving for and Dis-

playing Solutions
 Next, the boundary conditions of specified temperatures
along the 4 edges can be applied. We will apply zero
temperature to the right, bottom and left edges at the same
time before applying the temperature along the top edge.
Setup. Select Analysis Settings under Steady-State Ther-
mal. Select the Temperature tab on the upper menu bar,
then select Edge icon (box with arrow and green edge).
Hold the Ctrl button and click at the right, bottom and left
edges. These edges will become green. Click Apply button
next to the Geometry button under the Details of Tempe-
rature window, and change temperature value next to the
Magnitude button to 0, and hit Enter. Note that the right-
hand-side of Geometry in the Details of “Temperature”
window will become 3 Edges.
 Repeat the same process to apply boundary condition along

the top edge. This is done by first selecting the Analysis
Settings. Select the Temperature tab on the upper menu
bar, then select Edge icon. Move the cursor to the top edge
and click at it, the bottom edge will become green. Click
Apply button next to the Geometry button, select Function
next to the Magnitude button and enter sin(90*x), and hit
Enter. Note that the Angular Measure of the Function
beneath the Magnitude button herein is set to Degrees, not
in radians.
9.4 Application 179
 The problem is now ready to solve for solution. Click on

the Solution tab and under Steady-State Thermal and
right click on the Solve icon, the analysis will be performed.
 Click on the Solution item, the Thermal tab will appear on
the lower menu bar. Click on this Thermal tab and select
the Temperature option, the Temperature item will pop-
up beneath the Solution item. Right click at the Tempera-
ture item and select Evaluate All Results, the solution in
form of color fringe plot will appear as shown in the figure.
9.4 Application
9.4.1 Three-dimensional Heat Transfer through Fins
A three-dimensional heat sink, consisting of fins as
shown in the figure, is made from a material that has the thermal
conductivity coefficient of k  237 W m-  C . The heat sink trans-
fers heat from the bottom surface to the surrounding air by fins.
The bottom surface of the heat sink is subjected to a specified
heating of q  1500 W m2 . The convection coefficient of fin
surface is h  40 W m2 -  C and the surrounding air temperature is
T  30  C . We will use ANSYS through its Workbench to deter-
mine the temperature distribution of this heat sink.
k  237 W/m -  C
1
2
8 h  40 W/m 2 -  C
T  30  C
2
Z
2 X
15
q  1500 W/m 2
Model of the heat sink can be constructed easily by

using the Line command under the Draw tab. Each line can be
drawn to yield the cross section of the model on X-Y plane as
The Extrude command is used to create the complete

model in three dimensions as shown in the figure.
9.4 Application 181
A finite element mesh is then constructed by using the

Element Size of approximately 1 mm. The mesh consists of 1,320
hexahedral elements as shown in the figure.
The boundary condition of convection heat transfer is

applied to all surfaces except the bottom one as shown in the
figure.
The heating on the bottom surface of the model is

applied in the same fashion as shown in the figure.
With the mesh and boundary conditions, the problem is

then analyzed. The computed temperature distribution is displayed
on the heat sink model as shown in the figure.
9.4 Application 183
Since the ANSYS files are available from the book

website, users can modify the boundary conditions to obtain
different temperature solutions. This will increase understanding
on how to solve heat transfer problems and interpret their solutions.
Analyzing heat transfer problems is simpler than other problems
because the temperature is only the basic unknown.
Chapter
10
Thermal Stress Analysis
Analyzing practical problems sometimes requires

knowledge more than one engineering discipline. Thermal stress
problem is one of these problems that need the knowledge of heat
transfer and solid stress disciplines. Heat transfer analysis is
performed firstly to obtain temperature solution. The computed
temperature solution is then used as input data to determine the
deformation and thermal stresses of the solid. Examples of these
problems are automotive engines, electric motors, computer micro-
chips, as well as ceramic cups after pouring hot coffee into them.
We will study on how to analyze thermal stress
problems in this chapter. The chapter starts from presenting the
differential equations that govern heat transfer and equilibrium
equations in solids. Corresponding finite element equations are
derived for both analysis disciplines. ANSYS is then employed to
solve both academic and application problems. We will see that
the current finite element software can analyze interdisciplinary
problems, such as the thermal stress problem, effectively.
186 Chapter 10 Thermal Stress Analysis
10.1 Basic Equations

Since the differential equations and related equations
for heat transfer and stress analyses were presented in details in the
preceding chapters, this chapter will review essential equations and
show additional equations that relate the two disciplines together.

The conservation of energy at any location in an isotro-
pic three-dimensional solid is represented by the differential
equation,
T    T    T    T  
c   k  k    Q  0
 x  x  y  y  z  z  
k
t
 
where  is the mass density, c is the specific heat, k is the ther-
mal conductivity coefficient, and Q is the internal heat generation
rate. In the above differential equation, T is the temperature that
varies with the x-, y-, z-coordinates and time t.
If the temperature change does not significantly alter
the solid strain rate, the quasi-static analysis may be used for ther-
mal stress solutions. The condition simplifies the analysis pro-
cedure and reduces overall computational time. The computed
temperature at a given time is input into the stress analysis to
determine the corresponding thermal stress solution. The thermal
stress solution is solved from the governing differential equations
of the solid,
 x  xy 
+ + xz  0
x y z
 xy  y  yz
+ +  0
x y z
 xz  yz  z
+ +  0
x y z
where x ,  y ,  z are the normal stress components in the x, y, z
directions, respectively, and  xy ,  xz ,  yz are the shearing stress
components.
These six stress components depend on the six strain

components and temperature. The six strain components are func-
tions of the three displacement components u , v, w in the x, y,
z directions, respectively. The three displacement components are
solved from the three governing differential equations above.

Boundary conditions for heat transfer problem are: (a)
specified temperature, (b) specified surface heating, (c) surface
convection, and (4) surface radiation. Details of these boundary
conditions are provided in chapter 9.
Boundary conditions for stress analysis of solid pro-
blem are: (a) specified displacements, and (b) specified tractions on
the solid surface. Details of these boundary conditions are
described in chapter 6.
The basic unknowns of the solid problem are the three
displacement components u , v, w which are solved from the three
governing differential equations. Since the differential equations
are written in forms of the stress components, the relations between
the stress and displacement components must be provided.
The six stress components can be written in forms of
the six strain components as,
   C    0 
(61) (66) (61)
where     x  y  z  xy  xz  yz 
T
The matrix C  is the material elasticity matrix. The total and

thermal strain components are,
 T  x  y z  xy  xz  yz 
0 T   T  T  T 0 0 0 
where  is the coefficient of thermal expansion and T is the
difference between the temperature and reference temperature Tref
for zero stress,
T  T ( x , y , z )  Tref
For small deformation theory, the strain components

are written in forms of the displacement components u , v, w as,
u u  v
x  ;  xy  
x y  x
v  u w
y  ;  xz  
y z x
w v w
z  ;  yz  
z z y
As mentioned earlier, the heat transfer problem is
firstly analyzed for temperature solution. The computed tempera-
ture is input into the solid problem for stress analysis. Once the
stress analysis is performed and the displacement components are
obtained, the six strain components can then be computed.
Determination of the six stress components is followed to complete
the analysis of thermal stress problem.

Finite element equations for heat transfer problem can
be derived by applying the method of weighted residuals to the
governing differential equation as described in chapter 9. The
finite element equations are in the form,
C T   K    K    K T 
c h r
 Qc   QQ   Qq   Qh   Qr 

The element matrices on the left-hand side of the equations are the
capacitance, conduction, convection and radiation matrices,
respectively. The vectors on the right-hand side of the equations
are associated with conduction, internal heat generation, specified
heating, convection and radiation, respectively. Forms and sizes of
these element matrices and vectors depend on the element types.
The unknowns of the finite element equations above are the nodal
temperatures.
Similarly, the finite element equations for solid prob-

lem can be derived by applying the method of weighted residuals to
the governing differential equations as described in chapter 6. The
finite element equations are in the form,
 K    F   F0 
where  K  is the element stiffness matrix;  F  is the element
vector containing nodal forces, and  F0  is the element vector
containing nodal forces from temperature change. In the finite
element equations, the unknowns are the displacement components
u , v, w at nodes which are contained in the element vector   .
10.2.2 Element Types

A common finite element mesh should be employed for
both heat transfer and solid stress analyses. Nodal temperatures
obtained from heat transfer analysis can be transferred directly to
the same nodes of the solid stress analysis. The overall thermal
stress analysis thus can be performed conveniently.
The finite element equations of the solid stress problem
include the load vector  F0  from the temperature change. This
load vector affects the solid solutions of the deformation and
stresses. As an example, the load vector  F0  due to temperature
change for the two-node truss element as shown in the figure is,
 1
F0   A E  (T  Tref )  
1
where A is the truss cross-sectional area, E is the material
Young’s modulus,  is the coefficient of thermal expansion, T is
the average element temperature, and Tref is the reference
temperature for zero stress.
u1 u2
F0 F0
1 A, E ,  2
x
L
The vector  F0  for two- and three-dimensional ele-

ment types can be derived without difficulty. The finite element
equations for both heat transfer and solid stress problems suggest
that the process for solving thermal stress problem is straight
forward. Again, to avoid difficulty of transferring nodal tempera-
tures from the heat transfer analysis to the solid stress analysis, a
common finite element mesh should be used.
We will use ANSYS through the Workbench to carry
out the thermal stress analysis for both academic and application
problems as demonstrated in the following section.

10.3.1 Thermal Stress Analysis of Thin Plate
A rectangular plate with the dimensions of 3  2 ft and
thickness of 0.01 ft is made from aluminum material that has the
properties as shown in the figure. The plate is subjected to a roof-
like temperature distribution with the temperature of 245F and
95F along the X-direction at Y = 0 and 1 ft, respectively.
245F
95F
Y
1'
X
95F
1'
1.5' 1.5'
k  137 Btu ft-hr- o F, E  1.5  109 lb ft 2
  0.29,   12.7  106 o F, Tref  80 o F
Due to symmetry, we will use only the upper right

quarter of the plate as shown in the figure for the analysis. We will
employ ANSYS to provide roof-like temperature distribution. The

computed nodal temperatures will be transferred to the stress
analysis to determine the plate deformation and thermal stresses. It
is noted that this problem is a classical thermal stress problem for
which the analytical solution and experiment data are available.
Y
95  F
1'
245  F
X
1.5'

upper tab to U.S.Customary (lbm,in,s,F,A,lbf,V).
Steady-State Thermal item. A new small box will appear
on the Project Schematic window.
name, e.g., Heat Transfer Part, and hit Enter.
pop-up. Double click on Click here to add a new mate-
rial and type in a new material name, e.g., “Aluminum
 Click at the Isotropic Thermal Conductivity and drag it to
the Property list at the bottom of the window. Enter the
Isotropic Thermal Conductivity value as 137 BTU/(ft^2
hr (F/ft)) and hit Enter, and close this window.
Schematic window.


Geometry…. This will launch the ANSYS Design Model-
er (green logo DM).
tab to Foot.
 On the Tree Outline window, select on XYPlane and
select the Sketching tab below the Tree Outline window,
 Make sure that the Major Grid Spacing is set to 1 ft,
Minor-Steps per Major is 2, and Snap per Minor is 1.
on the window.
 Next, to draw the rectangle with the size of 1.5  1 ft, click
on Sketch1.
gle to create a rectangle with the vertices of (0,0) and
(1.5,1). This is done by clicking at the coordinates of (0,0)
on the model, move the cursor to the coordinates of (1.5,1),
then click the mouse again. Click on Generate (the icon
with yellow lightning on the upper-left part of the screen).
The desired rectangle will pop-up in dark green.
 Select Sketch1, the rectangle will become yellow.
rectangle will become cyan. The right side of the Base
Objects tab will show 1 Sketch, with 1 Part, 1 Body
appears in the Tree Outline window.
 Then, click on Generate. We now have rectangular
domain representing the upper right quarter of the plate.
 Save file as Thermal Stress Problem, and close the DM

window.

Model, the plate model will appear back on the main
window.
 Select Units on the upper menu bar to U.S.Customary
(ft,lbm,lbf,F,s,V,A).
will pop-up. Select the Surface Body item and change the
Thickness of the plate to .01 ft and hit Enter.
 Select “Aluminum Material” (the name assigned earlier
containing material properties of this problem) which is on
the right-hand-side of Assignment under Material in
Details of “Surface Body” window. The plate model will
become green.
window will appear on the lower left of the screen. Change
the Relevance value under the Details of Mesh window to
100. Right click at the Mesh again and select Generate
Mesh. A finite element mesh with the 4-node quadrilateral
elements will appear as shown in the figure.

ing Solutions
 Next, the boundary conditions of specified temperatures

along the top and bottom edges can be applied. This will be
done, one at a time, starting from the bottom edge.
Setup. Select Analysis Settings under Steady-State
Thermal. Select the Temperature tab on the upper menu
bar, then select Edge icon (box with arrow and green edge).
Move the cursor to the bottom edge and click at it, the
bottom edge will become green. Click Apply button next
to the Geometry button under the Details of Temperature
window, and change temperature value next to the
Magnitude button to 245, and hit Enter.
 Repeat the same process to apply boundary condition along

the top edge. This is done by first selecting the Analysis
Settings. Select the Temperature tab on the bottom menu

bar, then select Edge icon. Move the cursor to the top edge
and click at it, the top edge will become green. Click
Apply button next to the Geometry button, and change
temperature value next to the Magnitude button to 95, and
hit Enter.
 The problem is now ready to solve for temperature solution.
Click the Solution tab and under Steady-State Thermal
and click the Solve icon (the icon with yellow lightning on
the top menu bar).
 Click the Solution item, the Thermal tab will appear on the
lower menu bar. Click on this Thermal tab and select the
Temperature option, the Temperature item will pop-up
beneath the Solution item. Right click at the Temperature
item and select Evaluate All Results, the solution in form
of color fringe plot will appear as shown in the figure.
(e) Stress Analysis Part
 The thermal stress analysis can be now performed. The

data from the thermal analysis (model, mesh, temperature
solution, etc.) can be transferred directly to the stress analy-
sis on the same mesh.
 Drag the Static Structural icon from the Analysis Systems

Toolbox window and drop it on to the Solution cell of the
highlighted Heat Transfer Part in the Project Schematic
window.
name, e.g., Thermal Stress Part, and hit Enter.
 Right-click at the Engineering Data under the Heat

Transfer Part project window, the A2: Engineering Data
window will appear again.
Enter the Young’s Modulus of 1.5e9 psf and hit Enter, the
Poisson’s Ratio of 0.29 and hit Enter.
 Click at My Aluminum Material item assigned earlier and
expand the Physical Properties tab in the Toolbox win-
dow. Click at the Isotropic Instantaneous Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion item and drag to Property item, then
enter the value of 12.7e-6 /F. Also enter Temperature
value of 80F and hit Enter. Then, close this A2,B2:Engi-
neering Data window.
(f) Applying Boundary Conditions and Solve for Solution of

Stress Analysis Part
 The next step is to apply the boundary condition of friction-

less support along the bottom and left edges.
 On the main Project Schematic window under Static
Structural, double click on Setup. Select Analysis Set-
tings under Static Structural. Select the Supports tab on
the cursor to the bottom edge and click at it, the edge will
button under the Frictionless Support window.
frictionless support along the left edge. This is done by
the cursor to the left edge and click at it, the left edge will
button under the Frictionless Support window. The mesh
can be shown by clicking at the Show Mesh button on the
upper mane bar.

the Solve tab.
the figure.

 The normal stress in X-direction is displayed by selecting

option and select X Axis under the Orientation in the
Details of “Normal Stress” window.
 Similarly, the normal stress in Y-direction is displayed by

selecting the Solution item and then the Stress tab with
Normal option and select Y Axis under the Orientation in
the Details of “Normal Stress” window.
 The shear stress is displayed by selecting the Solution item

and then the Stress tab with Shear option.
10.4 Application
10.4.1 Thermal Stress in Combustion Engine Cylinder
A combustion engine cylinder as shown in the figure is
made from a material that has the thermal conductivity coefficient
of 237 W m-  C , the Young’s modulus of 7.11010 N m2 , the
Poisson’s ratio of 0.3, and the thermal expansion coefficient of
2.3 105  C . The top surface of the cylinder is subjected to an
internal pressure of 106 N m2 and heat flux of 100,000 W m2 .
Convection heat transfer is assumed to occur on all other surfaces

to the surrounding medium temperature of 30  C with the
convection coefficient of 40 W m2 -  C . We will employ ANSYS
through its Workbench to determine the temperature distribution,
deformation and thermal stresses in the cylinder.
k  237 W m-  C
h  40 W m2 - C
T  30 C
q  100, 000 W m2
E  7 10 10 N m2
  0.3
  2.3  10 5 C
We start from heat transfer analysis to determine the

cylinder temperature distribution. A finite element mesh is
constructed with a large number of tetrahedral elements as shown
in the figure.
The heat flux of 100,000 W m2 is applied on top of

the cylinder surface. The boundary condition of convection heat
transfer is applied to all other surfaces using the convection
coefficient of 40 W m2 -  C and the surrounding medium tempera-
ture of 30  C . Application of these boundary conditions through
the Workbench is highlighted in the figure.
The heat transfer analysis is performed and the

computed temperature distribution is displayed as shown in the
figure. High temperature occurs on the cylinder top surface where
the heat flux is applied. The cylinder temperature decreases
gradually from top to bottom due to convection heat transfer to the
surrounding medium.
The cylinder temperature obtained from the heat

transfer analysis is transferred to the stress analysis to predict
deformation and stress. The combustion pressure with a magnitude
of 106 N m2 is applied on the cylinder top surface while the
cylinder pin surface is constrained as shown in the figure.
The predicted von-Mises stress is displayed on the

cylinder deformed shape as shown in the figure. The figure
indicates high stress occurs in the region above the cylinder pin
hole. Such solution helps designer to understand cylinder behavior
under both the mechanical and thermal loadings.
Since ANSYS files of this problem are available from

the book website, users may modify boundary conditions in the
heat transfer and stress analyses. Such modification will lead to
different solution and increase understanding of the thermal stress
behavior. Users will also realize benefits of the finite element
method that can analyze the multidisciplinary problems effectively.
Chapter
11
Incompressible
Flow Analysis
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has played im-

portant role for the flow analysis recently. CFD provides detailed
flow behaviors over complicated configuration, such as flow over
an automobile body, flow over a city, flow circulation inside an
office, etc. CFD also provides insight into some flow behaviors
that might be harmful to human and reduces cost of performing
experiments.
Most of CFD software packages employ the finite
element and finite volume methods to solve for flow solutions. The
finite volume method is popular because it can provide accurate
flow solutions at reasonable cost. ANSYS includes Fluent soft-
ware which can perform different classes of flow analyses effec-
tively. This chapter demonstrates the use and capability of Fluent
to analyze both academic and application problems.
208 Chapter 11 Incompressible Flow Analysis

The flow behavior in three dimensions is governed by
the full Navier-Stokes equations consisting of the conservation of
mass, momentums and energy. There are five differential equa-
tions which are coupled in complicated form. Solving the full
Navier-Stokes equations requires extensive computational effort.
The equations are thus normally reduced into simplified forms
according to different classes of flow behaviors.
In this chapter, we will concentrate on the steady-state
incompressible laminar flow analysis in two-dimensional Cartesian
coordinates. The Navier-Stokes equations, in this case, consist of
only three differential equations. These equations are: (a) conser-
vation of mass, (b) conservation of momentum in the x-direction,
and (c) conservation of momentum in the y-direction as follows.
u v
  0
x y
  p   u    u 
(  uu )  (  vu )        
x y x x  x  y  y 
  p   v    v 
(  uv)  (  vv)        
x y y x  x  y  y 
where  is the density, u and v are the velocity components in

the x- and y-directions, respectively, p is the pressure, and  is
the dynamic viscosity.
The three basic unknowns of the three differential
equations above are the velocity components u ( x, y), v( x, y ) and
pressure p( x, y) . It is noted that the differential equations form a
set of coupled nonlinear differential equations. Such the set of
differential equations is more difficult to solve as compared to the
differential equations in the preceding chapters.
11.1.2 Solution Approach

By observing the three differential equations above, the
velocity components u and v should be determined from the x- and
y-momentum equations. This means the pressure p should be
obtained from the mass equation. However, the mass equation
does not contain the pressure p at all. Thus, the pressure p must be
determined together with the velocity components u and v in the
momentum equations such that the mass is also satisfied.
The idea above suggests that the solution process
should be an iteration process. The process is continued until the
converged solutions of u, v and p are achieved.
It is noted that the x- and y-momentum equations
contain the convection terms which are in form of the first-order
partial derivative. These convective terms are nonlinear and
require additional effort for solutions. These terms may yield
oscillated solutions if the mesh is not fine enough. Fine mesh is
thus normally needed which requires more computational time.
These factors must be realized prior to solving flow problems using
any CFD software.
11.2 Finite Volume Method

The finite volume method is a popular method for
analyzing CFD problems. The method provides accurate flow
solution with reasonable computational effort. Details of the
method can be found in many CFD textbooks including the one
written by the author.
The method starts from dividing the computational
domain into a number of cells as shown in the figure. Herein, we
use rectangular cells to simplify explanation of the method. Each
cell consists of the three unknowns which are the velocity
components u, v and the pressure p. The cell is surrounded by the
north cell N, the east cell E, the south cell S, and the west cell W.
The concept of staggered grids is applied to reduce error that might
occur during the computation.
p cell
u cell
j2
N
J 1
staggered
j 1
W P E grid
y J
original
y j grid
2 J 1
S
j 1
J 2 v cell
j2
I 2 I 1 I I 1
i2 i 1 i i 1 i2
x
x
2
11.2.1 Finite Volume Equations

With the concept of staggered grids, the u cell is moved
to the left of the p cell as shown in the figure. The new N, E, S and
W cells corresponding to this u cell are established. The velocity u
is then determined from,
aPu u P   anbu unb  ( pI 1, J  pI , J ) Au
where Au is the flow area on the left and right edges of the cell.
The subscript nb means the neighbor cells of the u cell.
Similarly, the velocity v is determined from,
aPv vP   anbv vnb  ( pI , J 1  pI , J ) Av
where Av is the flow area on the top and bottom edges of the cell.
The coefficients aP and anb in the equations above
consist of the convection and diffusion terms of the p cell. These
coefficients are derived depending on the algorithms selected.

Common algorithms are the central differencing, upwinding, hybrid
differencing, power-law, and QUICK algorithms. Understanding
these algorithms and applying them appropriately can improve the
solution accuracy.
From the equations for determining the velocity com-
ponents u and v of any p cell above, the computational approach to
find the solutions should be an iteration process. The process starts
from an initial guess of the flow solution for the entire domain.
The iteration process is performed and terminated when a
converged solution is obtained. One of the efficient processes is
the SIMPLE (Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equation)
method. The method is briefly explained in the following section.
11.2.2 SIMPLE Method

The SIMPLE method consists of the three main steps as
follows.
Step1 Assume the velocity components u  , v  and the pressure

p  for all cells in the flow domain. Then, determine the new
velocity components u  and v  from,
p u
aPu u P   anbu unb  x
A
p  v
and aPv vP   anbv vnb 
y
A
Step 2 Assign u , v and p as the corrections which are the

differences between the correct solutions and assumed solutions in
step 1, i.e.,
u  u  u  ; v   v  v ; p  p  p
Then, determine the velocity components u and v from,
Au p
uP  uP 
aPu x
Av p
and vP  vP 
aPv y
while p is obtained by solving the differential equation,
  Au p    Av p   u   v  
 u    v      
x  aP x  y  a P y   x y 
which is in the form of the Poisson’s equation.
Step 3 Check whether the solutions u, v and p converge to the

correct solutions. This is equivalent to the values of u, v and p
are closed to zero, so that u  u  , v  v and p  p . If the u, v 
and p are not converged to the specified tolerance, reset u   u ,
v  v and p   p , then repeat the iteration process. The process
continues until u, v and p for all cells converge to the correct
solutions.
During the iteration process, many software packages
show plot of the solutions u, v and p that change with the
iteration numbers. The plot provides good information to ensure
convergence of the solutions.

We will use Fluent which is embedded in ANSYS
through the Workbench to analyze flow circulation in a cavity and
flow past a cylinder in a channel.
11.3.1 Lid-Driven Cavity Flow

A unit square cavity filled with a fluid is shown in the
figure. The specified velocity along the top edge induces flow
circulation in the cavity. The flow behavior depends on the
Reynold’s number defined by,
uL
Re 

y
u 1
 1
1 Fluid
  0.01
x
1
By employing Fluent in ANSYS software, the steps for

analyzing the problem are as follows.

 On the Analysis Systems window, click twice on the Fluid

Flow (Fluent) item. A new small box will appear on the
 Replace the name Fluid Flow (Fluent) in the lower blue tab
by retyping the desired project name, e.g., Lid Driven
Cavity Flow, and hit Enter.
Options from 3D to 2D. Then, close this window.

 On the Project Schematic window, right click on the
Geometry tab and select the New Geometry…. This will
launch the ANSYS Design Modeler (green logo DM).
tab to Meter.
drawing model.
zoom in. Click it again after finishing.
renamed by right clicking on it and selecting options.
 Next, to draw the unit square, click on Sketch1.
gle to create a square with the vertices of (0,0) and (1,1).
This is done by clicking at the coordinates of (0,0), move
the cursor to the coordinates of (1,1) and click the mouse
again. Click on Generate (the icon with yellow lightning on
the upper-left part of the screen). The desired square will
pop up in dark green.

Objects tab will show 1 Sketch with 1 Part, 1 Body
appears in the Tree Outline window.
 Then, click on Generate. We now have a unit square
domain.
 The domain is ready for meshing, but before that, we will

specify boundary conditions on the domain first.
 We will give the name of the upper edge as Lid. On the
upper tools bar, select the Selection Filter: Edges icon (box
with arrow and green edge)
 Place the cursor near the top edge of the square and click,
the top edge will become green. Then, right click to select
Named Selection, and click Apply tab next to the

Geometry tab in the lower left of Details View window.
The right tab will become 1 Edge. Then, click on
Generate.
 Right click in the NameSel1 in the Tree Outline window
and choose Rename. Type Lid and hit Enter. Then, click
on Generate.
 It is noted that all other boundaries, by default, are viscous
walls with zero velocity components, i.e., we don’t have to
specify anything.
 Click on Save Project icon (diskette icon on top of the

screen) to save the work under the file name Lid Driven
Cavity Flow and close the DM window.
(c) Generating Mesh

matic, click twice on Mesh.
 In the Details of “Mesh” window, click the plus sign (+)
next to Sizing to expand it.
 Change Relevance Center to Fine.
 Click Update on the menu bar above the Outline Window.

A mesh will be generated.
 Close the window and return to the Project Workbench
window.
 Click on Save Project icon to save the work.
(d) Setting up Fluid Properties and Boundary Conditions

matic, click twice on Setup. Click OK on the Fluent
Launcher window. Wait for few seconds, the mesh that
just created will appear on the central window.
 The left side of the screen is the Tree window consisting of
the three main sections: Setup, Solution, and Results.
 Click on Models under Setup section. Make sure that

everything is off except the third option must be Viscous –
Laminar.
 Next, click on Materials under Setup section, and double
click on Fluid. Change the Density value to 1.0 and the
Viscosity value to 0.01. Then click Change/Create button
and Close button.
 Now, specifying the boundary conditions. Select Bounda-
ry Conditions, click at Lid, and Edit…. Select Moving
Wall and input the Speed (m/s) as 1.0 and click OK.
 On the wall-surface_body zone, make sure that it is No
Slip Condition, and click OK. Note that Fluent assumes
any other edges as viscous wall.
(e) Solving for Solution
 Under Solution section in the Tree window, select Run

Calculation, set Number of Iterations to 1000, Reporting
Interval to 10, and click on Calculate button. If it asks for
initial condition, click on Yes button.
 If it works properly, residual curves of the continuity and

momentum equations that decrease with the number of
iterations will be plotted on the main window
(f) Displaying Results
 Under Results section in the Tree window, select

Graphics. Choose and click twice on Contours and select
Velocity… in the Contours of box. Select the Filled
button and click Display button.
 Under Result section in the Tree window, select Graphics.

Choose and click twice on Vectors and select Velocity… in
the Vectors box, and click Display button.
 Under Result section in the Tree window, select Graphics.

Choose and click twice on Contours and select Velocity…
with Stream Function in the Contours box under the
Contour of. Click Display button to show the streamlines.
 The analysis can be repeated for higher Reynolds number,

such as when Re=1,000. In the Materials option under
Setup section, change the Viscosity value to 0.001 and
reanalyze the problem. Result of the path lines for
Re=1,000 can be displayed in the same fashion. Flow
circulations appear clearly near both lower corners of the
cavity.
 The analysis is repeated for Re=5,000. Result of the path

lines is shown below. Flow circulation now appear near the
upper left corner in addition to the lower two corners of the
cavity.
11.3.2 Flow past Cylinder in Channel
We will use Fluent in ANSYS to analyze the flow past

a cylinder in a channel. The fluid properties, flow domain geome-
try and boundary conditions are shown in the figure.
y
3
 x
 The flow domain can be constructed by creating a rectangle

and a circle with the given dimensions. The Subtract
command is used to take away the circular region from the

rectangular region. The procedure to subtract a region from
another is the same as constructing a plate with a circular
cutout as explained in chapter 4.
 Next, the boundary names of the flow inlet, flow outlet and
cylinder edge are assigned as Inlet, Outlet and Cylinder,
respectively. This will provide the convenience in applying
boundary conditions later.
 A mesh representing the flow domain is then constructed as

shown in the figure. The mesh consists mostly of quadri-
lateral elements with few triangular elements.
 To perform the flow analysis, click on the Fluent Launcher

and enter the Density as 1.0 and the Viscosity as 0.1 in the
same way as in the preceding example.
 The boundary conditions are then applied by clicking on
Inlet (the name assigned earlier) and enter the Velocity
Magnitude as 1.0.
 Click on Outlet and enter the Pressure as 0.0.
 On the Cylinder, the boundary condition is selected as No
Slip.
 We follow the same procedure as explained in the preced-
ing example to execute the problem for solutions. The
solution residuals associated with the continuity and the two
momentum equations decrease with the number of
iterations are shown in the figure.
 The computed solutions such as the velocity contours,

velocity vectors and flow path lines are shown in the
figures.
 It is noted that if there is an additional square inside the

channel as shown in the figure, the same procedure is
applied for the solution.
y
uv0
(0,10)
 1
u 1   0.1 10
v0 3
6
p0
 x
6
10 10 20 10
uv0 (40, 10)
 The computed flow solutions in forms of the velocity

contours and path lines for this latter case are shown in the
figures. Such solutions highlight benefits and capabilities
of the software to handle complicated flow domain
effectively. The computed solutions provide insight into
the flow field to increase understanding of the flow
behaviors.
11.4 Application
11.4.1 Flow in Piping System
A piping system as shown in the figure consists of
pipes with different diameters, reservoir, reducing adapter and
elbow. Water flows into the larger pipe on the left side of the
figure at the speed of 1 m/s. The water leaves the smaller pipe on
the right side of the figure at the atmospheric pressure. The water
density is 998.2 kg/m3 and its viscosity is 0.001003 kg/m-s. We
will use Fluent in ANSYS to analyze the flow behavior in this
piping system.
We start from importing the CAD file of the three-

dimensional piping system. The flow domain is highlighted as
Discretizing the flow domain in three dimensions leads

to a large number of elements and hence the flow unknowns. In
order to understand the flow behavior, this particular problem may
be analyzed firstly by using a two-dimensional domain. This can

reduce the number of unknowns and provide adequate information
of the flow behavior. The two-dimensional model is shown in the
figure.
We apply the boundary conditions of water inlet

velocity at 1 m/s as shown by symbol A in the figure. The water
exits from the piping system at the atmospheric pressure denoted
by symbol B.
With the flow domain, the mesh can be constructed

easily. By assigning the cell size of approximately 10 mm, the
mesh consists of 3,419 cells as shown in the figure.
Since the flow velocity is relatively high, we may turn

on the standard k-e model which is under the Setup>Models>
Viscous item. The water properties can be obtained by using the
data base inside the software by selecting Setup>Materials>
Fluid>Water-liquid(h2o<l>). The analysis the then performed to
yield the flow velocity and pressure as shown in the figures.
The computed solutions help designers to understand

flow behavior in details. The solutions show the effect of the
reservoir, reducing adapter and elbow to the flow field. Since the
ANSYS files of this problem can be downloaded from the book
website, users may want to change the inlet and outlet boundary
conditions to increase understanding of the flow behavior.
Chapter
12
Compressible
Flow Analysis
Compressible flow occurs in many applications such as

flow in turbine engines, flow over supersonic aircrafts and rockets.
The flow behaviors consist of shock wave, expansion wave and
shock-shock interaction phenomena. These phenomena are com-
plicated and difficult to predict by numerical methods in the past.
Fluent in ANSYS contains analysis capability that can provide
solutions representing such complicated phenomena effectively.
In this chapter, we begin with the conservative equa-
tions of the compressible flow. Theoretical background of the cell-
centered method for compressible flow analysis is presented.
Capability of Fluent is demonstrated by analyzing academic pro-
blems that have analytical solutions. Application example is also
presented to highlight complicated compressible flow behaviors.
232 Chapter 12 Compressible Flow Analysis

In order to reduce the complexity of mathematics and
increase understanding of the formulation, we will consider the
compressible flow in two-dimensional Cartesian coordinates. The
flow is governed by the conservation of mass, x- and y-momentums
and energy equations. These four equations are written in the
conservative form as,
  
U   E I  EV   FI  FV   0
t x y
where U  is the vector containing the conservative variables,

u 
 
U    
 v 
  
The vectors EI  and FI  contain the inviscid fluxes in the x- and
y-directions as,
 u   v 
 u 2  p    uv 
 
EI     ; FI    2 
  uv   v  p 
  u  pu    v  pv 
The vectors EV  and FV  contain the viscous fluxes in the x- and
y-directions as,
 0   0 
 x    xy 
EV    
 ; F  




  xy 
V
  y 
u x  v xy  q x  u xy  v y  q y 
In the above equations,  is the fluid density, u and v

are the velocity components in the x- and y-directions, p is the
pressure,  is the total energy,  x and  y are the normal stresses,

 xy is the shearing stress, q x and q y are the heat fluxes in the x-
and y-directions.

The total energy consists of the internal energy e and
the kinetic energy as,
1
 = e  u 2  v 2 
2
The internal energy e can be written in forms of the temperature T
or the pressure p as,
e = cvT = p (  1) 
where  is ratio of the specific heats at constant pressure and
volume,
 = c p cv
The pressure p can also be written in form of the total
energy  and velocity components u, v as,
1
p =   1     u 2  v 2 
 2 
The internal energy e is used to determine the enthalpy h from,
1
h =  e =     u 2  v 2 
 2 
and the total enthalpy H from,
1 2 2   1 2 2
H = h u  v  =    u  v 
2 2
The speed of sound a is determined from the pressure and density,
a =  p 
In the above differential equations, the normal stress
components and shearing stress are written on forms of the velocity
components u, v as,
2  u v  2   v u 
x = μ 2   ; y =  2   ;
3  x y  3  y x 
 u v 
 xy =    
 y x 
The heat fluxes qx and q y vary with the temperature T according to
the Fourier’s law,
T T
qx = k ; qy = k
x y
The fluid thermal conductivity k is determined from,
k = cp  Pr
where Pr is the Prandtl number and  is the dynamic viscosity that
can be determined from the Sutherland’s law.
12.2 Finite Volume Method

12.2.1 Finite Volume Equations
For simplicity in understanding the derivation of the
finite volume equations, we will concentrate on the inviscid flow
analysis. A typical equation representing any one of the four
Navier-Stokes equations can be written in the form,
U EI FI
  = 0
t x y
If we consider the mass equation, then U   ; EI  u ; FI  v .
Similarly, if we consider the x-momentum equation, then U  u ;
EI  u 2  p ; FI  uv . To derive the finite volume equations,
the method of weighted residuals is employed with unit weighting
function to yield,
U  E F 
 t dA    xI  yI  dA = 0
A A
The Gauss’s theorem is applied to introduce the boundary integral

term so that the equations become,
U
  t
dA   ( E I n x  FI n y ) dS = 0
A S
where nx and ny are directions cosines of the unit vector normal to

the cell edge.
The integrand in the second integral term represents the
flux Fn normal to the cell edge,
Fn = E I n x  FI n y
So that the finite volume equations reduce to,
U
 t dA =   Fn dS
A S
The fluxes normal to the cell edge for the four Navier-Stokes
equations are,
 u n x   v n y   Vn 
 u  p  nx  uv n y    
 uVn  p nx 
2
Fn =   =  
 uv nx   v 2  p  n y   vVn  p n y 
 u  pu nx   v  pv  n y   V  pV 
  n n
In the above equation, Vn is the velocity normal to the cell edge.

As an example of a triangular cell in the figure, the normal velocity
to the cell edge is,
Vn = u nx  v n y
while the tangential velocity to the cell edge is,
Vt =  u n y  v nx
3 ny n̂ 3 v Vn
Vt
S1 nx u
S2 S1
S2
2 2
y S3 y S3
1 1
x x
12.2.2 Computational Procedure

The finite volume equations are discretized by applying
the forward difference approximation to the integral term associat-
ed with time,
U U m 1  U m
 t dA =
t
A
A
where superscript m refers to the mth step and t is the time step.
For the integral term associated with the flux across the cell edge,
we replace it by the numerical flux,
 Fn dS =   Fn dS
S S
So that the finite volume equations become,
t
U m1  U m =    Fn dS
A S
~
The numerical flux Fn from the left cell L to the right cell R with
the common edge of length S is determined using the Roe’s
averaging method,
~ 1 1
Fn = ( FnL  FnR )  A (UL  UR )
2 2
where FnL and FnR are the fluxes of the left cell L and the right
cell R, respectively. The determinant A is computed from the
Jaco-bian matrix which will be shown later. The quantities U L and
U R represent the conservation variables of the left cell L and the
right cell R, respectively. The final form of finite volume equations
becomes,
t
U m1  U m = 
2A
 S  FnL
m m
 FnR  A m (ULm  URm ) 
The computational procedure starts from using U m at

time step m to determine U m1 at time step m+1. The procedure is
performed for all the cells in the flow domain for transient analysis.
For steady-state analysis, the computation is terminated when the
result on the left-hand-side of the equation for every cell is less

than the specified tolerance.
The Jacobian matrix is determined from,
 A = R 1  R 
where
 1 0
1 1 
 c2 2c 2 2c 2 
 
 u u  cx u  cx 
 ny
 c2 2c 2 2c 2 
R 1
= 
v  cy v  cy 
v
 2 nx 
 c 2c 2 2c 2 
    Vn c 1   Vn c 1 
 2 Vt   
 c 2c 2 2 2c 2 2 
 Vn 0 0 0 
 
0 Vn 0 0 
 = 
0 0 Vn  c 0 
 
 0 0 0 Vn  c 
   c 2  u  v 
 
 Vt  ny nx 0
R  = 
  Vn c c x   u c y  v  
 
  Vn c  c x   u  c y   v  
These three matrices contain coefficients which are,

cx = cnx ; cy = c n y
 ( 1)
c = p  ; p = (H   )

1 2
 = (u  v 2 ) ;  =  1
2
Vn = u nx  v n y ; Vt =  u n y  v nx
and H =     (  1)
Values in these equations are average between the left and right
cell values,
L H L  R H R
 = L R ; H =
L  R
 L uL   R uR  L vL   R vR
u = ; v =
L  R L  R
where the subscripts L and R refer to the left and right cells,
respectively.

12.3.1 Mach 3 Flow over Inclined Plane
y
Shock wave .454

M 3 1 .0
Inviscid .546

Symmetry   20 wall
x
0 .5 1 .5
  1.4 ; R  287 m 2 sec 2  K ; T  300 K

M  3 ; a  347.19 m sec ; u  1041.57 m sec
  1.18 kg m ; p  101598 N m 2
3
c p  1004.5 m 2 sec 2  K
A Mach 3 inviscid flow over an inclined plane is

probably one of the simplest examples for understanding the
compressible flow behavior. The problem statement is shown in
the figure with the fluid properties and flow conditions. The
problem has analytical solution so that the computed solution can
be compared. The shock wave angle  is determined from the
transcendental function,
 M 2 sin 2   1 
2 cot   2  = tan 
 M   cos 2   2 
We will employ Fluent in ANSYS through its Workbench to solve
for the flow behavior.

 On the Analysis Systems window, click twice on the Fluid
Flow (Fluent) item. A new small box will appear on the
name, e.g., Mach 3 Flow over Wedge, and hit Enter.
Options from 3D to 2D. Then, close this window.
 Back to the Project Schematic window, right click on the
Geometry tab and select the New Geometry…. This will
launch the ANSYS Design Modeler (green logo DM).

tab to Meter.
window. Grid snapping provides convenience when draw-
ing model.
zoom in. Click it again after finishing.
renamed by right clicking on it and selecting options.
 Next, to draw the flow domain, click on Sketch1.

create a lower horizontal line with the vertices of (0,0) and
(0.5,0). This is done by clicking at the coordinates of (0,0)
of the model, drag the cursor to the coordinates of (0.5,0),
and click the mouse again. Click on Generate (the icon
with yellow lightning on the upper-left part of the screen).
The lower horizontal line will pop up in dark green.
 Follow the same procedure to create the left vertical line, as
well as the upper horizontal line.
 Then, create the right vertical line in the same manner with
the vertices of (2,1) and (2,0.5). This length can be
shortened to 0.454 by selecting the Dimensions tab
followed by General. The exact length is obtained by
clicking at the line and drag the cursor slightly to the right,
then change the value of V1 in the Details window to
0.454, hit Enter and click on Generate.
 The last inclined line can now be drawn by selecting Draw

and choose Line. Then, click at the lower left and upper
right vertices, respectively, followed by Generate.
 Select the Sketch1, the domain boundary will become
yellow.
domain boundary will become cyan. The right side of the
Base Objects tab will show 1 Sketches.
 Then, click on Generate. We now have the desired flow
domain.
 The domain is ready for meshing, but before that, we will

specify the boundary conditions on the domain first.
 We will assign the name for the left, top and right
boundaries as Farfield. Similarly, we will assign the names
for the bottom and inclined boundaries as Symmetry and
Wedge, respectively.
 Farfield: On the upper tools bar, select the Selection

Filter: Edges icon (box with arrow and green edge)
 Hold the Ctrl key while clicking the mouse at the left, top
and right edges, these edges will become green. Then, right
click to select Named Selection, and click Apply tab next
to the Geometry tab in the lower left of Details View
window. The right tab will become 3 Edges. Then, click
on Generate.
 Right click at the NameSel1 in the Tree Outline window
and choose Rename. Type Farfield and hit Enter. Then,
click on Generate.
 Symmetry: On the upper tools bar, select the Selection
Filter: Edges icon again.
 Click the mouse at the bottom edge, this edge will become
green. Then, right click to select Named Selection, and
click Apply tab next to the Geometry tab in the lower left
of Details View window. The right tab will become 1
Edge. Then, click on Generate.
and choose Rename. Type Symmetry and hit Enter.
Then, click on Generate.
 Wedge: On the upper tools bar, select the Selection Filter:
Edges icon again.
 Click the mouse at the inclined edge, this edge will become
green. Then, right click to select Named Selection, and
click Apply tab next to the Geometry tab in the lower left
of Details View window. The right tab will become 1
Edge. Then, click on Generate.
and choose Rename. Type Wedge and hit Enter. Then,
click on Generate.
 Click on the Save Project icon (diskette icon on top of the

screen) to save the work as Mach 3 Flow over Wedge.
 Close the DM and go back to the Workbench.
(c) Generating Mesh
 On the Project Workbench window under Project

Schematic, click twice on Mesh.
 In the Details of “Mesh” window, click the plus sign (+)
next to Sizing to expand it.
 Change Relevance Center to Fine.
 Click Update on the menu bar above the Outline Window.
A mesh will be generated.
 Close the window, and return to the Project Workbench
window.
12.3
3 Academic Example 245
(d)) Setting up
u for Analyysis
 On thee Project Workbench window w under Project

wice on Settup. Click OK on thee Fluent
Schemaatic, click tw
Launch
her window w
 Wait forr few seconnds, the messh that just created

c willl appear
on the central
c winddow.
 Select Density-Ba
D ased for Soolver in thhe Task Page for
compresssible flow analysis.
 The leftt side of thee screen is thhe Tree win

ndow consiisting of
the threee main sectiions: Setup p, Solution, and Resultts.
 Click on Models under Setup section. Double-click on

Energy to turn it On, so that the energy equation will be
solved together. Double-click on Viscous and select
Inviscid because inviscid analysis will be performed.
 Next, click on Materials under Setup section, and double

click on Fluid. Change Density from Constant to Ideal-
gas. Change the Cp (Specific Heat) value to 1004.5. Then
click Change/Create button and Close button.
 Now, specify the boundary conditions. Select Boundary

Conditions, double-click at farfield, select Type and
change wall to pressure-far-field. Then, input Gauge
Pressure as 101598 and Mach Number as 3 and click OK.
 Next, double-click at symmetry, select Type as symmetry

and click OK.
 Then, double-click at wedge, select Type as wall and click
OK.
 We also need to provide the free-stream values. Select
Reference Values. Then, input the Density as 1.18, the
Pressure as 101598, the Temperature as 300, and the
Velocity as 1041.57.
 We also need to provide the free-stream values. Select
Reference Values, then change the Density to as 1.18, the
Pressure to 101598, the Temperature to 300 and the
Velocity to 1041.57, then hit Enter button.
(e) Solving for Solution

 In the Solution Methods under Solution, be sure to select
Second Order Upwind under Spatial Discretization.
 In the Solution Controls under Solution, ensure that the

Courant Number is set to 5.
 In the Monitors under Solution, select Residuals - Print,
Plot and double-click on Edit button. Then, change the
Convergence Absolute Criteria to 1e-6, and click OK.
 In the Solution Initialization under Solution, select Stan-

dard Initialization. Also select farfield from the drop-
down box under Compute from, and click Initialize
button.
12.3
 We aree now readdy to run for solutioons. Selecct Run

Calculaation, changge Number of Iterattions to 10 000 and
Reportiing Intervaal to 10. Then,
T click
k Calculatee button
twice. If it wo orks properrly, residu ual curves of the
continuiity, momenntum and ennergy equattions that decrease
d
with thee number of
o iterationss will be pllotted on thhe main
windoww
(f) Displayin
ng Results
 Under Result
R section in the Tree window
w, select Grraphics.
Choose and doublee-click on Contours
C an
nd select Deensity…
250 Chap
pter 12 Coompressiblee Flow Ana
alysis
under the Contours

C o Select the
of. t Filled button
b and click
Display buutton.
 Choose andd double-cliick on Conttours and select

s Temp pera-
ture… undder the Con ntours of. Select
S the Filled
F buttonn and
click Displlay button.
 Choose annd double-click on Coontours andd select Veeloci-

ty… to dispplay the Veelocity Maggnitude.
12.3
 Choose and double-click on Contours and select Veloci-

ty… under the Con
ntours of with
w Stream Function option.
o
12.3.2 Macch 3 Flow over

o Cylinder
Inviiscid flow over a cylinder
c is another classical
c
exam
mple normaally used to study com mpressible fllow behavioor. The
flow
w field connsists of a bow shocck wave with w varyinng flow
prop
perties behiind it. Wee will use Fluent
F in ANSYS
A to provide
solu
utions of a Mach 3 flo ow over 0.3 meter diaameter cyliinder as
show
wn in the figure.
f Thee problem statement ofo the symm metrical
flow
w domain, boundary
b c
conditions a
and fluid properties
p are
a also
show
wn in the figgure.
Computational
domain   1.4
R  287 m2/sec2-K
Bow shock .45 T  300 K
M  3
M=3 a  347.19 m/sec
u  1041.57 m/sec
  1.18 kg/m3
p  101598 N/m2
.15
Cylinder cp  1004.5 m2/sec2-K
Symmetry
.15 .15
(a) Creating Geometry

 We start from constructing the flow domain which consists
of the lower horizontal line, the right vertical line, the upper
left curvature and the lower right cylinder edge. These lines
can be constructed easily by using the Draw command to
form up the flow domain is shown in the figure.
 Next, we assign the name for the upper left curvature and
the right vertical line as Farfield. We also assign the names
for the symmetrical line and cylinder edge as Symmetry
and Cylinder, respectively. These assigned names aid
application of the boundary conditions later.
(b) Generating Mesh

 With the constructed flow domain, a mesh is generated. A
fine mesh is used to capture detailed flow solution. The
mesh contains a total of 11,877 cells for which most of
them are in quadrilateral shape. Detail of the mesh in front
of the cylinder above the symmetrical line is shown in the
figure.
(c) Setting up for Analysis

 After loading the Fluent Launcher, enter the fluid Density
as 1.18 and the Cp (Specific Heat) as 1004.5.
 Apply the boundary conditions by clicking on Farfield (the
name assigned earlier) and select Type as pressure-far-
field. Enter the Gauge Pressure as 101598 and the Mach
Number as 3.
 Click on Symmetry and select Type as symmetry.

 Finally, click on Cylinder and select Type as wall.
(d) Solving for Solution

 We follow the same procedure as in the preceding example
to execute the problem. The residuals corresponding to the
continuity, momentums and energy equations reduce with
the number of iterations are shown in the figure.
(e) Displaying Results

 The converged flow solutions can then be displayed. The
figures from left to right and top to bottom show the flow
density, temperature, Mach number and pressure, respec-
tively.
12.4 Application
11.4.1 Flow over Shuttle Nose and Cockpit
During reentry at high-speed, the Shuttle is subjected to
high aerodynamic heating and pressure. Inviscid flow analysis is
normally used as the first step to provide flow behavior around the
vehicle. The analysis also provides good estimation of the
aerodynamic pressure on the vehicle body. As shown in the figure,
the Shuttle geometry is rather complicated. The flow domain
surrounding the vehicle is thus huge and complicated too. Such the
flow domain requires a large amount of small cells to capture
detailed flow behavior.
In order to demonstrate the software capability for

predicting complicated flow behavior, we reduce the problem size
by concentrating only the two-dimensional domain in front of the
nose and cockpit as highlighted in the figure. The flow condition is
at Mach 3 and five degrees angle of attack. The flow boundary
conditions include the specified horizontal velocity of 1,041 m/s.
The air density is 1.18 kg/m3 at the temperature of 300 K.
256 Chap
pter 12 Coompressiblee Flow Ana
alysis
It is nooted that thee quality off the flow solution stroongly

dependds on the mesh.
m Herrein, a strucctured messh consistin ng of
271,5399 cells is ussed in the analysis.
a Thhe cell shappes are closeed to
rectang
gle and aliggned with the nose and a cockpit edges. Such
structurred mesh caan improve the solutionn accuracy.
The coomputationaal proceduree follows th

he steps present-
ed in thhe precedinng exampless. The preddicted densiity, temperaature,
Mach number
n andd pressure are
a shown in the figu ures from leeft to
right, reespectively..
Pressure and temperature distributions are shown in

more details in the figures. By using the fine mesh, the nose bow
shock is quite sharp and the flow behaviors behind it change
smoothly. The nose bow shock hits the shock from the cockpit
creating the shock-shock interaction phenomenon.
Since the ANSYS files can be downloaded from the

book website, users can exercise more on this problem. Users may
change the flow Mach number and angle of attack to obtain
different flow solutions. Such practice provides good experience to
realize that solving compressible flows always requires consider-
able effort. The effort is from the fact that the governing differen-
tial equations are strongly coupled and nonlinear. A large number
of small cells are thus needed to provide accurate flow solutions. A
large amount of small cells requires excessive computational time
and computer memory.
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Kreith, F. and Bohn, M. S., Principles of Heat Transfer, Sixth
Edition, Thomson, New York, 2006.
Kreyszig, E., Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Tenth Edition,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2011.
Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., Okiishi, T. H. and Huebsch, W. W.,
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Fifth Edition, John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 2009.
O’Neil, P. V., Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Seventh
Edition, Cengage Learning, Stamford, 2012.
Patankar, S. V., Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow,
Hemisphere, Taylor & Francis, New York, 1980.
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Difference Schemes”, Journal of Computational Physics,
Vol. 43, 1981, pp. 357-372.
Timoshenko, S. and Goodier, J. N. Theory of Elasticity. Third
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Ugural, A. C. and Fenster, S. K. Advanced Strength and Applied
Elasticity. Fourth Edition, New York: Prentice Hall, 2003.
Bibliography 261
Versteeg, H. K. and Malalasekera, W., An Introduction to

Computational Fluid Dynamics: The Finite Volume Method,
Second Edition, Pearson Education, Essex, 2007.
White, F. M. Viscous Fluid Flow. Third Edition, New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2005.
Zienkiewicz, O. C., Taylor, R. L. and Nithiarasu, P. The Finite
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Zienkiewicz, O. C., Taylor, R. L. and Zhu, J. Z. The Finite Element
Method: Its Basis and Fundamentals. Sixth Edition, Oxford:
Elsevier, 2005.
Index
Aircraft component, 114 symmetry, 66, 191

Analysis, Buckling, 135
3D solid, 99 beam, 136
Beam, 41 Buckling load,
compressible flow, 231 critical, 136
failure, 135 Euler, 136
heat transfer, 165 factor, 136
incompressible flow, 207 lowest critical, 136
plane stress, 61 Button,
plate bending, 81 Display, 220, 250
thermal stress, 185 File, 23
truss, 13 Filled, 220, 250
vibration, 117 Mode, 147
bracket, 96 Show in 2D, 20, 31, 47,
ANSYS, 6 68, 88, 107, 127, 140,
Workbench, 7 155, 174, 193, 214, 240
Area, Show Mesh, 159
cross-sectional, 120 Snap, 20, 31, 47, 68, 88,
triangle, 64 107, 127, 140, 155,
174, 193, 214, 240
Beam, 41 Stream Function, 251
cross section, 42 Subtract, 222
Beam structure, Temperature, 250
two-dimensional, 45, 55 Velocity Magnitude, 250
Bending moments, 82
Boundary conditions, 3 Cell,
clamped, 125, 138, 153 edge, 235
fixed, 18, 45, 105 Engineering Data, 9
hinged, 29, 136 Fluid Flow (Fluent), 214,
pinned, 136 239
simply-supported, 86, 138 Geometry, 10, 176
Modal, 125 incompressible flow, 208

Model, 10 Laplace, 166
Results, 10 mass-spring, 118
Setup, 10 Navier-Stokes, 208, 234
Solution, 10, 146 plane stress, 61
Static Structural, 9, 18, plate bending, 82
30, 46, 67, 86, 105, Poisson, 166
138, 154, 198 Displacement, 14, 42, 118
Steady-State Thermal, components, 188
172, 191 initial, 119
triangle, 235 Domain, 5
Chain wheel, 77
Computational Fluid Eigenvalues, 137
Dynamics, 207 problem, 137
Computer-Aided Eigenvectors, 137
Engineering, 1 Element equations,
Conservation, 3D solid, 101, 189
energy, 232 beam, 43
mass, 208, 232 heat transfer, 168, 188
momentums, 208, 232 plane stress, 123
Convection coefficient, 167, plate, 84
179, 204 truss, 15
Convergence, 212 vibration, 123, 137
Criterion, Element,
Tresca, 135 area, 15, 64
von-Mises, 136 assembling, 6
Cycles, 119, 151 beam, 44
stress, 153 domain, 123
hexahedral, 102, 171
Deflection, 42, 82, 121 length, 15, 44
Density, quadrilateral, 64, 84, 170
material, 120 rod, 13
Detergent bottle, 147 spring, 13
Differential equations, 3 tetrahedral, 102, 115, 170
3D solid, 100, 186 three-node truss, 16
beam, 42 triangular, 64, 84, 169
truss, 13 two-node, 16, 168, 189
compressible flow, 232 type, 5
heat transfer, 166, 186 volume, 103
Index 265
Emissivity, 167 internal energy, 233

Endurance limit, 151 inviscid, 238
Engine cylinder, 202 lid-driven cavity, 212
temperature, 203 normal flux, 235
thermal stress, 204 normal stresses, 233
Equations, normal velocity, 235
algebraic, 6 pressure, 208, 211, 232
finite element, 5 shear stress, 233
finite volume, 234 sound speed, 233
specific heat ratio, 233
Failure criterion, 151 steady-state, 236
Gerber, 152 tangential velocity, 235
Goodman, 152 temperature, 234
Soderberg, 152 total energy, 233
Fatigue, 150 total enthalpy, 233
File, imported, 57, 133, 148, transient, 236
163, 227 velocities, 208, 211, 232
Fin heat transfer, 179 Fluid,
Finite element, density, 208, 232
advantages, 11 viscosity, 208, 234
equations, 5, 15, 43, 63, thermal conductivity, 234
84, 101, 123, 137, 168, Frame structure, 56
188, 189 Frequency, 119
procedure, 5 circular, 118
Finite volume, forcing, 119
cell, 209, 228, 235 natural, 119, 137
equations, 210, 234, 236
method, 209, 236 Geometry, 3
Flexural rigidity, 83 Graphic User Interface, 7
Flow,
compressible, 231 Heat flux, 167
conservative variables, specified, 167, 204
234 Heat transfer, 165, 186
convection, 210 conduction, 167, 186
diffusion, 210 convection, 167, 204
enthalpy, 233 radiation, 167
flux, 235 steady-state, 166
heat fluxes, 233 transient, 166, 186
incompressible, 207 Hertz, 119, 131
Icon, Convergence Absolute

Apply, 22, 26, 36, 49, 52, Criteria, 248
70, 74, 89, 128, 141, Cross Section, 142
175, 194, 199, 216, 242 Density, 219, 224, 246
Box Zoom, 20, 31, 48, 68, Energy, 246
88, 107, 127, 140, 155, Equivalent Stress, 160
174, 193, 214, 240 Gauge Pressure, 246
Edge, 73, 91, 130, 177, Geometry, 25, 34
196, 199 Graphics, 220, 249
Eigenvalue Buckling, 146 Isotropic Instantaneous
Face, 92, 113, 159 Coefficient of Thermal
Generate, 21, 32, 49, 70, Expansion, 198
89, 108, 128, 141, 155, Line Body, 25, 34, 39
175, 194, 215, 241 Mach Number, 246
New Sketch, 21, 32, 48, Mean Stress Theory, 161
69, 89, 107, 127, 141, Mesh, 25, 34, 50, 177,
155, 174, 193, 215, 240 195, 217, 244
Pan, 21 Modal, 130
Show Mesh, 74, 93, 199 Model, 220, 246
Vertex, 25, 36, 51, 143 Monitor, 248
Internal heat generation, 166, Name Selection, 217, 243
186 Number of Iterations,
Interpolation functions, 219, 249
3D solid, 103 Pressure, 224, 247
beam, 44 Rectangle, 142
matrix, 124 Reference Values, 247
plane, 64 Reporting Interval, 219,
plate, 85 249
three-node truss, 16 Results, 220, 245
two-node truss, 16 Run Calculation, 219,
Item, 249
Analysis Setting, 26, 52, Setup, 146, 218, 221, 245
74, 92, 113, 130, 144, Solution Controls, 248
158, 177, 196, 199 Solution Initialization,
Assignment, 176, 195 248
Boundary Conditions, Solution Methods, 248
219, 246 Solution, 27, 36, 53, 74,
Calculate, 219, 249 93, 113, 130, 144, 146,
Contours, 220, 249 179, 197, 200, 218, 245
Index 267
Solve, 27, 36, 53, 74, 93, elasticity, 62, 187

113, 179, 200 Jacobian, 236
Solver, 245 mass, 123, 124, 137
Specific Heat, 246 radiation, 168, 188
Stream Function, 221 stiffness, 15, 43, 65, 84,
Surface Body, 176 101, 123, 137, 189
Temperature, 247 strain-displacement, 104
Vectors, 220 Menu,
Velocity, 247 File, 8
Viscosity, 219, 221 Help, 8
Viscous, 229, 246 Tools, 8
Units, 8, 18, 29, 46, 67,
Jacobian matrix, 237 86, 105, 125, 138, 153,
determinant, 236 172, 191, 213, 239
Update, 157, 218, 244
Law, View, 8
Hooke, 14, 42, 62, 100 Method,
Newton’s second, 118 analytical, 3
Sutherland, 234 finite element, 4
Life prediction, 150 finite volume, 209
Load, numerical, 4
compressive, 136 Roe’s averaging, 236
critical static, 135 SIMPLE, 211
cycles, 164 variational, 101
cyclic, 153 weighted residuals, 15, 43,
offset, 115 63, 84, 168, 234
repeated, 135 Modal superposition, 123
static, 135 Mode shape, 131, 137
Model,
Mass, 118 k-epsilon, 229
density, 166, 186 Modulus,
Mass-spring system, 118 elasticity, 14
Material, Young, 14, 42, 62, 83, 120
ductile, 135 Moment of inertia of area, 42,
Matrix, 120, 136
capacitance, 168, 169, 188 Number,
conduction, 168, 169, 188 Prandtl, 234
convection, 168, 188 Reynold, 212, 221
Option, Metric, 18, 29, 46, 67, 86,

Add Frozen, 22 125, 138, 153, 172,
Analysis Type, 214, 239 213, 239
Basic Geometry, 19, 30 Mid-Surface, 77
Beam Tool, 28, 38, 53 Mode, 131
Boolean, 71 Moving Wall, 219
Circle, 69, 108 No Slip, 219, 224
Combined Stress, 54 Node Numbers, 27, 37
Connections, 27, 36 Normal, 76, 93, 201
Cross Section, 23, 33, 49 Pressure, 113, 158
Density-Based, 245 Radius, 69, 109
Direct Stress, 28, 38, 54 Rectangle, 69, 89, 108,
Displacement, 26, 35, 159 128, 175, 194, 215
Element Numbers, 27, 37 Rectangular, 23, 33, 49
Equivalent (von-Mises), Safety Factor, 161
75, 93, 114, 160, 200 Second Order Upwind,
Evaluate All Results, 27, 248
37, 131, 146, 160 Shear, 202
Export Text File, 27, 37 Simply Support, 91
Fatigue Tool, 161 Standard Initialization,
Fatigue, 161 248
Fixed Joints, 53 Stress, 28, 38, 54, 75, 93,
Fixed Support, 25, 51, 114, 200
112, 130, 143 Surfaces From Sketches,
Force, 26, 36, 52, 144 70, 89, 128, 175, 194,
Frictionless Support, 73, 215, 241
199 Temperature, 179, 197
Ideal-gas, 246 Total, 27, 37, 53, 75, 93,
Insert, 28, 38, 53, 161 114, 130, 144, 160, 200
Inviscid, 246 U.S.Customary, 105, 191
Life, 161 Viscous-Laminar, 219
Line, 141, 156, 241 Oscillation,
Line Bodies, 19 cycle, 119
Lines From Sketches, 21, harmonic, 118
32, 49, 141 magnitude, 119
Magnitude, 74, 93, 113,
177, 196 Passenger car frame, 132
Max Modes to Find, 133 Piping system, 227
Mesh Display, 27 Piston rod, 162
Index 269
Plane stress, 61 Specific heat, 166, 179, 186

Plate, Spring stiffness, 118
bending, 81, 124 Steel, 77
with hole, 66 structural, 138, 153
simply-supported, 86 Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
Poisson’s ratio, 62, 83, 120 167
Pressure, 42, 82 Stiffness matrix,
3D solid, 104, 189
Racing car, 56 beam, 44
Recurrence relations, 123 plane, 65, 85
Residual curves, 219, 249 two-node truss, 17
Strain,
Safety factor, 136 axial, 14
Screen, 7 bending, 42
Shock wave, 238 normal, 62, 83, 100, 187
angle, 239 shearing, 62, 83, 100, 187
oblique, 238 Stress, 151
bow, 252 alternating, 150
Shock-shock interaction, 257 axial, 13
Shuttle, 255 bending, 42
bow shock, 256 effective, 151, 153
cockpit, 255 maximum, 150
nose, 255 maximum shear, 135
Slope, 43 maximum von-Mises, 136
S-N curve, 151 mean, 150
Software, minimum, 150
ANSYS, 6 normal, 62, 83, 100, 122,
Fluent, 207, 231 186
Maple, 124 shearing, 62, 83, 100, 122,
Mathematica, 124 186
MATLAB, 124 yield, 135
Maxima, 124 Support,
NASTRAN, 6 frictionless, 97
package, 1, 5 Symmetry, 66, 86
symbolic manipulation,
124 Tab,
Solid stress, 99 Add Material, 22
Solution, Advanced Geometry
converged, 212 Options, 214, 239
Angular Measure, 178 Line, 48, 180

Base Objects, 22 Linear Elastic, 18, 30, 46,
Concept, 21, 32, 49, 70, 67, 87, 105, 126, 139,
89, 128, 175, 194, 215, 154, 198
241 Loads, 26, 36, 52, 74, 92,
Create, 71 113, 144, 158
Deformation, 27, 37, 53, Major Grid Spacing, 20,
75, 93, 113, 130, 144, 31, 47, 68, 88, 107,
146, 200 127, 140, 155, 174,
Density, 125 93, 214, 240
Dimensions, 241 Meter, 174, 214, 240
Draw, 21, 32, 48, 69, 89, Minor-Steps per Major,
108, 128, 141, 156, 20, 31, 47, 68, 88, 107,
175, 180, 194, 215, 127, 140, 155, 174,
241, 252 193, 214, 240
Element Size, 25, 50, 143, Modeling, 21, 32, 48, 69,
181 89, 107, 127, 141, 155,
Engineering Data, 18, 30, 174, 193, 215, 240
46, 67, 87, 105, 125, Modify, 155
139, 154, 172, 191, 198 Operation, 71
Evaluate All Results, Physical Properties, 198
179, 197 Poisson Ratio, 19, 30, 46,
Extrude, 110, 155, 180 67, 86, 87, 105, 198
Fixed Supports, 158 Preference, 27, 37
Function, 178 Probe, 28, 38
Generate Mesh, 72, 90, Properties, 18, 30, 46, 67,
112, 129, 143, 177, 195 87, 105, 126, 139, 154,
Geometry, 19, 30, 139, 173, 191, 198, 214, 239
154, 173, 192, 214, 239 Radius, 155
Grid, 20, 31, 47, 68, 88, Relevance, 72, 90, 111,
107, 127, 140, 155, 129, 157, 177, 195,
174, 193, 214, 240 217, 244
ISO, 90, 108 Settings, 20, 31, 47, 68,
Isotropic Elasticity, 18, 88, 107, 127
30, 46, 67, 87, 105, Sizing, 143
126, 139, 154, 198 Sketching, 20, 31, 47, 69,
Isotropic Thermal 89, 107, 127, 141, 155,
Conductivity, 173, 191 174, 214, 240
Index 271
Snap per Minor, 20, 31, Truss structure,

47, 68, 88, 107, 127, one-dimensional, 17
140, 155, 174, 193, two-dimensional, 29, 39
214, 240
Supports, 26, 35, 52, 144, Vector,
158 acceleration, 123, 137
Target Bodies, 71 conduction, 168, 188
Temperature, 46, 177, convection, 168, 169, 188
196, 198 deflection, 43, 84
Thermal, 179, 197 displacement, 15, 65, 101,
Thickness, 90, 128, 176, 189
195 force, 15, 43, 65, 84, 101,
Tool Bodies, 71 189
Tools, 27, 36, 53 heat generation, 168, 169,
Young’s Modulus, 18, 188
30, 46, 67, 86, 87, 105, load, 123
139, 154, 198 moment, 84
Zoom, 90 radiation, 168, 188
Temperature, 166, 183, 186 slope, 43
initial, 167 specified heating, 168,
specified, 167 182, 188
surrounding medium, 167, stress, 104
179, 204 temperature, 168, 188
zero stress, 187, 190 thermal load, 189
Theorem, unknown, 123, 137
Gauss, 234 Velocity,
Theory, initial, 119
distortion energy, 136 Vibration,
failure, 135 3D solid, 121
maximum shear stress, beam, 120
135 force, 119
Thermal conductivity, 166, free, 119
171, 179, 186 plate, 121
Thickness, truss, 120
plate, 83, 121
Time, 118, 166, 186 Water, 227
Time step, 236 density, 227
Tool bar, 7 viscosity, 227
Window, Details of Pressure, 158

Analysis Systems, 18, 46, Details of Solid, 111
67, 86, 105, 125, 138, Details of Surface Body,
154, 172, 191, 198, 72, 90, 129, 176
214, 239 Details of Temperature,
Details of Displacement, 177, 196
35 Details of Total
Details of Fatigue Tool, Deformation, 131
161 Details of View, 90, 109,
Details of Fixed
217, 243
Supports, 26, 51, 158
Details View, 22, 49
Details of Force, 26, 36,
Fluent Launcher, 218,
53
Details of Line Body, 24, 245, 253
33, 50, 142 Multiple System, 146
Details of Mesh, 25, 34, Project Schematic, 18,
50, 72, 90, 111, 129, 30, 46
143, 157, 177, 195, Toolbox, 198
217, 244 Tree Outline, 19
Details of Normal Stress, Workbench, 7
75, 93, 201 symbols, 10

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Finite Element Analysis

with ANSYS Workbench

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

Chapter 2 Truss Analysis 13

Chapter 3 Beam Analysis 41

3.3 Academic Example 45

Chapter 4 Plane Stress Analysis 61

Chapter 5 Plate Bending Analysis 81

Chapter 6 Three-Dimensional Solid Analysis 99

Chapter 8 Failure Analysis 135

Chapter 9 Heat Transfer Analysis 165

Chapter 10 Thermal Stress Analysis 185

10.3.1 Thermal Stress Analysis of Thin Plate 190

Chapter 11 Incompressible Flow Analysis 207

Chapter 12 Compressible Flow Analysis 231

1.1 Solving Engineering Problems

the simulated results can be understood easily. Without knowing

1.1.1 Problem Ingredients

Solutions to an engineering problem depend on the

(a) Differential Equations. The differential equations

1.1.2 Solution Methods

Methods for finding solutions can be categorized into

solutions only for simple problems as taught in undergraduate

1.2 Finite Element Method

The method starts by dividing the problem domain or

1.2.2 Finite Element Method Procedure

Step 1: The first step is to construct the domain geometry of the

Step 2: The second step is to select the element types. For

equations from the governing differential equations. The derived

Step 5: The boundary conditions of the problem are then imposed

Step 6: Other quantities of interest can then be solved. For

1.3 ANSYS Software

same time, NASTRAN (NAsa STRuctural ANalysis program) was

1.3.1 ANSYS Workbench

1.3.2 Screen and Tool Bars

The frequently used menu items are:

The project schematic region on the right side of the

1.3.3 Analyzing steps

The cell consists of seven items as follows:

3. Geometry Create model geometry of the problem by

The check mark symbol ( ) will appear on the right

Nothing is done because upstream data is not available.

We will follow the above procedure, step by step, to

1.4 Advantages of Finite Element Method

(f) Analyses of other problems in which their experiments

Analysis of truss structures is normally used as the first

2.1 Basic Equations

2.1.2 Related Equations

2.2 Finite Element Method

2.2.1 Finite Element Equations

2.2.2 Element Types

u ( x) u2 where N1 ( x ) and N2 ( x) are the

2.3 Academic Example

We will employ the ANSYS Workbench to analyze this

(a) Starting ANSYS Workbench

(b) Creating Geometry

 Right click on the Geometry tab and select the Properties

 Select the Sketching tab below the Tree Outline window,

 Enlarge the scale by clicking at the Box Zoom icon on the

zoom in. Click it again after appropriate scale is shown on

 Double-click on 2 Parts, 2 Bodies, the two items under the

 Repeat the same process to create the cross section of the