UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS

College of Architecture
S.Y. 2020-2021

History of Architecture 3

Summary of Indian Architecture

Research Plate

Submitted by​:

ADVINCULA,​ Angela Beatrice L.

CARIÑO,​ Maria Raphaelle S.
CERVANTES, ​Diana Lorraine E.
LAYUG,​ Jurist Ricardo R.
ZARAGOZA,​ Alyssa Mae R.

2AR-1
INTRODUCTION

As the third largest country in Asia it makes sense that it is also abundant with different
historical architectural structures. Indian architecture has evolved drastically from
buddhist architecture to classical european architecture because of important historical
and political events that have happened.

GEOGRAPHY
India is the second largest country in Asia and the
seventh largest in the world with an area of 1,269,010
square miles and a population of 1,380,004,385. It is
bounded on the southwest by the Arabian Sea and in the
southeast by the Bay of Abgal.
Geographical regions:
1. Northern Regions - himalayas and mountain
ranges
2. Indo-Gangetic plains: Indus, Ganges and
Brahmaputra
3. Central Highland and Deccan Plateau

GEOLOGY
India has a diverse geology depending on the region, people, size and climate. Different
regions show different types of materials for building construction.
Common materials used: ● Scarcity of stone materials lead
● Sandstone (cream and red) - for to getting available timber along
rubble walling the Indus and Ganges valley
● White marble - stone carpentry ○ Teakwood, softwood
works deodar, indian rosewood
● Granite and soapstone ● Bricks
● Rocks - for sanctuaries
CLIMATE
The climate in India has a wide range of weather conditions due to its large geographic
scale and varied topography (Climate of India, n.d). Winter starts in mid-November to
February; the temperature decreases from south to north. The average temperature in
the north is 10 to 15 degrees Celsius, while 24 to 25 degrees Celsius in the south.
Summer starts in March until May; 45 degrees Celsius in the northwest; pre-monsoon
showers are common in Kerala and Karnataka during this time. Rainy season starts in
early June; trade winds from the southern winds bring abundant moisture in the country
and receive very heavy rain-falls. Transition season starts in October until November
where it transitions from rainy season to dry winter season.
RELIGION
Vedic religion
Vedic religion is an ancient religion of India that was believed as the
contemporary composition of the Vedas and was the precursor of Hinduism.
It is a polytheistic system in which involves the worship of numerous male divinities
connected with the sky and natural phenomena. This religion shaped the philosophy of
atman and Brahman: concepts of karma, reincarnation, meditation, etc.
Hinduism
Hinduism is evolved from the Vedic religion. Their beliefs follow the cosmic
concept of Brahman where all creatures undergo rebirth. The hierarchical social
structure of the Hindus made a path for creating Hindu temples for their worship
activities.
Buddhism
Buddhism, which was found in the 5th century, was based on the teachings
ofSiddartha Gautama (Buddha). Some of his principles were taken inspiration from
Hinduism, especially the doctrine on karma. There was a decline in this religion in the
13th century; however, it spread in the south and then flourished in Sri Lanka and some
parts of Asia. Their worship or religious buildings were concentrated in monasteries and
shrines where relics of those who achieved nirvana were deposited.
Jainism
Jainism was established in India by Vardhamana, during the 6th century. Their
beliefs are focused on ahimsa or non-injury to all living things. It opposes the beliefs of
the Vedic religion where they sacrifice their animals for offerings. They have
distinguishable differences from the Hindu temples due to the richness and complexity
of their sculptural ornament.
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
Hindu Architecture

Hindu architecture began with simple rock-cut cave shrines that evolved to huge,
ornate temples over the centuries. This architecture spread even beyond the Indian
sub-continent and became known as a canonical style. It later became the foundation of
the modern Hindu temples across the globe. Notable features of the style include
precise and harmonious geometry, which can be seen not just from its facades but from
above, as well. Decorate sculptures of the structures are gods, worshippers, erotic
scenes, animals, and floral and geometric patterns. As Bhakti or devotional ​Hinduism
arose and spread across the Indian subcontinent, deitie​s like ​Shiva​, ​Vishnu​, ​Krishna​,
Brahma​, and ​Devi​ replaced ​the old Vedic gods, and became the focus of Hinduism.
 Their influences include early Buddhist structures like the stupa, which were
rock-cut caves, but as the Gupta architecture (4​th​-5​th century CE) arrived, free-standing
Hindu temples emerged, as well. On the older temples, the materials used were wood
and terracotta, in which no mortar was used, and then architects transitioned to bricks
and stones. Hindu temple or ​mandir consists of ​garbhagriha o ​ r womb-chamber, portico
entrance or ​ardhamandapa, ​pillared hall or ​mandapa​, and sikhara ​or the h​ uge corbelled
tower above the ​garbhagriha.​

Buddhist Architecture

The birth of Buddhist architecture can be attributed to Asoka, the ​Mauryan

emperor who established Buddhism as the state religion of his empire. Through this,
Buddhism spread easily throughout India and some parts of Asia with its unique style
along with its teachings of the Buddha. He was responsible for the emergence of the
many stupas and stone pillars. After his death, the Sunghas took place and later
succeeded by the Andhras, wherein gradual developments of the Buddhist structures
were made.

While Asoka’s structures were emerging that time, West India was developing a
whole different style, as well. It was the ones carved out of living rocks or well known as
cave temples.

Main types of structures that are related with Buddhism are Stupas, Viharas,
Chaityas, and there’s Stamba, which is not a building but pillars that share equal
importance with the aforementioned.

Jain Architecture

Jain architecture was born because of Hindu and Buddhist architectures. It may
have some differences with those mentioned styles, but it cannot take credit with all the
styles they have exhibited. The first temples of Jains were even based on Brahmanical
Hindu temple plans and monasteries. Also, compared to Hindu and Buddhist temples,
its structures are much fewer but mostly located in temple-cities.

The materials for early Jain architecture were mostly rock cut but they later
favored the usage of bricks. It is also known for using rich materials such as marble and
ornamentation. Though similarities from previous architectures are greatly seen in Jain
temples, its icons are its own. Its core building elements are ​garbhagriha or image
chamber, ​mandapa or hall, and porch. It also has ​antarala​, a small hall used for
appreciation or worship of their icon. Jain temples were mostly built on a platform which
 ​ r vedi to obtain that sacred presence in the temple and its
is referred to as ​jagati o
temples are surrounded by high standing compound walls referred to as ​prakara.​

HISTORY
Badami Chalukyas (543 AD - 763 AD)

The Badami Chalukya era is an important period for the development of

Southern Indian Architecture. They were able to develop their own style called the
Karnata Dravida architecture or simply the Chalukyan Architecture. Most of their
temples are a mixture of Northern and Dravidian architectural style. They were able to
produce structures/temples using only stones without the presence of mortar; nearly a
hundred caves, temples, structures, etc., were discovered and said to be built by the
Chalukyas. The materials used was a reddish-golden sandstone which is an abundant
resource in the area. Most of the temples are built on banks of River Tungabhadra and
Malprabaha in Karnataka and Alampur in Andhra Pradesh.

One of the earliest temples of Badami

Chalukyas Era is the Ravana Phadi at Aihole. It
was believed to be built around A.D. 550. Next is
Badami Cave Temples. Badami Cave Temples
has four temples, three Brahmanical styled caves
and one Jaina styled cave. The temples were
built with a mixture of the Nagara and Dravida
style. Next is Virupaksha Temple, which is the
largest temple in Badami Chalukyas era. It is a
complex that contains 30 sub shrines and large Nadi Mandapa (A pavilion that contains
the statue of a deity or some are Shiva’s gatekeepers. The temple was in 735 A.D. to
celebrate the victory over the Pallavas.

Badami Chalukyas architecture was “the starting point” of beautiful and intricate
ancient Indian Architecture. Mostly built in river banks, the nature and calm look of the
rivers adds to the beauty of the temples and structures.

Pallava (600 AD - 900 AD)

The pillars can be studied and understood as part of three stages of development:

1. First stage : This belongs to the pillars of rock cut mantapa with 7 feet
height approximately. Here, brackets are seen towards the upper part of
the pillar. Here, the pillar has a square shaft.
 2. Second stage : Here, pillars were around 50 feet height with more ornate
design. It shows the combination of shaft and capital. The lion motiff is seen
in the base of the shaft as well as in the capital.
3. Third stage : Here, pillars come under the mandapa of ratha temples. In
this case, malasthana, a motiff with a bend of pearl festoon is seen in the
shaft. It rises up to the pillar separated by an indentive structure called
kumbha or melon capital above which a padma flares up to the palagai or
abacus.

Pallavas or the Pallava Dynasty is where

the direct patronizations of temples began. King
Mahendravarman was one of the great kings
that were able to produce the finest examples of
Pallava Architecture and Art. Pallava kings were
famous for being lovers and leaders of art,
architecture etc., and that’s why Pallava was
considered, if not the greatest era of temple
building, then one of the greatest era for temple
building in ancient Indian Architecture. From the
Mandagapattu Rock-cut temple to the Shore Temple and 7 pagodas of Mahabalipuram.

Pallava architecture first started with rock cut temples then to monolithic shrines
and eventually, temples built with stones. One of the earliest examples of rock cut
temple is Mandagapattu rock cut temple.
Mandagapattu Rock cut temple was one
of the earliest monuments in
Mahendravarman. It was a rock cut
temple built without the use of any wood,
brick, or metal. It has icons of large
Dwarapalas which became a
characteristic in southern Indian temples;
after Mahendravarman, Narsimhavarman
or Rajismha. During his era, massive
boulders were carved to become one of
the earliest temples, or style of temples in
Southern India. Next was the rise of the monolithic Rathas and Mandapas that were
found at Mamallapuram. The five Rathas were popular because it showcased five
different styles of temple architecture and that the temples were filled with beautiful
sculptures. Lastly was the trend of Structural temples; temples that were built using soft
sand rocks. One of the most famous structural temples of the Pallava Dynasty was the
Shore temple and the 7 Pagodas at Mahabalipuram. The Shore temple that was granite
made was built during the era of Narsimhavarman. It’s said that there were 6 more
temples in the area but are now submerged in water.

It is during the Pallava Dynasty that the Dravidian style of temple architecture
began, it was an evolution from rock-cut temples, to monolithic rathas, to magnificent
structural temples. The Pallava Dynasty is the one of the greatest era in terms of temple
building in Ancient Indian architecture that it was known as the era of “Poetry in Stone”
because of its beautiful temples that showcased the masterful craftsmanship of Ancient
Indian Architecture.

Rashtrakuta (753 AD - 973 AD)

Rashtrakauta Architecture adopted the style of Pallava Architecture or the

Dravidian Style architecture. Three groups of rock-cut temples were identified,
Ellora-Buddhist, Jain and Bhramanical.

The Kailash temple, a rock-cut temple, was

built during the Reign of King Krishna I during
the 8​th Century A.D. The temple was built on a
hillside of mountain ranges. The entrance is a
gateway leading to the main shrine where
intricate carved pillars are located and a
Dravidian style Shikhara. The temple is filled
with sculptures of Hindu gods and goddesses, and parts of The Epics and Puranas. The
temple's most famous part is the Dasavatara gallery which showcases the ten
incarnations of Vishnu. Since the temple was built on the hillside of a mountain range,
there were caves excavated around the temple that showcase massive halls with
images of different Hindu gods. The temple’s mandapa is supported by twenty (20)
massive pillars, then which leads to a stair that brings
the tourist to a courtyard.

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty was the era where aesthetic

architectural form bloomed, it was their style called the
Karnata Dravida style. The Kailash temple, a
magnificent piece of rock-cut temple is said to be the
perfect archetype of Rashtrakuta Architecture. The
Temples were built with passions, hearts, and
connection of the builders, architects.
Chola (900 AD - 1150 AD)

The Chola Dynasty was one of the longest ruling dynasties in Southern India. It
originated from the river of Kaveri when Vijayalaya conquered Thanjavur and reigned
over the Pallavas around 850 AD (Chandwani, 2019). During this era, a lot of temples
were built throughout different kingdoms; most of these structures were found in the
Pudukottai region which showed the evolution of the Chola art and architecture. The
Cholas followed and enhanced the Dravidian style of the Pallavas in making their
temples. Most of their temples are both circular and square in plan (​ART AND
ARCHITECTURE UNDER THE CHOLAS, n.d​). They simplified their exteriors through
the elimination of details like lion motifs and pillars compared to the Pallavas; they
mostly use stone and well dressed granite as their material (Chikkalgi, 2017).

The Cholas are great patrons of art and

were known for their exquisite bronze icons.
There are a lot of temples during this time, but the
prominent ones are the Brihadisvarar Temples
During the reign of king Rajaraja, he conquered
parts of Sri Lanka and the Maldives Islands during
the 10th Century which made the Chola the
strongest dynasty during this era. In
commemoration of his victory, he created one of
the tallest temples (around 60 meters) in Medieval
India, which is the Brihadisvarar Temple at
Tanjore; its walls are covered with rich sculptural decoration and is also dedicated to
Shiva, the deity of Hinduism. (Brown, 2020).

Eventually, the Chola Dynasty was defeated by the neighboring Pandya

Dynasty and the rule of the Cholas ended in 1279. Despite this, the Cholas left a rich
legacy in the Tamil country with its majestic culture, especially in Architecture, and
influencing the neighboring countries (​Szczepanski, 2019).

Western Chalukya (973 AD - 1180 AD)

Western Chalukya ruled parts of Deccan for three centuries

(543 - 757 CE) then continued for another two centuries (975 - 1189)
(The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2016). Continuous
conflicts arose from this era which resulted in evolving their art in
two phases; the first phase was built in the Gadag district and the
latter phase was built in Lakkundi.

During the 11th and 12th century,

distinct ornamented architecture
evolved during the reign of the western Chalukya Empire,
known as transitional style - the link between the style of
early Chalukya dynasty and the late Hoysala empire
(Western Chalukya Empire, n.d); most of these structures
were bordered in Tungabhadra River. The dynasty is also known for their Pushkarni or
ornate stepped wells that are used for their bathing places (Foekema, 1996). The
prominent examples of the late Chalukya temples are Kasi Visheshvara Temple,
Mallikarjuna Temple, and Kalleshwara Temple. Their designs are very intricate and
exquisite; each detail is finely crafted which could be seen on their wall carvings and
pillars. They also popularized the use of Kirthimukha or demon faces as a decorative
feature for the temples. In the late 12th century, the reign of the Western Chalukyas
ended; however, their influence on architecture was further enhanced by the Hoysala
empire (Kamath, 2001).

Hoysala (1026 AD - 1343 AD)

The Hoysala Dynasty was known for the richness of their art, culture, and
especially, architecture (RC, 2016). They ruled Karnataka from 10th to 14th centuries
and were believed to be the most prominent South Indian Kannadiga empire. From
there, the kingdom started spreading across Madurai and Lakkundi. Vishnuvardhana
defeated the Cholas which created a path for supporting construction of ornate temples
of stone throughout the kingdom (HOYSALA DYNASTY, n.d). The Chennakesava
temple in Belur was constructed in commemoration of the victory against the Cholas.

Sculptures are very prominent and abundant in each temple under this dynasty;
granite and soapstones are used for their sculptures and temples. Kesava Temple at
Somanathapura, Chennakesava Temple at Belur and Hoysaleswara Temple at
Halebidu are the most well-known temples in the reign of the Hoysala (RC, 2016). The
Kesava Temple has three shrines that are dedicated to Vishnu; is known for its
symmetrical lathe turned pillars, and intricate designs. Chennakesava Temple on the
other hand was built in commemoration of the conversion of King Vishnuvardhana from
Jainism to Hinduism; it is known for its 48 pillars that could be found in the interior.
Lastly, the Hoysaleswara Temple is known for its intricate carvings (Mudde, 2017).

During the 1311 CE, invasions from Delhi and Madurai ended the dynasty of the
Hoysalas; however, despite the death of the Hoysala monarch, their exquisite eye for
detail and skilled craftsmanship contributed greatly in the culture, particularly in the
architecture of India.
Vijayanagar (1343 AD - 1565 AD)

Vijayanagar empire was based on the southern part of india, it is a significant

empire because they greatly influenced the development of arts. During this period the
Vijayanagar preferred using local hard granite and some soapstones that are even out
using plasters to give a smoother finish for sculptures. The architecture style during this
time was influenced by other ancient empires such as the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya,
and Chola (Vijaykumar, 2017). The empire was founded during 1336 AD by Harihara
and Bukka. The architecture was based on Dravida style with its own distinctive
features such as the way pillars have horses as t common sculptured animal. The
Mandapam are raised and are used for seating the deities on special occasions.
Another well known structure that was built during this period was the towers of Raya
Gopurams, this tower is a commemoration of the emperor's visit (Anwar, n.d.).

The temple architecture was prominent during this era, small temples would have
a sanctum sanctorum and a porch while the larger temples have an ante chamber also
known as the Sukanashi, Navranga a corridor that connects to the Mandapa and a
Rangamantapa. Pillars are carved with hindu mythology and some have smaller pillars
around it. The mantapas are built on a square plant that are 4 to 5 feet high with highly
ornate frieze and steps. The palace buildings are built on a platform that faces towards
the east or north and have a proper plan for the entrances. Decorations inside the
palace are made from wood, concrete, bricklime, or copper. The sculptures vary from
demonic faces, animals, and floral patterns. (Sadyulay, 2014).

Mughal Era (1526 AD - 1857 AD)

The Mughal Empire was dominating the

northern to southern part of India during the 1526 to
1857 AD. They originated from Persia and for that
reason the architecture style they have were a
combination of Indo-Islamic-Persian style. The
methods used when emperor Babur ruled over
mughal empire relied on the construction of posts
and beams and arches and was improved by the
following emperors such as emperor Akbar when he
built a massive unique structures out of red
sandstones, the structure have decorative hindu
and muslim characteristics (​Farhatullah, 2018). It was said that during this was the
golden period of architecture by having great varieties of building from gate forts,
mosques, public buildings, tombs, and mausoleums. A distinguishing feature of these
structures are that they are mostly made from red or white marble and that the
structures have domes, slender turrets and palace halls that are supported by pillars
and gateways. The development of the architecture was impressive, colorful paintings
and beautiful soft structures bloom during this period (Srivastava, n.d.).

INDIAN COLONIAL ERA

British Era (19th Century)

The British Era started in 1809 to 1947 AD in Andrha

Pradesh. Most structures (residential, religious,
commercial, etc.) during this period were executed by
the British Military Engineer of the city.

In 1865, Town Improvement Act of Madras Presidency

was introduced; new layout and infrastructure prosper.
New materials such as concrete, glass and wrought
cast iron were introduced which gave birth to the rise of
hybrid architectural styles of diverse Hindu and Moghul
elements. The structures during that time were broadly categorized into three: British
Colonial Style (1801-1850), Indo-Saracenic Style (1875-1917), and British Colonial
Style (1890-1947). One of the prominent structures of this era is the India Gate in Delhi;
it is a memorial for 70,000 soldiers of the British Indian army who died in World War I.
Its style is the same with the Arch of Constantine in Rome and the Arc de Triomphe in
Paris. The colonization of the British left exemplary signs of urban planning and local
architecture (Giduthuri, 2012).

French (17th Century)

French’s architectural influence with India can be traced back in the 17th century
when a French traveler physician named Francois Bernier became Mughal emperor
Auranzangeb’s personal physician. The French colonized a fishing village, Pondicherry,
in Tamil Nadu and transformed it into a port-town along the seaboard. The French
colonies in India’s formal name were Établissements français dans l’Inde or French
Establishments in India.

The peak of French influence in India was

headed after Joseph François Dupleix was
appointed as Governor General of India in 1742,
where urban planning was established. Traditional
grid iron pattern was implanted. Dupleix also had
a compound built for him (now known as Dupleix
Palace). Some of the most notable features that
the French brought through colonization were
carved archways and colonnades paired with French shutter windows. Transitions from
the Indian sector, or Villa Noire, to the French sector, or Villa Blanche, were also much
evident as extremely narrow street fronts French buildings. Government House and W.
Johnson’s Hotel in Chandernagore were some of the French Indian architecture where
French influence was evident.

Dutch (Early 17th century)

106 years after Vasco de Gama of Portuguese, which was about the early 17​th
century, the Dutch landed at Malabar Coast for the purpose of spice trade. The thought
of colonizing India only came afterwards. Some areas along the Southern Coromandel
Coast and Gujarat were also ruled by the Dutch. Though the time of Dutch having the
power over India was a lot shorter compared to other colonizers, some of their
contributions still stand today and serve as tourist attractions.

Since the Dutch first came for trade, the first structures that were erected by
these colonizers were factories and trading stations along the coast of East India. The
Dutch also made East India a walled city or ​intra muros ​as a defense against other
colonies that time. There, it became a city of commerce, which explains why most of the
Dutch architecture there is non-domestic.

The use of woods for construction purposes was

widely known during these times. The Dutch wanted to
incorporate the European style to the traditional style of
Kerala architecture. Domestic structures there were known
to be gabled architecture. Narrow façade with plastered
walls inset, fairly tall, had crossbar windows provided with
rattan wickerwork were some features Dutch structures
were known for. The Bolgatti palace and the Dutch
cemetery were some of the greatly influenced places by Dutch in India.

Portuguese (14th Century)

In 1498, the Portuguese came to India as merchants, who was pioneered by

Vasco de Gama, but later aimed to colonize for the sole purpose of spreading the
Catholic missionary. Thus, the result of the emergence of many churches, basilicas, and
seminaries. Western India including Cochin, Pulicat, Tuticorin, and most especially
Daman and Goa, were ruled for over 400 years.

The architecture that was made during those times

were the result of combining traditional Portuguese
architecture with native Indian architecture, which
makes it a perfect example of a cross cultural
architecture. Portuguese settlements in India were
categorized as (a) the factory, (b) the fort and (c) the
city. The architecture blended well with the Indian
climate having high wooden ceilings with sloped roofs,
and large openings. Colorful painted exteriors that are
noticeable from afar, pillared porches, wrought iron balconies and inner courtyards were
also some remarkable features that emerged in the 18​th century. The Basilica of Bom
Jesus (Good Jesus), Old Goa, is one of the most prominent structures of this era.
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