DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION

April 12, 2016

 on a b
rotatio
TORQUE by the
princip
10.1 Which of these three unders
equal-magnitude forces is most likely
to loosen the tight bolt?
ish thi
comm
actuall
Axis of rotation
O
Force close to axis of
S
Fa rotation: not very 10.
effective
We kn
Force farther from is, the
axis of rotation:
aspect
more effective
motion
S
Fc S
Fb point
Force directed used t
toward axis of
rotation: no effect
effecti
good a
308
 10.1 Torque 309

ngth of the handle. The quantitative measure of the ten- 10.2 The torque of a force about a point
e or change a body’s rotational motion is called torque; is the product of the force magnitude and
S
a torque about point O to the wrench in Fig. 10.1, Fb the lever arm of the force.
S
about O, and Fc applies zero torque about O. S
F1 tends to cause counterclockwise rotation
ree examples of how to calculate torque. The body in the about point O, so its torque is positive:
n axis that is perpendicular
S S S
to the plane of the figure and t1 = 1F1l1
Three forces, F1 , F2 , and F3 , act on the body in the plane Line ofSaction
S
S
F1 of F1
ncy of the first of these forces, F1 , to cause a rotation
magnitude F1 . It also depends on the perpendicular dis-
and the line of action of the force (that is, the line along A
ies). We call the distance l 1 the lever arm (or moment S
l1 Lever S
F3
O. The twisting effort is directly proportional to both F1 l2 armsSof F1
S O
torque (or moment) of the force F1 with respect to O as and F2
the Greek letter t (tau) for torque. In general, for a force S
The line of action of F3
line of action is a perpendicular distance l from O, the passes through point O, S
F2 Line of S
so the lever arm and action of F2
hence the torque are zero.
t = Fl (10.1)

use the term “torque,” while engineers usually use

are talking about a rotating shaft). Both groups use the S
F2 tends to cause clockwise rotation about point
ment arm” for the distance l. O, so its torque is negative: t2 = 2F2l2
n Fig. 10.2 is the perpendicular distance l 1 , and the lever
 S S
zero (compare to forces Fc in Fig. 10.1 and F3 in Fig. 10.2).
Summarizing
Ftan = F these three
sin f andexpressions for f2
t = r1F sin torque,
= Fwe have
tan r. The component Frad pro
no torque with respect toSO because its leverSarm with respect to that p
t = Fl = rF sin f = Ftanr (magnitude of torque) (10.2)
zero (compare
TORQUE:The to forces
quantitative Fc inofFig.
measure 10.1 andofFa3force
the tendency in Fig. 10.2).
to cause or change
- Summarizing these three
a body’s rotational motion.expressions for torque, we have
Torque as a Vector
We saw in Section t = 9.1Fl that
= rFangular
sin f velocity
= Ftanr and angular acceleration
(magnitude can be rep- (
of torque)
resented as vectors; the same is true for torque. To see how to do this, note that S
S
the quantity rF sin f in Eq. (10.2) is the magnitude of the vector product r : F
thatl iswecalled the lever
defined arm. The
in Section perpendicular
1.10. (You should distance from
go back thereview
and line of that
action of the
definition.)
Torque
Weforce
as a
nowtogeneralize
Vector S
definition of torque as follows: When a force F acts at a
the axis ofthe
rotation.
We saw
point in Section
having 9.1 vector
a position that angular
S
velocity
r with respect to and angular
an origin acceleration
O, as in Fig. 10.3,can the b
S
resented
torque T as vectors;
of the the same
force with respectistotrue
O isfor
the torque. To see how to do this, no
vector quantity
S
the quantity rF sin f in Eq.S(10.2) is the magnitude of the vector product
S S
! r : F
that we defined inTSection 1.10. (You should
(definition go back
of torque and review that
vector) defin
(10.3)
S
We now generalize the definition of torque as follows: When a force F ac
The
point torque
having
S
as
a defined in
position Eq. (10.2)
vector
S
r is
withjust the
respect magnitude
to an of
origin
S
the
O, torque
as in vector
Fig. 10
S S S
r : FS. TheSdirection of T is perpendicular to both r and F. In particular, if
torqueST of the force with respect to O is the vector quantity
both r and F lie in a plane perpendicular
S
to the axis of rotation, as in Fig. 10.3,
S S
n use the symbol S
figure, r and F are in the plane of the page
S
and the torque vector T points out of the
on of work and page toward you.
work or energy,
Three ways to calculate torque:
t = Fl = rF sin f = Ftanr
a position vector F
S

culate the torque

Ftan 5 F sin f

f
Frad 5 F cos f
he lever arm is S P
t
(out of page) S
S Line of action of F
irection of r and S f
S r
o r . (We call this
t where the force l 5 r sin f
O
hat circle.) Then 5 lever arm
 no torque with respect toSO because its le
S
t that w
zero (compare to forces Fc in Fig. 10.1 an
We n
point
Summarizing these three expressions for torqu
torqu
tSr = Fl = rF sin f = Ftanr (m
S S S
10.4 The torque vector T ! r : F is S
F
directed along the axisS of the bolt, perpen-
S
dicular to both r and F. The fingers of the Torque as
(out of page) a Vector The t
right hand curl in the direction of the rota- We saw in Section 9.1 that angular velocity S
r :an
tion that the torque tends to cause.
Ifresented
you point as
thevectors; the same
fingers of your is true
right hand in for torqu
both
S
thedirection
the quantityS
of rrF sinthen
and f in
curlEq.
them(10.2)
in the is the magn
then
direction F, your outstretched
that weofdefined thumb points
S in Section 1.10. (You should sense g
S
t
in the direction of t. S
We now generalize the rdefinition of torque as
relati
S
point having a position vector S r with respectIn
S F
torque T of the force with(out respect to O is the
of page) orienve
S
S
r uct, T
S S S
S T! r : F use ao
(definition
F cross
(out of page)
The torque as defined in Eq. (10.2) is just In
th
S S S
r : F. TheSdirection S
of T is perpendicular abou
S
If you point the fingers of your right hand in both r and F lie int a plane perpendicular S
comp
to th
S S S
the directionSof r and then curl them in the then the torque vector T ! r : F is directed nent
direction of F, your outstretched thumb points
S
in the direction of t. S
sense given by the right-hand rule (Fig. 1.29)
r
relationships.
Example 10.1 Applying aS torque S S
S In diagrams that involve r , F, and T, it’s c
 In the following sections wethewill usually
center be concerned
of the fitting (Fig.with rotation
10.5a). The of a bodyhandle and
wrench
about an axis oriented in a specified constant direction. In that case, only the
component of torque along that 10.5
axis (a) A weekend
is of interest, plumber
and we tries
oftentocall
loosen
thata pipe fitting by standing o
compo-
nent the torque with respect to(a)
theDiagram
specified axis.
of situation (

a torque Point at which fo

end plumber slips a piece of scrap cheater make an angle of 19° with the horizontal. Find the magni-
0.80 m
ch handle. He stands on the end of tude and direction of the torque he applies about the center ofAngle
the f between line
0-N weight at a point 0.80 m from fitting. F 5 900 N of action of force and
10.5a). The wrench handle and radial direction
19°

ries to loosen a pipe fitting by standing on a “cheater.” (b) Our vector diagram to find the torque about O.
(b) Free-body diagram

Point at which force acts Line of action of force

Position vector from point O to the
point at which the force acts
Angle f between line
of action of force and
radial direction Point where axis of
rotation intersects
plane of diagram

Lever arm (perpendicular distance from

axis of rotation to line of action of force)
 you curl the fingers of your right hand in a counterclockwise dire
tion, the thumb points out of the plane of Fig. 10.5, which is inde
m the direction of the torque.

What is the magnitude of the torque of the force about point A?

gure shows a force P P

agnitude of the
ii) PL tan u.

u
A
❙
he torque components along the
moment of inertia.
the body as being made up of a
TORQUE AND ANGULAR ACCELERATION
otation to be the z-axis; the first
S
xis (Fig. 10.6). The net force F1 10.6 As a rigid body rotates around the
ng the radial direction, a compo- S
z-axis, a net force F1 acts on one particle
1 in which the particle moves as of the body. Only the force component
axis of rotation. Newton’s sec- F1, tan can affect the rotation, because only
F1, tan exerts a torque about O with a
z-component (along the rotation axis).
(10.4) Only the tangential
Force component
along axis of rotation force component
he first particle in terms of the produces a z-com-
Axis of z
9.14): a1, tan = r1 az . Using this rotation
ponent of torque.
0.4) by r1 , we obtain F1z Rotating
r1 rigid
z (10.5) F1, tan body
Path of m1
the net force with respect to the particle as
F1, rad
torque vector along the rotation body S
r
que affects rotation around the rotates y Radial force
component
1z is a reminder that this force
O x
axis that act on all the particles. The right side is I = gm i ri 2, the total momen
The left side of Eq. (10.6) is the sum of all the torques about the rotation

of inertia about the rotation axis, multiplied by the angular acceleration az

Note that az is the same for every particle because this is a rigid body. Thus fo
the rigid body as a whole, Eq. (10.6) is the rotational analog of Newton’s sec
ond law:

a tz = Iaz (10.7)
(rotational analog of Newton’s second law for a rigid body)

Just as Newton’s second law says that the net force on a particle equals the particle’
mass times its acceleration, Eq. (10.7) says that the net torque on a rigid body equal
the body’s moment of inertia about the rotation axis times its angular acceleration
(Fig. 10.7).
Note that because our derivation assumed that the angular acceleration az i
the same for all particles in the body, Eq. (10.7) is valid only for rigid bodies
dy that has both translational and rotational motions. In this case, the bod
1
etic energy is the sum of a part 2 Mvcm2 associated with motion of the cente
1 2
ss and a part 2 ITRANSLATION
COMBINED cm v associated
ANDwith rotation about anRELATIONSHIPS
ROTATION:ENERGY axis through the ce
mass:

1 2 1 2
K = 2 Mvcm + I
2 cm v
(10.
(rigid body with both translation and rotation)

To prove this relationship, we again imagine the rigid body to be made up

ticles. Consider a typical particle with mass m i as shown in Fig. 10.12.
S
ocity vi of this particle relative to an inertial frame is the vector sum of
S Sœ
ocity vcm of the center of mass and the velocity v i of the particle relativ
center of mass:
S S Sœ
vi " vcm ! v i (10.
1 2
e kinetic energy K i of this particle in the inertial frame is 2 m i vi , which we
1 S # S
 rolling without slipping along a flat surface
where r is the
rv radialthe
ving slowest vis!blurred
distance from the rotation axis to point P.
least. In Figure 9-32 a wheel of radius R is
The center of mass of the wheel moves with speed
meter9-26
stick. T
P
g without slipping along a flat surface. Point P on the wheel moves as shown with the stick
speed with
ROLLING speed
where r isSLIPPING
WITHOUT the radial distance from the rotat
N O N S L I P C O N D IT I O N F O R S P E E D
photo was lon
as streaks, wir
0 | CHAPTER 9 Rotation
vcm ! Rv 9-27 increasing wi
For acenter
The point on of the
mass very of top
the of the wheel,
wheel
where r is the radial distance from the rotation axis to point P.
9-26 moves 2R
r !with axis. (Loren W
6
! rv
ROLLING
TheOBJECTS
N O N S L I P C O N D IT I O N F O R vcm
center of mass of the wheel moves with speed
wheel
OLLING WITHOUT v ! is moving
rv N O at
N S L twice
I P C O N D ITthe
I O N Fspeed
O R S P E E Dof the cente
For a pointSLIPPING
on the very top of the wheel, r ! 2R, so the top of the
hen a spool wheel Differentiating both sides of Equation 9-27
viscmmoving
rolls without ! Rv atdown
slipping twiceanthe
inclineposition
(Figure
speed of
9-31),
of the thepoints
the
center
spool in contact with the incline are instantaneously at rest and the spool
particle
of from rotation
of wheel.
the 9-27 axis
In
r isabout Differentiating
the aradial
rotationdistance
both
from sides of Equation
the rotation axis 9-27
to gives P.
point
ates
enter of mass
ause rapid motionof vcm ! Rv
axis through
the blurring,
causes
the contact
wheel whichmoves
points.
with
means
This
the speed
can be observed
N O N S L I P C O N D IT I OFNI G F
part of the spool that
UO R ER 9 v
- 3 1 A spool that has dots on it
cm
is rolling without slipping down an inclined FP IGUR
v

moving slowest is blurred the least. In Figure 9-32 a wheel of radius R is meter stick. The shaft of the spool is in contact
a cm !along
ing without slipping
radius of rotating
Ra a flat surface. Point P on the wheel moves as shown object
with the stick. The exposure 9-28
time for this
right, poi
photo was long enough that the dots appear Point P re

O N D IT I O N F ON OCN E LS
E RL
AT I
I OP
N COND
h speed For a point on the very top of the wheel, r ! 2R, so the top withof the the r ov
! Rv a
wheel iscm ! Ra N O N S L I P C9-27
moving at twice the speed of the center of the wheel.
R AC
as streaks, length of the streaks passes
increasing with distance from the rotation
v ! rv
where N O NrS Lis
Differentiating I P Cthe
both N D ITradial
sides
O of N F O R vdistance
I OEquation 9-27 gives from the rotat
9-26
cm
N O N S L I P C O N D IT I O N F O R S P E E D
axis. (Loren Winters/Visuals Unlimited.)

A falling yo-yo that is unwinding from a string—the top end of which

The center of conditions
mass asof N O N
is heldS L I P C
fixed—follows the same nonslip the the
wheel. wheel moves with
ere r is the radial distance
!from
a cm top Ra the rotation axis to point P. 9-28
point on the Avery of the wheel, 2R, so the top of the
For a point on the very top of the wheel, r !
wheel of radius R is rolling without slipping along a straight path. As the
v
e center of mass of the wheel moves with speed
r ! P vcm
is moving wheel rotatesthe
at twice through
speedangle
of the f (Figure
center of 9-33),
the the point of contact between the wheel
wheel.
N O N S L I P C O N D IT I O N F O R AC C E L E R AT I OInstan
N
and the surface moves a distance s that is related to by
wheel is moving at twice the speed of the cen
f
vferentiating both sides of Equation 9-27 9-27 gives
r
! Rv R ω

A falling yo-yo that is unwinding

Path of contact point
from a st
cm

A vcm
s !falling Rv
N O N S L I P C O N D IT I O N F O R vcm
yo-yo!
RfDifferentiating
that is unwindingboth sides
from a string—theof
top Equation
end of
9-29which
right, is 9-
held
point P
FIGURE 9

! Ra fixed—follows
fixed—follows theconditions
the same nonslip sameasnonslip
a point on the very top of the wheel, r ! 2R, so the top of the conditions
the wheel. 9-28 a
Point P reach
N O N S L I P C O N D IT I O N F O R D I STA N C E
A the
eel is moving at twice wheel oftheradius
speed of the is
center of R rolling without slipping Instantaneous
wheel. along a straight passesAs
path. over th
the
N O N S L I P C O N D IT I O N F O R AC C E L E R AT I O N
rotation axis
 f a point mass M acted on by all the external forces on the actual body:
dy from the standpoint of dynamics. We showed in Section 8.5 that for a bod

a point mass M acted on by all a

S
th total mass M, the acceleration aScm of theScenter of mass is the same as th
COMBINED TRANSLATION AND
F ROTATION:DYNAMIC
a cm on the actual body: (10.12
ext ! M forces
the external

a Fext ! M a cm
S
he rotational motion about the center of mass
S is described by the rotational an
(10.12
og of Newton’s second law, Eq. (10.7):

a tz = Icm az
e rotational motion about the center of mass is described by the rotational an
g of Newton’s second law, Eq. (10.7): (10.13

a z
mass and the sum gtz includes all external torques with respect to this axis. I
here Icm is the moment of inertia twith = respect
I a
cm z
to an axis through the center
(10.13

ting rigid body; after all, our derivation of gtz = Iaz in Section 10.2 assum
ot immediately obvious that Eq. (10.13) should apply to the motion of a tra
ass and the sum gtz includes all external torques with respect to this axis. It
here Icm is the moment of inertia with respect to an axis through the center
hat the axis of rotation was stationary. But in fact, Eq. (10.13) is valid even wh
ing rigid body; after all, our derivation of gtz = Iaz in Section 10.2 assume
t immediately obvious that Eq. (10.13) should apply to the motion of a tran
he axis of rotation moves, provided the following two conditions are met:
at 1.
theThe
axisaxis
of rotation
throughwas
the stationary. But in
center of mass fact,
must beEq.
an (10.13) is valid even whe
axis of symmetry.
e axis of rotation
2. The moves,
axis must provided
not change the following two conditions are met:
direction.
 Lu1
z

tion
WORK ANDtorque
If the POWER
remains constant while the angle changes by a finite am
¢u = u2 - u1 , then
dW>dt is the rate of doing work, or power P, and du/dt is angula
o W = tz 1u2 - u12 = tz ¢u (work done by a constant torque) (10

The work done by a constant torque is the product of torque and the angula
placement. If torque is expressed P in=newton-meters
tz vz 1N # m2 and angular disp

Eq. (6.1), W = Fs, and Eq. (10.20) is the analog of Eq. (6.7), W = 1 Fx dx
ment in radians, the work is in joules. Equation (10.21) is the rotational anal

n a torque tz (with
the work done byrespect toa the
a force in axis ofdisplacement.
straight-line rotation) acts on a body th
angular velocity inz ,Fig.
its10.21
power had(rate ofcomponent
doing work) is the
to theproduct
#
If the forcev an axial (parallel rotation
S S
or a radial component (directed toward or away from the axis), that compo
This is the analog of the relationship P = F v that we developed i
would do no work because the displacement of the point of application has o
or particle motion.
tangential component. An axial or radial component of force would also mak
contribution to the torque about the axis of rotation. So Eqs. (10.20) and (1
are correct for any force, no matter what its components.
When a torque does work on a rotating rigid body, the kinetic energy cha
torqueby an amount equal to the work done. We can prove this by using exactl
must remain zero. This condition gives us the option to choose any point or any
axis for calculating torques, an option that greatly simplifies the solution of most
static problems.
EQUILIBRIUM
The two necessary conditions for a rigid body to be in static equilibrium are as
follows:

1. The net external force acting on the body must remain zero:
S
©F ! 0 12-1
2. The net external torque about any point must remain zero:
S
©T ! 0 12-2
C O N D IT I O N S F O R E Q U I L I B R I U M

12-2 THE CENTER OF GRAVITY

In Section 4 of Chapter 9, the center of gravity is introduced in terms of torques
about an axis. Here we introduce the center of gravity in terms of torques
about a point. Figure 12-1a shows a rigid object in static equilibrium and a point
O. We consider the object to be composed of many small mass elements. The
S