324 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements

signal. Since there are 16 (amplitude sample) dots shown, the signal is
sampled 16 times. To do this, the staircase time base has to have 16 steps, as
illustrated. Now, suppose that the time base is adjusted to consist of 16
smaller steps and that this is superimposed upon a dc bias voltage, as
illustrated in Fig. 12-10(b).This causes all 16 amplitude samples to be taken
during the latter half-cycle of the input signal. Thus, only this half of the
signal is displayed on the oscilloscope screen. However, this portion is
displayed in great detail when the horizontal deflection sensitivity of the
oscilloscope is expanded to give a full-screen display of the sampled portion
of the input waveform.
By adjusting the bias voltage and the density of the staircase waveform,
any portion (including very small portions) of the input signal can be
investigated. The section of the waveform to be investigated is usually
identified by moving a very bright dot to the desired part of the signal when
it is displayed in the normal (full-cycle) mode. This, again, is similar to the
method used with a delayed-time-base oscilloscope.

Section Review
12-3.1 Show how a high-frequency waveform can be sampled to create
a low-frequency dot representation of the waveform. Discuss the
relationship between the signal frequency, the dot waveform
frequency, and the number of samples per cycle in the low-
frequency wave. Explain the Nyquist rate.

Practice Problem
12-3.1 A 200 MHz repetitive waveform is to be sampled and recreated
in dot form, as illustrated in Fig. 12-7. If the displayed frequency
is to be 100kHz, determine the minimum sampling frequency for
satisfactory reproduction, and the number of samples in each
displayed cycle.

12-4 DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPES

Digital Sampling
As discussed in Section 12-2, analog storage oscilloscopes store the input
waveform in a special type of CRT. In a DSO, the waveform is sampled at
regular intervals, and each sample is converted to digital form by means of
an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) (see Section 6-5). The digitized samples
are coded as illustrated in Fig. 12-11.The combination of absent and present
pulses in each sample represents the amplitude of the analog sample. The
1111condition represents maximum amplitude with all four pulses present.
Because 1111is the digital equivalent of analog 15, the 0001 condition (only
the right-hand pulse present) represents 1/15 of maximum amplitude.
Similarly, 0100 is the digital code for 4/15 of maximum, and 1101 indicates
13/15 of maximum waveform amplitude.
 Chapter 12 Special Oscilloscopes 325

Waveform sample Digital Pulse code Analog Sample

number equivalent amplitude

- - - ~- - - - - - - - - - ~
- . - .-
000 1 " " "t
11
11
11
11
••
11
.1. ....••••.....•••...
1 1/15

--
AL
- ----------- ---
0 1 o 0
-!--
11
11

11
••..•.
""
••

It
11

••
.•...••......
n., 4 4/15

;Cv tlJLA
.r..
1 1 0 1 13 13/15
--

1 1 1 1
ULU 15 15/15

Figure 12-11 A digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) samples a waveform to be displayed, and
convertseach sample into a code of pulses that represents a digital number.

BasicDSO Operation
The block diagram of a basic sampling and storage system for a DSO is
illustrated in Fig. 12-12. The time base generates a pulse waveform at the
desired sampling frequency. Each pulse switches the sampling gate and the
ADC on for a brief time period. The sampling gate generates a series of
analog samples, as illustrated, and the ADC converts each sample into a
coded group of pulses. The pulse groups are passed to a semiconductor (or
other type) memory, where they are stored for later retrieval.

Time
base
Trigger to sampling
gate and ADC

Amplitude samples
of input

Digitized samples
Il
_ I _ _ of input

[ M~ory [

Figure 12-12 Basic sampling and storage system for a DSO. The input waveform is analog
sampled, and each sample is converted into digital form by means of an analog-ta-digital
converter(ADC).
328 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements

Figure 12-13 shows a system for retrieval of the stored information to

recreate the original waveform. The digital-to-analog converter (DAC) (see
Section 6-6), triggered by pulses from the time base, converts each digital
sample back to analog (step) form and passes it to the oscilloscope vertical
deflection amplifier. The time base also generates a staircase waveform that
is fed to the horizontal deflection amplifier. The vertical and horizontal
inputs can be used to produce either a dot waveform or a step waveform on
the oscilloscope screen, as illustrated.

Memory Trigger to
DAC
DAC Staircase
waveform
To time base
unblanking
circuit
Amplitude samples
recovered from
digital memory

~--- Dot waveform

display

Vertical Horizontal
deflection deflection
amplifier amplifier

Figure 12-13 Basic DSO system for displaying a stored waveform. A digital-to-analog con-
verter (DAC) converts the digital samples in the memory into analog form for application to the
vertical deflection plates. A dot waveform is produced when the samples are combined with the
staircase waveform time base and the unblanking pulses.

Flat Screen Display

The block diagram in Fig. 12-13 shows a CRT displaying the waveform
samples retrieved from the digital memory. However, flat screen displays
have now replaced CRTs in virtually all new instruments. There are several
types of flat screen technology in use, with liquid crystal displays (LeO)
being the commonest (see Section 6-3).
Liquid crystal material is a liquid that possesses some of the properties of a
solid. The molecules in a liquid normally have random orientations, but in liquid
crystal the molecules are arranged in a crystal pattern. A liquid crystal cell
consists of a very thin layer of liquid crystal material sandwiched between glass
sheets. The construction is illustrated in Fig. 12-14(a).The glass sheets have thin
transparent metal film electrodes deposited on the inside surfaces. Polarizing
optical filters are placed on the outside surfaces of the glass. When not energized,
the liquid crystal twists the light passing through the cell, and in combination
with the polarizers, this can be arranged to block the passage of light. In this
condition, the cell appears dark, as illustrated in Fig. 12-14(b).When energized
by application of a suitable electrode voltage, the liquid molecules are reoriented,
so that no twisting occurs. Light can now pass through the cell from a suitable
source, and that the cell appears bright [Fig. 12-14(c)].
 Chapter 12 Special Oscilloscopes 327

Transparent metal
Polarizer
film \I~ctrodes ~Glass sheet
I ~

11 D
Liqui~ crystal
~==-======::--- metenal
Glass sheet
Polarizer
(a) Cross-section of a liquid crystal cell (b) Unenergized cell (c) Energized cell
blocks back light passes light

Figure 12-14 A liquid crystal cell twists light passing through it. so that the light can be blocked
when the cell is not energized. and passed when a suitable voltage is applied

A flat screen LeO uses a large number of rows and columns of liquid
crystal cells as individual pixels to create the screen. The screen may consist
of perhaps 1080vertical column of 800 horizontal rows of pixels. Figure 12-15
shows the basic arrangement of one corner of such a screen. Each cell is
grounded from behind, and its supply is controlled by a thin-film transistor
(TFT). The TFTs are MOSFET type devices which are switched on for the
duration of a pulse voltage applied to the gate terminal. Thus, as illustrated,
all of the TFfs in one row are turned on by application of a voltage to the
conductor that connects their gate terminals. At the same instant, all of the

LCDpixel
Source Drain
lJ-
Gate4 \ --"+---r-+---~--"----
Thin-film
transistor
(TFT)

Energized 800
pixel rows
IF[ tum-OI~ _ ----1r---T--4-----7---1 •......
-----.
pulse
(row input)

1080 columns

Figure 12-15 A flat-panel liquid crystal display consists of a large number of liquid crystal cells
arranged in columns and rows. Each cell is individually controlled by a thin-film transistor.
328 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements

TFf source terminals in one column are provided with the required square-
wave supply voltage to energize an LCD. In this situation, only one LCDis
switched on; the one that has both the gate pulse and the source voltage. All
other LCDs remain off at this instant.
The rear light source that causes the energized pixel to appear bright may
be florescent, or it might be produced by light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
A waveform can be displayed on the LCD screen as a series of dots (asin
Fig. 12-13).With the great density of the pixels, however, the displayed wave
can be made to appear continuous, just as in the case of a CRT display. The
resolution of the screen is sometimes identified as the number of horizontal
and vertical pixels; for example, 1080 x 800, as discussed above. However, the
resolution is more correctly identified as the number of pixels per (horizontal
or vertical) inch. If a 1080 x 800 pixel screen referred to a 10 inch x 8 inch
screen, then the resolution would be approximately 100 pixels per inch.
With this type of screen, where individual pixels can be selected, it is not
necessary to convert the samples retrieved from memory into analog form,
as shown for the CRT in Fig. 12-13. Instead, the digitized samples can be
steered by logic gates to the appropriate pixels.
Digital Memory and Resolution
One type of memory for storing digital samples simply consists of a number
of set-reset flip-flops (see Section 6-2). Figure 12-16shows eight such flip-flops
together with a portion of the truth table giving the digital representations for
various states of the Q outputs. The analog equivalent for each digital quantity
is also listed. Because this 8-bit memory can represent up to 255 levels of an
analog sample, the instantaneous voltage levels of the waveform for each
sample is recorded with a resolution of 1 in 255, or better than 0.4%. As
explained in Section 2-2,resolution is related to measurement precision. Many
DSOs sample with an 8-bit resolution. Some have a 12-bit resolution, or 1in
4095. [The four-pulse (4-biO representation of the samples in Fig. 12-11gives
a resolution of only 1 in 15.] One set of eight flip-flops can store only one
sample; therefore, many such sets of flip-flops are required for storing
sufficient samples to represent several complex waves. A DSO that can store

~~:~
•
:
___
~~:~
~~t~~t~~~
•
~a~~t
~~~ • •
: Flip-flop: condition
•
: = digital
•
: number
•
: stored :
• Analog
:...
Sample
• equivalent-+-a_m_p_ltu_.
I' d
_e_
O 0 0 0 I 0 1 0 10 10/255 of max.

o 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 60 60/255
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 151 151/255
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 255 255/255

Figure 12-16 Eight flip-flops can store a digital number representing up to 255 level of an
analog sample.
 Chapter 12 Special Oscilloscopes 329

4000 samples is usually referred to as having a 4000-word memory, or a 4 k

memory.

Interpolation
To obtain a more correct representation than the dot or step waveform
display, digital oscilloscopes normally have a facility for drawing lines
between the sampled levels. This is termed interpolation. Linear interpolation
occurs when straight lines are drawn between the levels [see Fig. 12-17(a)
and (b)]. This is most suitable for pulse waveform displays. Sine-wave
interpolation introduces a sinusoidal function between the sample levels, for
use with sinusoidal waveforms [Fig. 12-17(c)and (d)]. Linear interpolation
produces acceptable sine waves when a large number of samples are taken
during each cycle. With fewer samples, the straight lines between the sample
levels give a distorted display. Sine-wave interpolation can give satisfactory
results with only 2.5 samples per cycle for sinusoidal waveforms, but when
used with a pulse waveform it can introduce distortion such as overshoots.
, , ,
- - -, - -, - _ " ~ _ -
"
-f - _ • !- - - -> - - .. ~- -,- -

.L - - '. - - -'-

..'

.,
,
l __
.
.J __ .•
, __

, , ,
-;- - - i - - -,- - - ; - - -,- - -;- - - -, - - 1- - -,

(a) Square wave without interpolation (b) Square wave with linear interpolation

'
-- -
(0
~
- -
--

-- ---
.•

-
"
.~ - - - - - - ,- - - -: - - --,- - -
,
j" •
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- -; - - -r- - - - - - -,-
I I
- - 1- --,
I

(c) Sine wave without interpolation (cl) Sine wave with sine-wave interpolation

Figure 12-17 Lines are normally drawn between sample levels on a waveform displayed on a
DSO. Linear interpolation is most suitable for pulse waveforms, while sine-wave interpolation
gives best results with sinusoidal waveforms.

Sampling Rate and Bandwidth

As with analog sampling oscilloscopes, the quality of the waveform displayed
by digital oscilloscopes depends on the number of samples taken during the
waveform cycle or transient. The waveform can be reproduced in great detail
when a high sampling rate is used [see Fig. 12-18(a)].With a low sampling
330 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements

;::pl~ 11111111111111111111111111111

(a) A high sampling rate gives a good (b) Important details may be lost
representation of the input wave with a low sampling rate

Figure 12-18 A high sampling rate is required to accurately recreate a waveform from a series
of amplitude samples.

rate, important details of the waveform may be lost [Fig. 12-18(b)]. The type
of detail shown in Fig. 12-18(a) is easily obtained when a relatively low-
frequency signal is being investigated. For example, suppose that a 500 kHz
waveform is to be displayed by a DSO that samples at a rate of 50 MS/s (50
mega-samples per second). The number of samples taken during one cycle is
T of signal samplingf
11 = = -~-='----
T of sampling rate signal f
= 50 MS/s = 100
500 kHz
Therefore, one cycle of the displayed waveform is made up of 100samples.
If the sampling rate is 5 MS/ s, there will be only 10 samples to represent each
cycle of the 500 kHz wave. Obviously, the 100 sample/cycle display is likely
to be satisfactory, while the la sample/cycle representation may not give a
clear picture of the waveform.
As discussed in Section 12-3, to satisfactorily reproduce a repetitive
waveform, samples must be taken at a rate greater than the Nyquist rate: a
minimum of two samples per cycle. Some 050 manufacturers specify the
instrument's high cutoff frequency as one fourth of the sampling rate: for
example, a dc-to-25 MHz bandwidth for a 100 MS/s sampling rate. This
means that four samples are taken during each cycle of the highest-frequency
waveform that can be investigated. Some manufacturers use a two-times
ratio (the Nyquist rate), claiming a bandwidth of 50 MHz for 100 MS/s.
When a waveform is sampled many times during one cycle, the technique
is referred to as real-time sampling [Fig. 12-19(a)]. In this case the waveform is
normally reproduced for display at its actual frequency. The method
discussed in Section 12-3 of using a low sampling rate and creating a lower
frequency version of the waveform is termed equioalent-time sampling [see
Fig. 12-19(b), reproduced from Fig. 12-7]. Equivalent-time sampling is
applicable only for repetitive waveforms where the frequency is too high to
be real-time sampled.
 Chapter 12 Special Oscilloscopes 331

.. ............

.... .....
.....
(a) Real-time sampling occurs when a (b) With equivalent-time sampling, a lower-
waveform is sampled many times frequency version of the waveform is
during its cycle created from the samples

Figure 12-19 With real-time sampling, the waveform is recreated from several samples taken
during each cycle. Equivalent-time sampling is used when the waveform frequency is too high
for real-time sampling.

Signal frequencies are often low enough for the waveform to be displayed
directly in analog form on the oscilloscope, and then the DSO advantage is
mainly signal storage and processing. Many DSOs are designed for use as
both analog and digital instruments; they can display a waveform directly, as
well as sample and store it for later recall. These instruments are sometimes
referred to as real-time and storage oscilloscopes (RSO).

Pulse Rise Time and Sampling Rate

The pulse rise time (tr) (see Fig. 11-21) is one of the most important quantities
involved in the investigation of pulse waveforms. For a detailed study of the
pulse leading and lagging edges, perhaps 10 or more samples should be
taken during tr' However, if the rise time is just to be measured, the minimum
rise time cannot exceed the time interval between samples. Thus, for a 100
MS/s sampling rate
1 1
t rtrnin) = samp limg rate
100 MS/s
= 10 ns

Section Review
12-4.1 For a digital storage oscilloscope, draw the basic system block
diagram for sampling a waveform and storing the information.
Sketch the waveforms that occur at each point in the system, and
explain the system operation.

Practice Problem
12-4.1 A DSO with a 100 MS/s sampling rate is used to investigate the
waveform illustrated in Fig. 12-18. The waveform frequency is
1 MHz, the rise time is 100 ns, the fall time is 250 ns, and the spike
at the top of the leading edge has a time period of 150 ns. Estimate
the total samples per cycle, and the samples taken during the rise
time, the fall time, and the spike time.
332 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements

12-5 DSO APPLICATIONS

Autoset
Some DSOs have vertical (volts/div) and horizontal (time/div) controls, just
like an analog oscilloscope. Others automatically select the best amplitude
and time settings for the displayed waveforms, and print the settings on the
screen (see Fig. 12-20).In this case, manual selection of the quantities is also
normally available.
Multichannel Displays
Like analog oscilloscopes, DSOs are normally capable of displaying waveforms
applied to two input channels. However, many DSOs can also display four, or
more, channels of new and stored waveforms (Fig. 12-20).As with an analog
oscilloscope, input waveforms can be displayed on the screen (sampled and
interpolated) as they are received. For comparison purposes, stored waveforms
can also be displayed at the same time as new input waves.
Amplitude , ,
and time- Ch 1 = 2 V/div Ch 2 = 1 V/div ' , , ,
base settings TB ~ 100 ~~/divi- - - _- ~- - - - -I- - - - -; - - - - -i-' - - - ~- - - --~
, ,

Four
waveform
displays

Figure 12-20 Most DSOs have an autoset facility that selects the amplitude and time-base
settings automatically. Many can display four (or more) channels of new and stored
waveforms.

Waveform Processing
Digital oscilloscopes normally contain digital voltmeters, digital frequency
meters, and time measurement circuits, which print the desired measurements
on the oscilloscope screen as the waveform is being displayed. Figure 12-21
illustrates these facilities. Two cursors are employed to define the points on
the waveform between which the measurement is to be made. The cursors
may be crossed lines, arrowheads, or dots, and they can be moved around by
controls on the front panel of the oscilloscope, as illustrated. Waveform
voltage, time, and frequency are measured much more accurately than could
 Chapter 12 Special Oscilloscopes 333

I I , I , I I I

I , I I , I I I
Cursor 1 -A+;-+--:-~V';'IoO';;-V-:---:
-1---+---1--- •.- -'---1---...j---I---
: = 450 ns
IU AV = 2.5 ~t~~1-~_(~~j~-J~~~t~~J~~~t~~J·
- ~- - ~- - -:- - - ~ - .' -~ --
, , " I I I I ,

, , I
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t I I I I " ,

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Cursor f.... ' ,, ,
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- i - - -,- - - r - -

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Cur 211

(a) Rise time measurment (b) Peak-to-peak voltage measurment

I , I I I I I I I

, : -:y';395kH~--:---~--:
-- ----- .
,
,
- r- - -., - - - - - - r- - -...,-
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, - - - r - - -.'
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-'-Cursor 1-;- Cursor 2·-:

(c) Frequency determination

Figure 12-21 DSOs normally process the displayed waveforms to accurately determine
voltage amplitude and rise time between points defined by movable cursors. The measured
quantities are printed on the screen.

be achieved by means of an analog oscilloscope. Some DSOs automatically

process the displayed waveform without reference to cursors, measuring
Vrms/ Vp-to-p/ f, tf' T, pulse width, duty cycle, and so on, and print these
quantities on the screen.
Pre-triggering and Post-triggering
A DSO can be used to display portions of a waveform that occur before the
normal trigger point (pre-triggering) or after the trigger point (post-triggering).
Pre-triggering is possible because the input waveform is continually being
digitized and stored in memory. Thus, as illustrated in Fig. 12-22(a), the
stored waveform can be displayed beginning at a point ahead of the normal
trigger point. The pre-trigger time may be up to 50%or 100%of the waveform
time period, depending on the particular oscilloscope. In post-triggering, the
commencing point of the display is delayed after the trigger point by a
variable hold-off time, which may be several times the time period of the
displayed waveform [Fig. 12-22(b»). This is similar to the delay time
 Portion of wave ahead of
•
nOuFI~?\ .: .'.
:: I
\\.f\...- :,
I
~): I

Effective
t
Normal
+ I"
Hold-off time • I

trigger point trigger point

(a) Pre-triggering (b) Post-triggering

Figure 12-22 Pre-triggering allows the portion of a waveform ahead of the normal triggering
point to be displayed on a DSO. Post-triggering introduces a hold-off time (or delay time) after
the normal triggering point.

introduced in delayed sweep analog oscilloscopes. Instead of delaying by a

specified time, the display may be delayed by a selected number of waveform
cycles. The combination of pre- and post-triggering allows any part of the
input waveform to be examined.

Zoom and Restart

Zoom and restart are essentially additional methods of time-delay selection,
and each is available with some (but not all) DSOs. In the first case, the
portion of the waveform to be examined is first centered on the screen or
marked by cursors. A zoom button is pushed to time-expand the waveform,
or zoom-in on the portion of interest. This is illustrated in Fig. 12-23.The
required time delay and time base changes are introduced automatically.
Restart selection also makes it possible to view part of a waveform in detail.
In this case, instead of just time expanding, the waveform is resampled at a
faster rate for maximum information.
r - -.., - - -,- - - "l - - - - -,- - - r - - ..,- - - r - - .., - - -, - - - t'" - - .., - - - r - - ..,
I

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I I I I
,
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(a) Waveform centered on the screen (b) Zoom facility time-expands the waveform

Figure 12-23 DSO zoom and restart facilities permit a waveform to be time expanded for more
detailed study.

Glitch and Runt Catching

Figure 12-24(a) illustrates the fact that very fast spike-type changes in a
displayed waveform (glitches) can be missed by a DSO if the sampling rate is
 Chapter 12 SpecialOscilloscopes 335

Waveform glitch
- - - ~- - - - - - f - - -; --
.
l.
,
.J ___ J
.
,
,
'- _

- - - -,- - - - -,. --
-t'---

- - - ~- - - -:--
----'----r---T-

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- -
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- •... - - -
,
-- - ...
, -<----t----_.
, , ,

(a) A waveform glitch can be missed by (b) A runt pulse can occur in logic circuits
the sampling time interval

Figure 12-24 Glitch and runt pulses could be missed by a DSO if they occur during the time
between samples. A DSO with a maximum/minimum level detector catches waveform anomalies.

not high enough. Glitches occurring during the sampling-time interval are
invisible to the oscilloscope, so where such waveform anomalies are
important, an oscilloscope with a very high sampling rate should be used.
The fast on/ off switching of flip-flops in high-speed digital logic circuits can
produce troublesome waveform glitches; consequently, this is one field in
which signal waveforms require careful study.
A runt pulse is a special type of glitch that occurs in logic systems [Fig.
12-24(b)].This is a pulse that is not quite large enough to produce circuit
triggering. A maximum/minimum level detector circuit is employed in some
DSOs to detect the presence of a glitch. The oscilloscope may then be made
to trigger on the glitch, so that the waveforms before and after the glitch can
be displayed.
Baby-sitting Mode
Some waveform transients in electronics systems may occur only once during
a period of hours. A DSO can be set in a baby-sitting mode to deal with this
situation. The waveform is sampled and recorded continuously, so that at
any instant several immediate-previous cycles are stored. When an anomaly

Waveform anomaly

•Stored waveform immediately

•
before and after anomaly

Figure 12-25 A DSO can be operated in baby-sitting mode to detect infrequent waveform
anomalies, and in roll mode to store and display slowly changing quantities.
336 Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements

is detected, the stored samples are retained in the memory for later playback.
This is illustrated in Fig. 12-25.
Roll Mode
Many quantities vary slowly over a period of hours, and traditionally these
are monitored by chart recording instruments. A DSO time base, which is
usually derived by frequency division of the output of a crystal oscillator (see
Section 6-4), can be adjusted to give an accurate sampling time interval of
minutes or hours. Thus, the amplitude of the slowly changing quantity can
be sampled and stored over a long period of time. The stored waveform may
be displayed on the oscilloscope screen at a speeded-up rate. When operated
in this fashion, the DSO is said to be in roll mode.
Documentation and Analysis
Most DSOs can provide outputs to a computer printer to produce a hard copy
of any waveform stored in memory. Although the waveform samples can be
stored indefinitely, a printed copy is convenient for publication and/ or further
study. A facility for interfacing with computers is also usually made available
for further analysis of stored waveforms, and for remote control of the
oscilloscope by the computer.

Section Review
12-5.1 Explain the following terms in reference to a DSO: pre-triggering,
post-triggering, zoom and restart, glitch, runt, baby-sitting mode,
roll mode.

Practice Problem
12-5.1 A digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) has a sampling rate of 100
MS/s. Determine the number of samples taken during one cycle
of a 3 MHz sine wave, and during a 15 us pulse. Also, estimate
the maximum time period of a glitch that might be missed by the
sampling process.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Section 12-1
12-1 Discuss the need for a time-delay system in an oscilloscope. Using illustrations,
explain how a delayed time base can improve waveform investigations.
12-2 Draw a basic block diagram and waveforms for an oscilloscope delayed-time-
base (DTB)system. Carefully explain the system operation.
12-3 Explain how the portion of the waveform to be investigated is intensified by
the DTBsystem.
Section 12-2
12-4 Discuss the need for signal storage on an oscilloscope.
12-5 Sketch an illustration to show the construction of a bistable storage CRT.
Discuss its operation.