LNG receiving terminal

The receiving terminal is one component of the LNG chain between the
gas field and the residential or industrial consumer. It is a facility at
which liquefied natural gas is “regasified” (turned back into a gaseous
state) after shipment by sea from the area of production. The receiving
terminal can be onshore or offshore. Figure 1-3 shows a simplified
schematic sketch of LNG receiving terminal. The main elements are:
1- Receiving LNG tankers and unloading their cargo.
2- Storing LNG in cryogenic tanks to withstand temperatures below -
160°C.
3- Regasifying LNG to meet demand.
4- Feeding gas into the national transmission network.

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 Figure 1-3 Typical LNG Terminal Block Flow Diagram

1.5.1 Reception and unloading

On arriving at the terminal, the LNG tanker (200-300 metres in length) is

moored at the unloading dock, where articulated pipes (“arms”) are
connected to transfer the LNG to the storage tanks. The LNG flows into
pipes specially designed to withstand the embrittling effect of extremely
low temperatures (below -160°C). This process is completed in under 12
hours. Boil-off gas is returned to the ship to maintain pressure in the
cargo tanks.

1.5.2 Storage

The LNG is stored in double-walled insulated tanks to limit boil-off.

These tanks are able to withstand the temperatures of below -160°C
needed to keep the gas condensed in a liquid state. The outer walls are
made of pre-stressed reinforced concrete or steel.
Despite the high-quality insulation, a small amount of heat still penetrates
the LNG tanks, causing minor evaporation. The resulting boil-off gas is
captured and fed back into the LNG using compressor and recondensing
systems. This recycling process prevents any natural gas escaping the
terminal under normal operating conditions.[5]

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1.5.3 Compression and regasification

The LNG is subsequently extracted from the tanks, pressurized and

regasified using heat exchangers.
The tanks are equipped with submerged pumps that transfer the LNG
towards other high-pressure pumps. The compressed LNG (at around 80
times atmospheric pressure) is then turned back into a gaseous state in
vaporizers. [5]
1.5.4 Metering and send-out

Once returned to its gaseous state, the natural gas treated in a number of
ways, including metering and odorising, before it is fed into the
transmission network. [5]
1.5.5 Safety Features:

LNG receiving terminals have an outstanding safety record over the last
40 years by applying advanced technologies and stringent operating
practices. Safety of receiving terminals is ensured by four elements that
provide multiple layers of protection both for the safety of the LNG
industry workers (on-site population) and the safety of the community
(off-site population).
While these safety elements apply to receiving terminals, some are also
applicable to LNG shipping.
• Primary Containment: This is the first and most important
requirement for containing the LNG product. This first layer of protection
involves the use of appropriate materials as well as the proper
engineering design of storage tanks onshore and on LNG carriers.
• Secondary Containment: This applies to on-shore facilities and
ensures that if leaks or spills occur beyond primary containment the LNG
can be fully contained and isolated.[6]

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1.6 LNG regasification

Regasification process is considered one of the most important and heart

of the LNG terminal unit, and consumes more than half of the total
operation cost. In that LNG import countries always interested to make
process advanced and economical by doing more studies. Regasification
process is a process of converting a liquefied natural gas (LNG) at −162
°C (−260 °F) temperature back to natural gas, where the temperature
must be the temperature of send out gas (above 0 °C).
There are different types of regasification, where available in world LNG
terminal are:
1- Open Rack Vaporizers (ORV).
2- Submerged Combustion Vaporizers (SCV).
3- Ambient Air Vaporizers (AAV).
4- Intermediate Fluid Vaporizers (IFV).

Traditionally, base load regasification terminals have used two types of

vaporizers: 70% uses the Open rack Vaporizer (ORV), 25% uses the
Submerged Combustion Vaporizer (SCV) and the remaining 5% uses the
Intermediate Fluid vaporizer (IFV). In addition to these vaporizers, other
types of vaporizers such as the direct air vaporizers, the Ambient Air
Vaporizers (AAV), have been used in smaller regasification plants and
peak shaving facilities. [7]
Open rack vaporizers (ORV) and submerged combustion vaporizers (SCV)
are the most common vaporization methods in existing regasification
terminals, which have generally been located in the subequatorial region.
Recent LNG receiving terminal activities have been shifting to the
equatorial region where the weather is warmer, and the use of intermediate
fluid vaporizers (IFV) is found to be attractive. Important factors that should
be considered in the LNG vaporizer selection process are:
1- Site conditions and plant location.

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2- Availability and reliability of the heat source.
3- Customer demand fluctuation.
4- Emission permit limits.
5- Regulatory restrictions with respect to the use of seawater.
6- Vaporizer capacity and operating parameters.
7- Safety in design.
8- Operating flexibility and reliability.
9- Capital and the operating cost.

1.6.1 Seawater (SW) heating

LNG receiving terminals are generally located close to the open sea for
ease of access to LNG carriers. Seawater is generally available in large
quantities at low cost as compared to other sources of heat, and is the
preferred heat source. The opposition is mainly from the environmental
sensitive regions for the concerns on the negative impacts on marine life
due to the cold seawater discharge and the residual chemical contents. [7]
1.6.1.1 Open rack vaporizer (ORV)

An Open Rack Vaporizer (ORV) is a heat exchanger that uses seawater

as the source of heat. ORVs are well proven technology and have been
widely used in Japan, Korea and Europe LNG terminals. The preferred
seawater temperature for ORV operation is above 5°C.
ORV units are generally constructed of aluminum alloy for mechanical
strength suitable to operate at the cryogenic temperature. The material has
high thermal conductivity, which is effective for heat transfer equipment.
The tubes are arranged in panels, connected through the LNG inlet and
the regasified product outlet piping manifolds and hung from a rack
Figure 1-4. The panels are coated externally with zinc alloy, providing
corrosion protection against seawater. ORVs require regular maintenance
to keep the finned tube surface clean.

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The panel arrangement feature provides ease of access for maintenance.
Depending on the design of the units, it is also possible to isolate sections
of the panels and vary the load on the units. The unit can be turndown to
accommodate fluctuations in gas demand, gas outlet temperature and
seawater temperature.
For large regasification terminals where significant amounts of water are
required, in-depth evaluation and assessment of the seawater system must
be performed. Often, late design changes are very difficult and costly to
implement, thereby, the key issues and design parameter must be
established early in the project, such as:
1. Is the seawater quality suitable for operating an ORV system?
2. Does the seawater containing significant amounts of heavy metal
ions? These ions will attack the zinc aluminum alloy coating and will
shorten its life.
3. Does the seawater contain significant amount of sand and suspended
solids? Excessive sediment will cause jamming of the water trough
and the tube panel. Proper seawater intake filtration system must be
designed to prevent silts, sands and sea life from reaching the seawater
pumps and exchangers.
4. The design must consider the environmental impacts of the seawater
intake and outfall system, and minimize the destruction of marine life
during the construction period and normal plant operation.
5. Chlorination of the seawater is necessary to slow down marine
growth. However, residual chlorine in the seawater effluent can affect
the marine life and the usage must be minimized.
6. Seawater discharge temperature must comply with local regulation.
The temperature drop of seawater is typically limited to 5°C in most
locations.

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7. Location of the seawater intake and outfall must be studied to avoid
cold seawater recirculation.
8. If site is located in a cold climate region, supplementary heating may
be necessary to maintain the outlet gas temperature. Boiloff gas from
LNG storage tanks can be used as fuel to these heaters.
9. Is a backup vaporization system provided? This may be necessary
during partial shutdown of the seawater system or during peaking
demand operation.
10. Is the regasification facility located close to a waste heat source, such
as a power plant? Heat integration using waste heat can reduce
regasification duty and would minimize the environmental impacts. [6]

Figure 1-4 Open Rack Vaporizer

1.6.2 Fuel gas (FG) heating

LNG vaporization using fuel gas for heating typically consumes

approximately 1.5 % of the vaporized LNG as fuel, which reduces the
plant output and the revenue of the terminal. Because of the high price of
LNG, SCVs are sometimes used during winter months to supplement
ORV, when seawater temperature cannot meet the regasification
requirement. They can also be used to provide the flexibility in meeting
peaking demands during cold seasons. The SCV burners can be designed
to burn low pressure boil-off gas as well as letdown send out gas. [6]

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2.2.1 Submerged combustion vaporizers (SCV)

A typical SCV system is shown in Figure 1-6. LNG flows through a

stainless steel tube coil that is submerged in a water bath, which is heated
by direct contact with hot flue gases from a submerged gas burner. Flue
gases are sparged into the water using a distributor located under the heat
transfer tubes. The sparging action promotes turbulence resulting in a
high heat transfer rate and a high thermal efficiency (over 98%). The
turbulence also reduces deposits or scales that can build up on the heat
transfer surface. Since the water bath is always maintained at a constant
temperature and has high thermal capacity, the system copes very well
with sudden load changes and can be quickly started up and shutdown.
The bath water is acidic as the combustion gas products (CO2) are
condensed in the water. Caustic chemical such as sodium carbonate and
sodium bicarbonate can be added to the bath water to control the pH
value and to protect the tubes against corrosion. The excess combustion
water must be neutralized before being discharged to the open water.
To minimize the NOx emissions, low NOx burners can be used to meet
the 40 ppm NOx limit. The NOx level can be further reduced by using a
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system to meet the 5 ppm
specification if more stringent emission requirements are needed, at a
significant cost impact.
SCV units are proven equipment and are very reliable and have very
good safety records. Leakage of gas can be quickly detected by
hydrocarbon detectors which will result in a plant shutdown. There is no
danger of explosion, due to the fact that the temperature of the water bath
always stays below the ignition point of natural gas.
The controls for the submerged combustion vaporizers are more complex
when compared to the open rack vaporizers (ORV). The SCV has more
pieces of equipment, such as the air blow, sparging piping and the burner
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management system, which must be maintained. SCVs are compact and do
not require much plot area when compared to the other vaporizer options.

Figure 1-6 Submerged Combustion Vaporization

1.6.3 Ambient air heating

Air is another source of "free" heat and would avoid the use of fuel gas
and the generation of greenhouse gas from SCVs. In the environmental
sensitive parts of the world, the use of seawater may not be allowed and
could be difficult to permit. In this case, the use of ambient air heat is the
next best choice. [6]
1.6.3.1 Ambient air vaporizers (AAV)

Direct ambient air vaporizers are used in cryogenic services, such as in air
separation plants. They are vertical heat exchanger, are designed for icing on
the tube side, and require defrosting. Automatic switching valves are
installed to allow automatic defrosting using timers. They have been used
for peak shaving plants, and smaller terminals. When compared to other
vaporizer options, they require more vaporizer units and more real estate. A
typical AAV design configuration is shown in Figure 1-7. AAV consists of
direct contact, long, vertical heat exchange tubes that facilitate downward
air draft. This is due to the warmer less dense air at the top being lighter than
the cold denser air at the bottom. Ambient air vaporizers utilize

15
air in a natural or forced draft vertical arrangement. Water condensation
and melting ice can also be collected and used as a source of
service/potable water.
To avoid dense ice buildup on the surface of the heat exchanger tubes,
deicing or defrosting with a 4-8 hour cycle is typically required. Long
operating cycles lead to dense ice on the exchanger tubes, requiring
longer defrosting time. Defrosting requires the exchanger to be placed on
a standby mode, and can be completed by natural draft convection or
force draft air fans. The use of force draft fans can reduce the defrosting
time but would require additional fan horsepower. The reduction in
defrosting time is typically not significant as the heat transfer is limited
by the ice layers which act as an insulator.
Fog around the vaporizer areas can pose a visibility problem, which is
generated by condensation of the moist air outside. The extent of fog
formation depends on many factors, such as the separation distances
among units, wind conditions, relative humidity and ambient
temperatures. The performance of ambient air vaporizers depends on the
LNG inlet and outlet conditions and more importantly the site conditions
and environment factors, such ambient temperature, relative humidity,
altitude, wind, solar radiation, and proximity to adjacent structures.
Ambient air heater is advantageous in hot climate equatorial regions
where ambient temperature is high all year round. In the cooler
subequatorial areas, where winter temperature is lower, supplementary
heating may be required to meet the sales gas temperature. [7]

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 Figure 1-7 Ambient Air Vaporizers Vaporization

1.6.4 Glycol-water intermediate fluid vaporizer (IFV):

This system typically uses glycol-water as an intermediate heat transfer

fluid. Ethylene glycol or propylene glycol or other low freezing heat
transfer fluids are suitable for this application. Heat transfer for LNG
vaporization occurs in a shell and tube exchanger. Warm glycol-water
flows through the intermediate fluid vaporizers where it rejects heat to
vaporize LNG.
A simplified process sketch of these various heating options is shown in
Figure 1-8. The IFV is a conventional shell and tube exchanger, which is
also known as Shell and Tube Vaporizer (STV). These glycol-water IFVs
are very compact exchangers (vertical shell and tube design) due to the
high heat transfer coefficients and the large temperature approach.
Currently, glycol-water intermediate fluid LNG vaporizers account for a
small fraction (around 5%) of total LNG regasification markets
worldwide. Some of the operating plants utilize air heater and reverse
cooling tower as the source of heat.
There are several options to warm the glycol-water solution prior to
recycling it back into the shell and tube LNG vaporizers, such as:
1- Air heater.
2- Reverse cooling tower.

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3- Seawater heater.
4- Waste heat recovery system or fired heater.
Using air for heating will generate water condensate, especially in the
equatorial regions. The water condensate is of rainwater quality, which
can be collected and purified for in-plant water usage and/or export as
fresh raw water. Conventional Air Fin type exchanger consists of fin
tubes are not designed for ice buildup. With the use of an intermediate
fluid such as glycol-water, the glycol temperature can be controlled at
above water freezing temperature hence avoiding the icing problems.
Similarly, the reverse cooling tower design, which extracts ambient heat by
direct contact with cooling water via sensible heat and water condensation,
would require an intermediate fluid. The heat of the cooling water can be
transferred to the intermediate fluid by a heat exchange coil. Seawater may
be also be used. However, the use of seawater is more prone to exchanger
fouling, and the exchanger (plate and frame type) need to be cleaned
periodically. The plate and frame exchangers are very compact and low cost.
Typically, spare seawater exchangers are provided for this option. Fired
heater may be used at the costs of fuel expense. For environmental
compliance related to CO and NOx emissions, a selective Catalytic
Reduction System can be fitted into the flue gas duct of the fired heater. [8]

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 Figure 1-8 Glycol-water Intermediate Fluid Vaporizer Flow Scheme

2.2.5.1 Heat transfer fluid (HTF) selection

The selection of a HTF for LNG vaporization and the design temperature
directly affects the equipment sizing, reliability of the vaporization
system, operating cost and environmental impact. A low-viscosity HTF at
low temperature decreases both heat exchange surface area of the air
heater and the vaporizer such that the total installed cost can be reduced.
The low-viscosity HTF also reduces HTF pumping power, resulting in
low operating costs.
Generally, HTF available in market are:
1- Ethylene glycol water solution.

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2- Propylene glycol water solution.
3- Potassium based water solution.

Ethylene glycol has been widely used for LNG vaporization industry.
Though Propylene glycol is environmentally friendly, it has a high
viscosity at low temperature.
Ethylene glycol is toxic. Potassium based HTF has good thermal
characteristics and is environmentally friendly. [8]