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Bones and Cartilages of Skeleton
Classification of Bones by Shape
Long bones
Longer than they are wide
Short bones
Cube‐shaped bones (in wrist and
ankle)
Sesamoid bones (within tendons,
e.g., patella)
Flat bones
Thin, flat, slightly curved
Irregular bones
Complicated shapes
Functions of Bones
Support
For the body and soft organs
Protection
For brain, spinal cord, and vital organs
Movement
Levers for muscle action
Storage
Minerals (calcium and phosphorus) and growth factors
Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) in marrow cavities
Triglyceride (energy) storage in bone cavities
Bone Markings
Bulges, depressions, and holes serve as
Sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons
Joint surfaces
Conduits for blood vessels and nerves
Bone Markings
Structure of a Long Bone
Diaphysis (shaft)
Compact bone collar surrounds
medullary (marrow) cavity
Medullary cavity in adults
contains fat (yellow marrow)
Epiphyses
Expanded ends
Spongy bone interior
Epiphyseal line (remnant of
growth plate)
Articular (hyaline) cartilage on
joint surfaces
Location of Hematopoietic Tissue
(Red Marrow)
Red marrow cavities of adults
Trabecular cavities of the heads of the femur and humerus
Trabecular cavities of the diploë of flat bones
Red marrow of newborn infants
Medullary cavities and all spaces in spongy bone
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
Cells of bones
Osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells
Stem cells in periosteum and endosteum that
give rise to osteoblasts
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells
Osteoblasts
Bone‐forming cells
Osteoclasts
Cells that break down (resorb) bone matrix
Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone
Haversian system, or osteon—structural unit
Lamellae
Weight‐bearing
Column‐like matrix
tubes
Central (Haversian)
canal
Contains blood
vessels and nerves
Perforating (Volkmann’s)
canals
At right angles to the
central canal
Connects blood vessels
and nerves of the
periosteum and central
canal
Lacunae—small cavities that
contain osteocytes
Canaliculi—hairlike canals
that connect lacunae to each
other and the central canal
Microscopic Anatomy of Spongy Bone
Trabeculae
Align along lines of stress
No osteons
Contain irregularly arranged lamellae, osteocytes, and canaliculi
Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients
Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic
Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
Osteoid—organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts
Ground substance (proteoglycans, glycoproteins)
Collagen fibers
Provide tensile strength and flexibility
Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic
Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)
65% of bone by mass
Mainly calcium phosphate crystals
Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression
Two Types of Ossification
Intramembranous ossification
Membrane bone develops from fibrous membrane
Forms flat bones, e.g. clavicles and cranial bones
Endochondral ossification
Cartilage (endochondral) bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage
Forms most of the rest of the skeleton
Intramembraneous Ossification
Endochondral Ossification
Uses hyaline cartilage
models
Requires breakdown of
hyaline cartilage prior to
ossification
Bone Deposit
Occurs where bone is injured or added strength is
needed
Requires a diet rich in protein; vitamins C, D, and A;
calcium; phosphorus; magnesium; and manganese
Sites of new matrix deposit are revealed
by the
Osteoid seam
Unmineralized band of matrix
Calcification front
The abrupt transition zone between the
osteoid seam and the older mineralized
bone
Bone Resorption
Osteoclasts secrete
Lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix)
Acids (convert calcium salts into soluble
forms)
Dissolved matrix is transcytosed across osteoclast,
enters interstitial fluid and then blood
Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+
Primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Blood Ca2+ levels
Parathyroid glands release PTH
PTH stimulates osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+
Blood Ca2+ levels
Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+
May be affected to a lesser extent by calcitonin
Blood Ca2+ levels
Parafollicular cells of thyroid release calcitonin
Osteoblasts deposit calcium salts
Blood Ca2+ levels
Leptin has also been shown to influence bone density by inhibiting osteoblasts
Classification of Bone Fractures
Bone fractures may be classified by four “either/or” classifications:
Position of bone ends after fracture:
Nondisplaced—ends retain normal position
Displaced—ends out of normal alignment
Completeness of the break
Complete—broken all the way through
Incomplete—not broken all the way through
Orientation of the break to the long axis of the bone:
Linear—parallel to long axis of the bone
Transverse—perpendicular to long axis of the bone
Whether or not the bone ends penetrate the skin:
Compound (open)—bone ends penetrate the skin
Simple (closed)—bone ends do not penetrate the skin
Common Fractures
Bone Healing and Repair
Homeostatic Imbalances
Osteomalacia and rickets
Calcium salts not deposited
Rickets (childhood disease) causes bowed legs and other bone
deformities
Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium
Osteoporosis
Loss of bone mass—bone resorption outpaces deposit
Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur become most
susceptible to fracture
Risk factors
Lack of estrogen, calcium or vitamin D; petite body form;
immobility; low levels of TSH; diabetes mellitus
Osteoporosis: Treatment and Prevention
Calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride supplements
Weight‐bearing exercise throughout life
Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss
Some drugs (Fosamax, SERMs, statins) increase bone mineral density
Paget’s Disease
Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in
spine, pelvis , femur, or skull
Pagetic bone has very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced
mineralization
Unknown cause (possibly viral)
Treatment includes calcitonin and biphosphonates