Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical

Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile

Engineering
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Design of a lightweight automotive brake disc using finite element and Taguchi techniques
D. G. Grieve, D. C. Barton, D. A. Crolla and J. T. Buckingham
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 1998 212: 245
DOI: 10.1243/0954407981525939

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 245

Design of a lightweight automotive brake disc using

finite element and Taguchi techniques

D G Grieve1 , D C Barton1 , D A Crolla1 and J T Buckingham2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds
2
Rover Cars Limited, Leeds

Abstract: Aluminium metal matrix composite brake discs offer significant weight advantages compared
with the traditional cast iron rotor but have a much lower maximum operating temperature. In this study, a
finite element model of an existing brake design is firstly used to predict the peak disc temperatures during
two critical brake tests for both cast iron and an aluminium metal matrix composite alternative. A Taguchi
analysis is then applied, enabling all the critical design and material factors of an aluminium metal matrix
composite rotor to be considered collectively. Based on the results of this exercise, a parametric sensitivity
study is carried out to define suitable design±material combinations for a prototype lightweight front brake
disc to be used on small to medium passenger vehicles.

Keywords: lightweight automotive brake disc, finite element model, Taguchi analysis, parametric
sensitivity study

NOTATION è temperature (8C)

è0 surrounding fluid temperature (8C)
A area of one rubbing surface (m2 ) í kinematic viscosity of air (m2 =s)
d drag losses (per cent) r density (kg=m3 )
Cp specific heat (J=kg K)
Fs velocity reduction factor
g gravity (m=s2 ) 1 INTRODUCTION
h heat transfer coefficient (W=K)
hd height dropped during descent (m) Legislation due to be introduced by the year 2010 will
k conductivity (W=m K) require vehicle emissions of HC, CO2 and NO x to be
l characteristic surface length (m) reduced to 60 per cent of 1996 levels. This has fuelled
p heat partitioned to the pads (%) research into the reduction of vehicle masses by the use of
qc convective heat flux (J=s) lightweight components. In particular, the replacement of
qr radiative heat flux (J=s) the conventional cast iron brake rotor with an aluminium
Q_ total heat flux (J=s) metal matrix composite (Al-MMC) alternative has recently
m mass of the vehicle (kg) received attention. Initial work has outlined the problems of
Nu Nusselt number overheating and softening of existing Al-MMC materials
r radius of the brake disc (m) due to their relatively low melting points [1±4]. However,
Re Reynolds number the launch of the Lotus Elise, heralded as the first
s brake split to front discs (%) passenger vehicle to utilize Al-MMC materials for both the
t time(s) front and the rear brake rotors, clearly shows the potential
vf final speed of the vehicle (m=s) of this technology. The all-aluminium space frame design,
vi initial speed of the vehicle (m=s) together with restricted passenger and luggage space all
V free-stream velocity (m=s) help to contribute to the Elise's exceptionally low gross
vehicle mass (GVM) of only 650 kg. This has enabled
â Stefan±Boltzmann constant Lotus to specify a 30 vol % SiC-particulate-reinforced Al-
å emissivity MMC rotor which operates well below the material's
critical temperature on both the front and the rear brake
The MS was received on 19 March 1997 and was accepted for publication assemblies but still gives a saving in mass of about 40 per
on 17 November 1997. cent over conventional cast iron rotors.
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246 D G GRIEVE, D C BARTON, D A CROLLA AND J T BUCKINGHAM
The challenge now lies in applying this technology to
high-volume-production small±medium family saloons
which have smaller wheels and much higher GVMs than
the Elise does. The front discs on a typical European
family saloon have a mass of approximately 5.25 kg each.
Since the density of most Al-MMCs is about one third
that of cast iron, such materials have the potential (if
used on both the front and the rear brakes) to save
approximately 12 kg per vehicle. As well as saving mass,
Al-MMC brake discs may offer refinement advantages
such as reduction in squeal, judder and wear, leading to
prolonged rotor life.
In previous work [5, 6], a thermal finite element
analysis (FEA) has been shown to be an efficient and
accurate method of estimating the peak disc temperatures
during critical vehicle brake tests. In the present paper,
these techniques are used to investigate the design
modifications and material specifications to enable the
use of Al-MMC brake discs on the front of a typical
small±medium passenger car. Three separate studies are
described. The first examines the effect of the vehicle
mass on the peak disc temperatures for two onerous but
quite different critical brake tests: a prolonged Alpine
descent and a rapid high-speed autobahn stop. This is
followed by a more comprehensive study using the
Taguchi technique to find the most influential factors to
be considered for the design of a prototype Al-MMC
brake disc. Finally a parametric study is conducted in
which the effect of disc cheek thickness and vent width
is examined in detail.
Fig. 1 FE mesh of a 108 segment of a vented brake disc, hub and truncated wheel
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 212 Part D
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2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELS
All finite element (FE) models described below were
analysed using the ABAQUS software package running
on a Sun SPARC 10 model 51 workstation. A three-
dimensional FE model of a 108 segment of a vented
front disc, hub and wheel assembly for a typical
medium-sized passenger car was generated using quad-
ratic heat transfer brick elements so as to include one
vent and two half-vanes (Fig. 1), giving a total of 1134
elements with 18 824 nodes giving 18 824 degrees of
freedom. The disc wheel and hub were combined into
one solid model so as to enable conductive heat transfer
to be carried out between the disc, wheel and hub.
Sensitivity studies to investigate the thermal resistance
between the hub and disc and the wheel and disc
surfaces revealed that little or no thermal resistance was
apparent (owing to mechanical clamping of the wheel to
the hub and disc). The wheel was truncated in order to
reduce the complexity of the three-dimensional model
after sensitivity studies using two-dimensional models
revealed that little heat is conducted to the outer areas
of the wheel. The inclusion of the hub was necessary so
as to enable estimation of hub temperatures which may
cause the bearing lubricant to break down. The truncated
end of the wheel, the internal diameter of the hub, and
the under surfaces of the hub were treated as free
surfaces so as to model the small amount of heat that is
conducted to and subsequently lost from these parts in
the geometry.
D01097 # IMechE 1998
 DESIGN OF A LIGHTWEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE DISC USING FE AND TAGUCHI TECHNIQUES
Convective and radiative heat transfer was applied to all
the free surfaces of the model as follows. The convective
heat flux, qc , from the model's free surfaces is given by
qc ˆ h(è è0 )
The convective heat transfer coefficient, h, was found from
the Nusselt modulus, Nu. Vehicles travelling at speeds
above 20 mile=h are thought to give rise to turbulent air
flow at the disc surfaces since the Reynolds number, Re,
will exceed 250 000 where a transition from laminar to
turbulent flow will take place [7]. For a rotating disc in a
cross-flow under turbulent conditions, the Nusselt number
is given by [7]
hr
Nu ˆ ˆ 0:037Re 0:8
k
The Reynolds number during forced turbulent conditions
can be found from
2VFs l
Re ˆ
í
The kinematic viscosity, í, and the conductivity of air, k,
were calculated from the average of the ambient air
temperature, è0 , and the disc surface temperature, è. The
characteristic surface length, l, was assumed to be the
radius of the brake disc, r, and the free-stream velocity, V,
was assumed to be the speed of the moving vehicle.
Convective heat transfer coefficients were calculated for
all free surfaces of the geometry using equations (2) and
(3). Adjustment of the free-stream velocity, V (and hence
the resulting heat transfer coefficient), by the use of a
velocity reduction factor, Fs , was necessary to take into
account the shielding of the interior vane surfaces, hub and
under wheel surfaces by other vehicle components. Values
of Fs between 0.2 and 0.5 were applied selectively to
different areas of the FE model's surfaces. An empirical
approach was used to determine these values by comparing
cooling coefficients obtained from FEA simulations of a
simple cooling test with measured values [5].
Radiative heat transfer increases with the fourth power
of the surface temperature as shown in the equation below.
Black-body radiation was assumed and the radiative heat
flux, qr , calculated as shown:
qr ˆ åâ(è4 è40 )
where â is the Stefan±Boltzmann constant.
From thermal imaging work carried out on a brake
dynamometer, the emissivity, å, was found to be approx-
imately 0.4 for a cast iron disc with a dark transfer film
[8]. This value of emissivity was used to calculate
the radiative heat transfer from most of the free surfaces
of the model for FEA simulations having both cast iron
and MMC discs. Radiative heat transfer was not used on
D01097 # IMechE 1998
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247
the vane interior surfaces because of their enclosed
nature.
2.1 Modelling the Alpine descent
(1)
The heat flux, Q,_ for the Alpine descent was calculated
using the equation shown below:
_ ˆ mghd s(1
Q
p)(1 d)
(5)
4At
where m is the mass of the vehicle, hd the height dropped
during the descent, t the time taken to descend the
mountain and A the area of one rubbing surface.
Heat was applied as a heat flux to the rubbing surfaces of
the disc, assuming that only 5 per cent of the heat, p,
(2) generated is transferred to the pad. Drag losses, d, for a
vehicle travelling in fourth gear were found to be about
27.4 per cent. The brake split, s, for the vehicle was 72.5
per cent to the front discs. The accuracy of these
assumptions has been demonstrated in previous work
[5, 6].
(3)
2.2 Modelling high-speed stops (autobahn stop)
_ for the autobahn stop was calculated at
The heat flux, Q,
0.5 s intervals over the 7.3 s stop from the following
equation:
2
_ ˆ m(v i v2f )s(1 p)(1 d)
Q (6)
4At
where vi and vf are the vehicle's initial velocity and final
velocity respectively.
The heat transfer coefficients were calculated from
equations (2) and (3) which allow for the constantly
changing vehicle speed and disc surface temperatures.
3 EFFECT OF THE VEHICLE MASS UPON THE
PEAK BRAKING TEMPERATURES
In this study, FEA simulations of the Alpine descent and
autobahn stop were used to gauge the effect of the vehicle
mass upon the peak temperatures for the front brake of a
medium-sized passenger vehicle. In addition to the stand-
(4) ard cast iron, a generic Al-MMC disc material with
20 vol % SiC reinforcement in a typical aluminium
casting alloy matrix (10% Si) was considered with a
density of 2800 kg=m3 , a specific heat of 800 J=kg K and
a conductivity of 180 W=m K. The Al-MMC's maximum
operating temperature (MOT) was assumed to be 450 8C.
The MOT of a brake rotor material is defined as the
temperature above which severe gouging and galling or
shear of the friction surface occurs owing to the action of
the pad.
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 212 Part D
248 D G GRIEVE, D C BARTON, D A CROLLA AND J T BUCKINGHAM

Reduction in the GVM was predicted to cause Alpine
descent temperatures to fall significantly for both the cast
iron and the Al-MMC discs (Fig. 2). The lower tempera-
tures for the latter are due to the superior conductivity of
the disc material which over this prolonged test (23 min)
conducted heat away from the disc cheeks to other parts of
the disc, wheel and hub assembly. The results show that the
temperatures in the bell, hub and wheel bolt-up areas of the
Al-MMC model were higher than those seen in the cast
iron. Heat from these areas was eventually lost to the
atmosphere by convection and radiative heat transfer. The
results indicate that the vehicle mass must be less than
1550 kg in order to prevent the Al-MMC from exceeding
its MOT.
The autobahn stop results (Fig. 3) show that Al-MMC
discs will reach higher temperatures than their cast iron
counterparts. This is due to the short time duration of this
stop (7.23 s) during which all the thermal energy is stored
in the disc. The maximum temperature is therefore
dependent upon the thermal capacity of the disc material.
The lower thermal capacity of the Al-MMC disc (rC p
for Al-MMC ˆ 2240 kJ=m3 K; rC p for cast iron ˆ 3132
kJ=m3 K) explains the higher temperatures seen. A vehicle
having a mass less than 1100 kg would allow an Al-MMC
disc to survive this test. It must be noted that this assumes
no optimization of the disc geometry in order to take
advantage of the Al-MMC material properties. The temp-
eratures could be further reduced by choosing a more
suitable Al-MMC (the generic material properties were on
the conservative side), by improving the disc design (e.g.
thicker cheeks) or by providing extra cooling to the disc
surfaces.

Fig. 2 Effect of the vehicle mass upon the peak Alpine descent temperature

Fig. 3 Effect of the vehicle mass upon the maximum autobahn temperature

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 DESIGN OF A LIGHTWEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE DISC USING FE AND TAGUCHI TECHNIQUES 249

4 TAGUCHI STUDY
The initial study reported above indicates that the concept
of using Al-MMC discs is feasible for small and low-mass
passenger vehicles. By making various changes to the
brake design and by optimizing the disc material, the
critical temperatures might be further reduced, thereby
allowing for a greater factor of safety and/or allowing
medium-sized passenger vehicles to be accommodated.
However, the number of factors that would need to be
considered collectively to enable a valid study would
require a large number of numerical experiments. In order
to simplify this exercise, a Taguchi technique was
employed to find the design and material factors which
most greatly influence the brake disc's thermal perform-
ance. This not only reduces the number of simulations
necessary to optimize the performance but also produces a
robust design by finding the factors which are not greatly
influenced by external or uncontrollable factors.
Taguchi [9] defined factors as either internal or
external. External factors are those which cannot be
designed into a product. Internal factors are those which
can. From previous sensitivity studies [5, 6], six internal
factors were identified to be important in determining the
disc mass and the peak temperature (Table 1). The
maximum and minimum values were chosen for each of
the factors based upon what were thought to be reasonably
achievable. A medium-sized vented front brake disc
geometry was again chosen for this study with a GVM of
1830 kg.
The main external factor for a brake disc is the braking
duty that it will be subjected to. It was therefore decided to
simulate brake tests of a demanding nature which represent
both ends of the braking spectrum:
(a) a long continuous drag stop, i.e. the Alpine descent
lasting 23 min;
(b) a high rate of thermal input stop, i.e. the autobahn stop
lasting 7.3 s.
The L8 Taguchi matrix was chosen to `define' the
numerical experiments (Table 2), since this allows each of
the six factors to be examined at their highest and lowest
values. Two sets of simulations using the Alpine descent
and autobahn stop to represent both extremes of braking
duty were carried out. Each set consisted of eight runs with
the six factors (the factor G is redundant in this example)
set to level 1 or 2 (maximum or minimum) as laid down by
the L8 matrix. The values used for levels 1 and 2 are given
in Table 1. The L8 matrix does not allow for interactions
between the factors. A more complex L27 matrix with
enough columns to allow interactions between the six
factors to be examined is available but would require a
much larger number (54) of numerical experiments to be
carried out.
The predicted maximum temperatures for the 16 simula-
tions to satisfy the reduced L8 Taguchi analysis are shown
in Table 3. The means, variances and signal to noise ratios,
S/N, were calculated for each run; the S/N ratios were
calculated from the following equation based on the
`smaller is better' algorithm [9]:
S
ˆ 10 log10 V (7)
N

in which the variance, V, is given by

Table 1 Factors selected for the Taguchi study with their maxi-
mum and minimum levels
1 2
Levels Vˆ (Y ‡ Y 22 ‡ Y 23 ‡


‡YN2 ) (8)
N 1
Factor 1 (minimum) 2 (maximum)
where N is the number of noise variables and Yi is the
A Cheek thickness (mm) 7.0 12.0 result from each test (i.e. the maximum disc temperature).
B Vent width (mm) 1.0 11.0
C Density (kg=m3 ) 2700 3100
The S/N ratio is a good measure of performance since it
D Conductivity (W=m K) 90.0 240.0 is sensitive to both the mean and the variance. The
E Specific heat (J=kg K) 800.0 900.0 `responses' of the S/N ratios were found by finding the
F Cooling rate (factor of present rate) 1.0 2.0
means of the S/N ratios given in Table 3 for each level of

Table 2 L8 Taguchi matrix

Level for the following factors

Run A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
cheek thickness vent width density conductivity specific heat cooling rate Ð
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
3 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
4 1 2 2 2 2 1 1
5 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
6 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
7 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
8 2 2 1 2 1 1 2

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250 D G GRIEVE, D C BARTON, D A CROLLA AND J T BUCKINGHAM

each factor examined (e.g. the response for factor B, level

1, was found by finding the mean S/N from rows 1, 2, 5
and 6). The `main effects' were then calculated by finding
the difference between the responses for levels 1 and 2. The

saving
higher the main effect, the greater is the influence that the

75.24
75.24
67.24

54.10
54.10
67.24
51.62
51.62
Mass

(%)
factor has upon the disc brake temperatures. Table 4 shows
the responses and main effects for each factor. It can be
seen that factors A, D and F have the strongest main effects
57.2
55.1
54.9
54.5
53.9
52.0
52.5
53.3
S=N

(values shown in parentheses) in the following order of

importance:
(a) cheek thickness (2.5),
Variance
528 129
322 571
309 193
280 798
243 660
156 822
177 491
212 153
(b) cooling rate (1.1),
(c) conductivity (0.9).
The maximization of each of these factors is therefore
temperature
maximum

recommended in order to minimize peak braking tempera-

Mean,

(8C)
719
547
573

461
529
489
395
421

tures.
Examining Table 3 it can be seen that run 6 gave the
lowest mean peak temperatures together with the lowest
Table 3 Results of L8 Taguchi study of an Al-MMC brake disc

variance and S/N ratio. The factors chosen for this run
temperature
Autobahn,
maximum

826.4
699.2
655.7
566.4
420.4
425.7
442.2
459.9

satisfy the best values suggested by the main effects shown

(8C)

in Table 4, i.e. maximization of the cheek thickness, the

cooling to the disc surfaces and the conductivity; therefore
a confirmation run was not deemed necessary. Moreover,
temperature

the vent size was minimized during run 6, thus creating a

maximum
Alpine,

611.0
395.3
434.1

399.3
461.3
490.7
557.3
363.9
(8C)

small bridge gap (and hence good caliper stiffness). A

brake disc manufactured to the design and material as laid
down in run 6 would give a mass saving of about 52 per
cent over a conventional cast iron disc. However, it would
cooling

be extremely difficult to manufacture a disc with 1.0 mm

rate
1.0
2.0
2.0

2.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
F,

vents owing to casting constraints. A more realistic vent

size of 3.0 mm is suggested which would give a mass
(J=kg K)
specific

saving of about 42 per cent. This would increase the overall

heat

800
900
800
900
900
800
900
800
E,

disc thickness to 27 mm which could be accommodated by

increasing the present caliper bridge gap by 4.3 mm.
conductivity
(W=m K)

240

240
90

240

240
90

90

90
D,

5 PARAMETRIC STUDY OF Al-MMC DISC

DESIGN
(kg=m3 )
density

2700
2700

2700
3100
3100
3100
3100
2700
C,

Of the three critical factors highlighted in the Taguchi

study, the disc cheek thickness was identified as having the
greatest effect on the peak temperature and is also the
vent width

easiest factor to change in practice. In contrast, increasing

(mm)
1.0
1.0

1.0
1.0
11.0
11.0

11.0
11.0
B,

the cooling air speed would require special ducting to the

brake disc and redesign of the vehicle's front end. The
conductivity is linked to the composition of the chosen disc
cheek thickness

material and so cannot be changed significantly without

(mm)
7.0
7.0

12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0
7.0
7.0

altering other material properties. The cheek thickness can

A,

be varied early in the design process with the only

restrictions being the mass saving that is achieved and the
packaging and size constraints. Parameter studies were
Run

therefore carried out in which the cheek thickness and the

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

vent width were varied simultaneously so as to limit the

total disc thickness (caliper bridge gap) to 27 mm. This was
considered to be the largest gap that could realistically be
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 DESIGN OF A LIGHTWEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE DISC USING FE AND TAGUCHI TECHNIQUES 251

Table 4 Responses and main effects for the signal-to-noise ratios

Value for the following factors

A, B, C, D, E, F,
Level cheek thickness vent width density conductivity specific heat cooling rate
1 55.4 54.6 54.5 54.6 54.4 54.7
2 52.9 53.8 53.8 53.7 54.0 53.6
Main effects 2.5 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.4 1.1

accommodated without undue loss of caliper stiffness or
increase in caliper mass. Again simulations of the Alpine
descent and autobahn stop were used to assess the effect of
cheek thickness for a number of proprietary Al-MMC
materials assuming a typical GVM of 1830 kg.
Increasing the disc cheek thickness from 8 to 12 mm was
found to reduce peak Alpine descent temperatures by about
16 8C for all materials considered (Fig. 4). However, only
the Al-MMC materials containing very-high-percentage
SiC reinforcements or high-temperature matrix alloys, 68%
SiC Al-MMC and 7% TiB2 Al-MMC respectively, were
predicted to achieve peak temperatures below their MOT
for all dimensional combinations with finite vents. The
large proportion of ceramic present in the 68% Al-MMC is
believed to improve the high-temperature resistance of the
composite by increasing its softening temperature and
hence its MOT. The 7% TiB2 Al-MMC was believed to be
successful because the inert nature of the TiB2 particles
allows low-silicon alloys to be specified with better high-
temperature properties. The higher conductivity of the
aluminium-based composites is thought to reduce the
temperatures seen at the disc surfaces by rapidly conduct-
ing heat to other parts of the brake geometry. This theory is
supported by examining Table 5, which indicates that
materials with the higher conductivities produce lower
temperatures.
The results for the autobahn stop (Fig. 5), predict that all
the materials studied are capable of surviving the test if a
suitable disc geometry is chosen; because of the depen-
dence of this test upon the thermal capacity of the disc,
thicker discs are simply more capable of absorbing the
thermal energy generated during high-speed braking.
Even with overall disc thicknesses of 27 mm, Table 6
shows that significant mass savings can be achieved with

Fig. 4 Predicted peak temperatures for vented brake discs 27 mm wide during the Alpine descent constructed
from a selection of brake disc materials. The conductivities, k, are shown for each material

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252 D G GRIEVE, D C BARTON, D A CROLLA AND J T BUCKINGHAM

Coefficient
all the MMC materials studied. Brake discs manufactured

of thermal
expansion
(10 6 K)

6.9

23.5
15.1
20.7
18.8
17.5
14.9
10.0

6.2
from the 68% SiC Al-MMC or 7% TiB2 Al-MMC to either
the 12±3±12 or 11±5±11 (vane±vent±vane) geometries
would give mass savings of 44.4±41.4 and 48.6±45.7 per
cent respectively, which for a typical cast iron disc having a
Modulus

86.2

98.6
mass of about 5 kg would give a saving of between 2.07
(GPa)

265
132

101

125
195
±

±
and 2.43 kg per disc.
Eliminating the vents altogether in the 13.5±0±13.5
combination enabled an assessment of their contribution to

232/379 (T6)
Ultimate

strength

the overall cooling to be made. In the Alpine descent, the

tensile

(MPa)

228
225
206
338
215
310

325

±
disc brake temperatures were increased by about 35 8C
because of the loss of cooling from the vent surfaces. This
study confirms that vents play an important role in
120/274 (T6)

temperature control during the Alpine descent and should

strength
Table 5 Material properties of currently available Al-MMCs suitable for a brake rotor application

(MPa)
Yield

.210
150
303
215
296

150

be included in any design even if only at a minimal width

±

(3 mm) so as to allow a nominal air flow. In the autobahn

stop, removing the vents had the opposite effect of reducing
capacity Conductivity

the disc brake temperatures owing to the increased thermal

(W=m K)

126.4
97.8

mass created by the extra cheek thickness. It must be noted,

170
151
175

156
160
220

218

however, that the study only examined a single autobahn

stop. Multiple stops would test the disc's ability to recover
thermally between stops and cooling vents would no doubt
(J=Kg K)
Specific
heat

837

722
882
828
879

838
820
899
810

be important for this recovery process.

MOT
(8C)

520
500
538
454
450
454
480
510
810

6 CONCLUSIONS
(kg=m3 )
Density

3000
3030
2711
2760
2770
2780
2950
3040

2818

FEA studies of peak braking temperatures for Al-MMC

discs fitted to a medium-sized passenger vehicle have
predicted that a GVM of less than 1100 kg is required to
Infiltration of ceramic pre-form
Infiltration of ceramic pre-form

Infiltration of ceramic pre-form

enable the surface of the disc to remain undamaged during

certain critical brake tests. However, no modifications were
Sand cast with salt refiner
High-pressure infiltration
Manufacturing

made at this stage to the current cast iron disc design to

route

take advantage of the MMC's properties. By combining a

FEA with a Taguchi analysis, a technique has been demon-
strated which quickly and cost-effectively enables a number
Sand cast
Sand cast
Sand cast
sand cast

of design and material factors to be considered in a search

for an optimized Al-MMC brake disc. The Taguchi analysis
revealed that the following factors are the most influential
in order of importance: the disc cheek thickness, the
30 vol % SiC, Al±10% Si±1% Mg matrix, 94-X-4040-30P-T6

cooling rate to the disc surfaces and the conductivity of the

disc material.
Parameter sensitivity studies of the effect of cheek
30 vol %, Al2 O3, Al±1% Mg matrix, 93-X-3050

thickness and vent width indicated that the 12±3±12 mm

68 vol % á-SiC, 2014 matrix alloy, HIVOL B
15 vol %, 20 ìm SiC Al±9% Si±3 Cu matrix

55 vol % SiC, Al±Si±Mg matrix, 92-X-2039

(cheek±vent±cheek thickness) design produced the lowest

70 vol % SiC, Al±Si±Mg matrix, 90-X-027
10 vol %, SiC, A359 matrix, F3S.10S T61

20 vol %, SiC, A359 matrix, F3S.20S-T6

temperatures for both Alpine and autobahn tests. Maximi-

Material

zation of the cheek thickness is beneficial for the autobahn

Al 6101 matrix alloy 7 vol % TiB2

stop but vents were shown to be critical to the thermal

performance of Al-MMC rotors, their surface area provid-
ing vital cooling during long stops such as the Alpine
descent. The minimum vent width is ultimately limited by
the core strength used to produce the vents during the
casting process and it is therefore recommended that vents
be retained at a nominal width of 3 mm.
The same parameter studies highlighted two types of Al-
MMC material that would pass the legally required tests
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 DESIGN OF A LIGHTWEIGHT AUTOMOTIVE BRAKE DISC USING FE AND TAGUCHI TECHNIQUES 253

Fig. 5 Predicted peak temperatures for vented brake discs 27 mm wide during the autobahn stop constructed from
a selection of brake disc materials. The thermal capacities, rC p , are shown for each material

Table 6 Disc masses and percentage mass savings over present cast iron design
8 mm cheeks, 9 mm cheeks, 10 mm cheeks, 11 mm cheeks, 12 mm cheeks, 13.5 mm cheeks,
11 mm vents 9 mm vents 7 mm vents 5 mm vents 3 mm vents 0 mm vents

Disc Mass Disc Mass Disc Mass Disc Mass Disc Mass Disc Mass
mass savings mass savings mass savings mass savings mass savings mass savings
Material (kg) (%) (kg) (%) (kg) (%) (kg) (%) (kg) (%) (kg) (%)
Cast iron 5.81 10.7 6.19 17.9 6.57 25.1 6.95 32.4 7.34 39.7 7.91 50.7
30% Al2 O3 Al-MMC 2.43 53.7 2.59 50.7 2.75 47.6 2.91 44.6 3.07 41.6 3.31 37.0
10% SiC Al-MMC 2.17 58.7 2.31 56.0 2.46 53.1 2.60 50.5 2.74 47.7 2.96 43.7
15% SiC Al-MMC 2.19 58.3 2.33 55.6 2.47 53.0 2.62 50.1 2.76 47.4 2.98 43.3
20% SiC Al-MMC 2.22 57.7 2.37 54.9 2.51 52.2 2.66 49.3 2.80 46.6 3.02 42.4
30% SiC Al-MMC 2.23 57.5 2.37 54.9 2.52 52.0 2.67 49.1 2.81 46.4 3.03 42.2
68% SiC Al-MMC 2.44 53.5 2.60 50.5 2.76 47.4 2.92 44.4 3.08 41.4 3.32 36.8
7% TiB2 Al-MMC 2.26 57.0 2.41 54.1 2.55 51.4 2.70 48.6 2.85 45.7 3.07 41.4
 Present cast iron disc mass ˆ 5:25 kg.

with appropriate design modifications to the disc: compo-
sites with a high level of reinforcement, e.g. 68% SiC in an
Si-based matrix alloy, and composites using a temperature-
resistant matrix alloy (due to a low Si content), e.g. 7%
TiB2 -reinforced Al-MMC.
technical support and advice. The Department of Trade and
Industry LINK Structural Composites Programme and the
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council are
also thanked for supporting this research project.

REFERENCES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1 Neitzl, B., Barth, M. and Matic, M. Weight reduction of disc
The authors would like to thank Mr S. Boulton and his brake systems with the utilisation of new aluminium material.
research staff at BBA Friction, Cleckheaton, for their SAE technical paper 940335, 1994, pp. 29±35.
D01097 # IMechE 1998 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 212 Part D

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254 D G GRIEVE, D C BARTON, D A CROLLA AND J T BUCKINGHAM

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