47th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit AIAA 2011-6146

31 July - 03 August 2011, San Diego, California

Design of Hybrid Propulsion Systems for Unmanned Aerial

Vehicles

Dr. Junghsen Lieh1 and Mr. Eric Spahr2

Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio 45435 USA

Dr. Alireza Behbahani3 and Mr. John Hoying4

Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, 45433, USA

A hybrid electric propulsion system with two or more energy sources has many advantages over
conventional internal combustion (IC) engine power trains. The most recognized advantages are its low
pollution, low noise, and reduced heat release. The application of hybrid electric propulsion for highway
vehicles has successfully improved energy efficiency and reduced pollution. In the military, hybrid electric
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can be used effectively because they possess the capability for long flight
time, better efficiency and stealth operation. According to DOD’s roadmap, conventional UAVs have made
500,000 flight hours in support of military missions as of October 2008. And the flight hours and functions of
UAVs are expected to increase because their application may be expanded from military to civil service (such
as for monitoring and detecting disaster, hazard, and environment conditions, and reserving backup power
for emergency). Four hybrid propulsion models are considered in the paper, namely secondary shaft dual-
clutch, secondary shaft single-clutch, inline and planetary gear models. Among these four models, three
prototypes for secondary shaft and inline configurations are built and presented.

I. Introduction

T HE shortage of fossil fuels and increased toxic emissions threaten the sustainability of engine-powered aircraft
propulsion systems. Soaring fuel costs have a negative impact on the airline industry and also result in an
increasing military budget. Of all possible remedies, hybrid electric propulsion systems are generally considered.
It is known that hybrid electric propulsion systems possess many advantages over engine-alone systems. With
the successful implementation of hybrid electric drive trains to highway vehicles, more and more researchers are
applying hybrid concepts to other machinery; typical examples are aerial vehicles and ships. In recent years, the
development of hybrid electric UAVs has become one of the main tasks of the military in order to improve vehicles’
flight time, energy efficiency and stealth operation. Hybrid UAVs are not only considered for military application,
they are also considered for civil service (for monitoring disaster and environment conditions, and serving as backup
power in case of engine failure).
Hybrid electric propulsion systems can be beneficial to the Air Force’s growing fleet of UAVs, many of which
are small propeller-driven vehicles with similar flight characteristics to model planes. The benefits of a hybrid
system include quiet operation, reduced heat signature, battery recharging during flight, allowing downsized ICE for
cruise mode, having a back-up power source, reverse motor ICE starting, and in-air ICE restart. Thus, it is feasible
that these UAVs could be easily adapted to hybrid configurations. This transition not only has the potential to
increase flight hours and reduce fuel consumption but also has the potential to enable the vehicle to conduct
sensitive surveillance operations in a stealth “electric-alone” mode, which provides significant noise and heat
signature reductions over IC engine configurations. The development of hybrid electric-engine propulsion systems
can be traced back to the 1980s. Since then many hybrid configurations were rapidly evolved, mainly for ground
vehicles. The application of hybrid electric concepts to marine vehicles was reported by Barcaro, Bianchi and
Bolognani and Sortland in 2008.

1
Professor, Mechanical & Materials Engineering
2
Graduate Student, Mechanical & Materials Engineering
3
AIAA Associate Fellow, Senior Aerospace Engineer, Propulsion Directorate, 1950 Fifth St. WPAFB, OH
4
Aerospace Engineer, Propulsion Directorate, 1950 Fifth St. WPAFB, OH

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Copyright © 2011 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved.
 The research of hybrid-energy powered aerial vehicles was also initiated in the 1980s. Youngblood, Talay and
Pegg developed an unmanned airplane by incorporating solar and fuel cell propulsion in 1984. An early version of a
hybrid solar electric-engine remotely piloted aerial vehicle was developed by Harmats and Weihs in 1999. Its
propulsion system includes solar cells, a battery pack, an electric motor, and an IC engine. A series hybrid electric
micro air vehicle (MAV) model was recommended by Wilson in 2002. From theoretical simulation results, Freeh,
Liang, Berton and Wickenheiser indicated that various hybrid configurations may be beneficial to airplanes based on
the technical and financial success of battery/IC engine automobile hybrids currently in the market. Simulation
results from a mathematical model developed by Harmon, Frank and Joshi, and Harmon, Frank and Chattot showed
that hybrid electric propulsion can be used for UAVs. The most recently reported hybrid electric UAV was designed
by a research team of National Cheng-Kung University and its debut flight test was successfully conducted on May
13, 2010. This new hybrid UAV was powered by a fuel cell plant, a brushless DC (BLDC) motor and a lithium-ion
battery, and is able to fly at a speed of 80-100 km/h.
The first pilot-operated serial hybrid electric airplane, DA36 E-Star, was developed by Siemens (Paur, 2011).
The debut flight of the hybrid electric airplane was completed on June 8, 2011. Its propulsion system includes a 94-
HP motor to power the propeller and a 40-HP Wankel rotary engine to drive a generator that charges the battery.

II. Review of Hybrid Electric Propulsion Drive Trains

The hybrid electric drive train can be classified into five categories: series hybrid, parallel hybrid, series-parallel
hybrid, complex hybrid (Chan and Chau, 2001; Ehsani, Gao and Emadi, 2010), and fuel cell hybrid. The details of
these configurations are described below.

Series Hybrid: The series hybrid drive train

is an “electrical coupling” system. The Electric Coupler
configuration includes a battery pack and an
Battery Power Motor
engine-generator assembly that are coupled in
Converter Control
a power converter, see Figure 1. The power
converter is an electric coupler which is used Output
with a controller to manage the power flow Generator Motor Transmission
from the battery and generator to the motor.
The engine-generator is the primary power Fuel Engine
source and the battery acts as an energy
buffer. The system can run individual mode Figure 1: Series hybrid drive train.
(engine-alone or battery-alone) or dual mode
(engine + battery) via the electric coupler depending on the need and operation condition.

Parallel Hybrid: The parallel hybrid

drive train is a “mechanical coupling” Battery
system. The configuration has its engine
and motor connected by a mechanical
Power Motor Motor/
coupler (such as an electric clutch). As
Converter Control Generator
shown in Figure 2, the engine is the
major power source and its battery is a
Mechanical Output
secondary power source and acts as an Fuel Engine Transmission
Coupler
energy buffer. Similar to a series hybrid,
the system can run single mode (engine- Figure 2: Parallel hybrid drive train.
alone or motor-alone) or dual mode
(engine + motor) via the mechanical coupler.

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 Electric Coupler
Series-Parallel Hybrid: The series-parallel hybrid Battery Power Motor
drive train consists of both electric and mechanical Converter Control
couplers (see Figure 3). The system includes the
features of both series and parallel configurations, and Fuel Generator Motor
therefore can operate with single mode or dual mode, or
more modes than the above series or parallel drive train. Mechanical Output
Engine Coupler Transmission
Complex Hybrid: The complex hybrid drive train also
consists of both electrical and mechanical couplers Figure 3: Series-parallel hybrid drive train.
similar to series-parallel system but with an
Electric Coupler
additional power converter added to it. Its
electric coupling function is moved from the Power Motor
Battery Motor
first power converter to the battery pack, as Converter Control
shown in Figure 4. The system has the
features of both series and parallel Power Motor/
configurations, and therefore can operate with Converter Generator
individual mode or dual modes, or more
Mechanical Output
modes than an individual series or parallel Fuel Engine Transmission
drive train. Coupler

Figure 4: Complex hybrid drive train.

Fuel Cell Hybrid: The configuration of fuel
cell hybrid electric propulsion is a series system similar to
the one described in Figure 1. The power lines are Electric Coupler
electrically coupled. When applying to UAVs, the system Power
Battery Controller
can be simplified as shown in Figure 5. The successful Converter
flight of the fuel cell hybrid model conducted by NCKU on Output
May 13, 2010 proved that this fuel cell hybrid drive train Fuel Fuel Cell Motor
could be effectively implemented in modern UAVs.
Figure 5: Fuel cell hybrid electric drive train.

III. Power Units For Hybrid Electric Propulsion Systems

IC Engines: There are many types of IC engines (see Figure 6); the best known types are the 4-stroke spark-ignited
engine, the 4-stroke compression-ignited diesel engine, the 2-stroke engine, the Wankel rotary engine, the gas
turbine engine, and the quasi-isothermal Brayton cycle engine. The Stirling engine is another type of engine that
uses external combustion. A combustion engine converts chemical energy into mechanical power. However, the
energy conversion process encounters high friction, low mechanical advantage, high heat loss, and serious pollution.
The energy efficiency of an engine is normally lower than 35% depending on its operating condition.

2-stroke
Otto Cycle 4-stroke
Reciprocating 6-stroke
Diesel Cycle
Diesel Engine
Atkinson Cycle
Nutating Engine
IC Engine Rotary Engine
Wankel Engine
Turbojet
Turbofan
Jet Engine
Ramjet
Brayton Cycle Rocket
Gas Turbine

Figure 6: Different types of engines.

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Batteries: There are a number of rechargeable batteries and the most commonly used types are lead acid, nickel-
cadmium (NiCd), nickel-zinc (NiZn), nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium cells. The cell voltage and specific
energy of these batteries are listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Properties of rechargeable batteries

Cell Specific Energy
Battery
Voltage, V [MJ/kg]
Lead Acid 2.1 0.14
NiCd 1.2 0.14
NiMH 1.2 0.36
NiZn 1.6 0.36
Lithium (LiFePO4, LiPO) 3.3-3.7 0.4-0.7

From Table 1, the lithium battery has the highest specific energy. For safety considerations, two types of lithium-
based battery, LiPO and LiFePO4, were considered.

Motors: For power supplies, motors can be categorized into two groups: DC motors and AC motors (see Figure 7).
The most-often considered AC motors for hybrid propulsion are induction motors and switched reluctance motors.
Because of control simplicity and technological maturity, DC motors are widely accepted for applications requiring
variable speed, frequent start/stop, reversing and braking. There are two main groups of DC motors: commutator
(brushed) and commutatorless (brushless). Commutator motors include separately excited, shunt excited, series
excited, compound excited, and permanent magnet (PM) motors.

Brushed Sensored

DC Brushless Sensorless

Hub Motor DD Motor

Motor Induction Wound Rotor

Switched Squirrel Cage

Reluctance
AC Wound Rotor
Synchronous
PM Rotor
PM Hybrid
Reluctance

Figure 7: Different types of electric motors.

BLDC motors are created by inverting the Tr1 Tr3 Tr5

stator and rotor of brushed DC motors. There
are two types of BLDC motors: sensored and a
sensorless. Sensored BLDC motors require the Va
use of position sensors to detect the position
of rotor magnets. Sensorless BLDC motors Vc
V
eliminate the use of position sensors; the Vb iac
position of the rotor’s magnets is detected by Tr2 Tr4 Tr6
back EMF voltage. The estimation of rotor
magnet position is achieved by using a 3-
phase configuration of BLDC motors in which c
only 2 of 3 phases are active (for example
points “a” and “c” in Figure 8) and the third b
Figure 8: Sensorless BLDC motor and drive.
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phase floats (inactive, point “b”) for a given rotor position.
Each phase of the BLDC motor may be described as an electrical-mechanical model as shown in Figure 9. The
equations describing the motor dynamics are

(1)

(2)

The motor efficiency is defined by the following equation:

(3)

In this equation, Pi is the 3-phase power in kW, Ph is the rated horse power, L% is the output power as % rated
power, and K is the efficiency correction factor.

Define e = Ke r (see Figure 10), Eq. (1) becomes

(4)

The Laplace transform of the steady state solution of Eq. (3) is

(5)

Letting s = j  results in V = (R + jL) I + E, where E = jE = j m is the EMF voltage,  = 2f is the angular
frequency of sinusoidal input in radian/sec, and is the flux linkage of the stator winding per phase
induced by the permanent magnet. When E and I are in phase, the motor mechanical power output, i.e. the
electromagnetic output power (without friction, wind and iron losses) is Pem = m |E| |I| = m m I; here m is the
number of phases. From the relationship P=T , the electromagnetic torque can be written as

(6)

Define p as the number of poles, and r = 2 /p is the rotor speed. The current (or electromagnetic torque) and
induced EMF voltage become

(or ) and (7)

Define the shaft output load as Tload = Tem - Tloss, where Tloss is the total torque loss due to friction, iron hysteresis,
and windage. The voltage equation (for L<<R, and V, E and I in phase) can be simplified to

V = RI + E (8)

Substituting Eq. (7) into Eq. (8) results in

(9)

For a constant voltage supply, Eq. (9) is equivalent to a linear function (y = a – bx), and the corresponding torque-
speed (Tem ~ r) curve is plotted in Figure 11.

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 c r TL Tem

P
Ke r J

T=KT i 0
ro r
r
Figure 9: Equivalent circuit of each Figure 10: Equivalent circuit of Figure 11: Torque-speed
phase of a BLDC motor. each phase of a BLDC motor. curve of a BLDC motor.

The above analysis is based on a simplified model. For better representing the 3-phase motor dynamics, a more
complicated model is needed and will be presented in the near future.
For the parallel hybrid electric configuration, the control scheme shown in Figures 12 and 13 is recommended.

Fuel
Engine
PPS SOC Command Engine
Engine
Control
Propeller
Input System
Signals Controller
Motor Motor/
Motor Control Generator
Command

Power
Battery
Converter
Figure 12: Block diagram for hybrid electric propulsion systems.

Computer Radio Battery

D/A & A/D Receiver
Controller
To Servos Power
Converter

Motor
Control
Engine
Control Engine
Motor/
Fuel Generator
Clutch

Figure 13: Computer controlled hybrid electric UAV (similar for other configurations).

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 IV. Propulsion Analysis For Small Aerial Vehicles

As shown in Figure 14, there are four major forces (thrust, lift, drag and weight) and one moment acting on the
airplane without considering the forces generated by control mechanisms (Anderson, 2008). The thrust F is
produced by the propeller or jet engine; the lift L is produced by the air when it passes over airfoil wings; the drag D
is an aerodynamic resistance; and the moment M is created by the coupling effect of aerodynamic downward and lift
forces (due to surface pressure and shear stress distributions on wings).
L
Chord line
M F
 V
T Flight path
Horizontal 
D

W
Figure 14: Free-body diagram of an airplane in flight.

The lift (L) and drag (D) can be expressed as follows:

and (10)

Where the symbols are defined as follows: S = wing area, CD = drag coefficient, CL = Lift coefficient, V = Velocity,
and  = Air density. The thrust equals the total drag which is the sum of zero-lift drag and lift-induced drag:

(11)

For a small UAV (m = 10 kg, S = 1.0 m2,  = 1.055 kg/m3, CDo = 0.025, e = 0.8, AR = 10), the thrust-velocity
curve is shown in Figure 15. Similar to the thrust equation, the power can also be divided into two terms (namely
zero-lift power and lift-induced power):

(12)

Using the same parameters, the power-velocity curve is plotted in Figure 16. The liftoff distance can be
expressed by

(13)

Where, VLO is the liftoff velocity. To ensure a margin of safety during takeoff, the liftoff velocity is typically 20%
higher than the stalling velocity. That means

(14)

Substituting Eq. (14) into Eq. (13), the liftoff distance becomes

(15)

For estimation purposes, it is assumed that the average force occurs at V=0.7VLO. For the same UAV, the relation
between the liftoff distance and thrust is shown in Figure 17.

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 Thrust vs. Velocity
50

40
Thrust, N

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Velocity, m/s
Figure 15: Thrust-velocity curve.

Power vs. Velocity

3

2.5

2
Power, KW

1.5

0.5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Velocity, m/s
Figure 16: Power-velocity curve.

Liftoff Distance vs. Thrust

200
Liftoff Distance, m

150

100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Thrust, N
Figure 17: Liftoff distance-thrust curve.

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 V. Prototypes Of Parallel Hybrid Electric Propulsion Systems

The major difference of hybrid electric propulsion systems between highway and aerial vehicles is that highway
vehicles are required to operate in a stop-go mode, especially when driving in the city, but this is not the case for
aerial vehicles. The operation of aerial vehicles normally maintains the velocity in a nearly constant range except
during takeoff and landing. Among the five hybrid configurations described in the previous section, the parallel
hybrid configuration (Figure 2) is adopted. In order to reduce the weight (to maximize payload), a sensorless BLDC
motor and a LiPO battery pack are used. As for the engine, a four-stroke model is used.
To show the feasibility of different configurations, four parallel hybrid models were designed, namely secondary
shaft dual-clutch, secondary shaft single-clutch, inline, and planetary gear models (see Figure 18). Among these four
configurations, three prototypes (secondary shaft dual-clutch, secondary shaft single-clutch, and inline) were built
(see Figure 19). After adding control components and wiring, a test model was constructed. Figure 20 shows the
wired system based on the secondary shaft single-clutch configuration and Figure 21 shows the wiring for the
remotely controlled system. The wired test model is used to measure the rpm and thrust of the propeller.

(a) Secondary shaft dual-clutch (b) Secondary shaft single-clutch

(c) Inline (d) Planetary gear

Figure 18: SolidWorks models of parallel hybrid configurations.

(a) Secondary shaft dual-clutch (b) Secondary shaft single-clutch (c) Inline
Figure 19: Prototypes of parallel hybrid models.

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 Figure 20: Parallel hybrid model with control wiring on test stand.

VI. Summary And Recommendation

Due to time and budget restriction, only three prototypes were built. At this moment, test and evaluation of the
prototypes is still in a preliminary stage. Future work will include the following items:
1) Improve both secondary shaft and inline prototypes through additional testing and evaluation
2) Build a prototype of the planetary gear configuration for comparison
3) Develop a central self-tuning controller for operating the hybrid propulsion system and integrate with the
flight control
4) Install each prototype in a small aerial vehicle and conduct both lab and flight tests to optimize the designs
(maximum energy efficiency, minimum weight/size, increased payload, reduced noise/vibration, etc.)
5) Design full-scale hybrid electric propulsion models and install them in UAVs for further field testing and
evaluation
6) Improve the power storage capacity and life cycle of battery and fuel cells
7) Optimize the size and weight of the hybrid electric propulsion systems including downsizing the ICE for
cruise mode

VII. Conclusions And Further Research

This paper presents power control strategies for the propulsion of a UAV which is driven by a motor/battery and
ICE hybrid system. The UAV propulsion system has different power requirements in order to complete its mission
successfully. The different power stages in UAVs introduce taxiing, take off, cruising and landing. In this paper the
historical evolution of hybrid technology for UAVs and the challenges of implementing a hybrid propulsion
arrangement on future designs were discussed, and the following key features were revealed through this study. We
have reviewed the hybrid electric propulsion drive train along with its power units. In this paper we have
concentrated on the hardware aspect and making sure integration is part of the hybrid propulsion. Total UAV's
propulsive power and weight are the two dominant factors most likely to impact a future UAV employing hybrid
propulsion technology. A UAV's range and endurance, particularly for vehicles powered by electric propulsion, will
be a major issue. Current state of the art motor and battery technology limits electric-powered hobbyist helicopters
to less than a half-hour of flight at best. Further, there is little empirical information/insight into the design of very
small UAVs.

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 Motor

E-Clutch
Engine

Glow Plug
Throttle

Glow
Control Servo

Battery
(Main)

Battery MERS
(Devices) Receiver
Motor
Control

Motor
Switch
Radio
Controller

Figure 21: Wiring for the radio controlled hybrid electric system.

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