Module 2

Stress and Strain of Axially Loaded Members

Introduction
The strength of a material is not the only criterion in considering the design of structures. The
stiffness of the material must be taken into consideration as well. Mechanical properties like
hardness, toughness and ductility are also important in the selection of a material that will be used
in designing structures.
This module is concentrated in the study of deformations that occur in structural components
that carry axial loads. Strain serves as a measure of the deformation characteristics of a member that
carries a load. Any structure subject to an external load will deform; hence, strain is always associated
with stress.
It also contains the analysis of statically indeterminate members. These are structures
combining axially loaded members in which the equations of static equilibrium are not sufficient to
solve them. This condition exists in structures where the reactive forces or the internal resisting
forces over a cross section exceed the number of independent equations for equilibrium.
Another type of elastic deformation is the change in transverse dimensions that accompany
axial tension or compression. Analysis of such deformations involve Poisson’s ratio. In this lesson,
you will learn how to determine the strains caused by the simultaneous action of biaxial and triaxial
tensile or compressive stresses.
All engineering materials are affected by a change in temperature and these changes cause
bodies to expand or contract, hence will cause thermal stresses. In this module, you will also learn
how to determine the stresses in engineering materials caused by changes in temperature.
Exercises are given at the end of each lesson. Answers are indicated that serve as your guide.
If you wish to have a printed solution of a problem, you can ask it from your instructor. However, you
are encouraged to avoid such action until you have tried to solve it yourself. Your instructor may also
opt to give assignments which you are required to submit. Complete and detailed solutions should
be shown inorder to be given full credit.

Objectives
After completion of this module, you should be able to
1. Find the deformation of a body subjected to an axial load.
2. Analyze and solve problems on statically indeterminate members.
3. Determine lateral deformations of axially loaded members.
4. Determine the stress in a member caused by a change in temperature.
 Lesson 1 – Axial and Shearing Deformation

Stress-Strain Diagram
Have you noticed that some objects can be stretched easily? Can you name some? Yes, you can
easily stretch a rubber band. How about an iron rod, can you stretch it? Perhaps you would think it’s
impossible; but it’s not. Why? In this module, you will come to know these properties of materials in
greater detail. You will see how quantities like stress can help us determine the strength of materials.
To start, please click at the given link . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67fSwIjYJ-E
In this video, you can see a Universal Testing Machine loaded with a structural steel. During testing,
a monitor draws a diagram which is called the stress-strain diagram.
Figure 1-a shows a Universal Testing Machine, testing a ductile material in tension, such as a
structural steel. Figure 1-b is called the stress-strain diagram of the material being tested. A ductile
material has the capability of attaining large strains before they fracture and can withstand high
stress. Before failing, it has a large percentage of elongation.
The data of a structural steel that is tested in tension is plotted on the graph with the ordinate
representing the load and the abscissa representing the elongation. The diagram begins with a
straight line from the origin O to point A, which means that stress and strain are proportional.

Figure 1-b
Figure 1-a
The graph shows different significant points.
Proportional Limit (𝜎𝑝𝑙 ) – it is the point on the stress-strain curve which shows the highest stress at
which the stress and strain are linearly proportional to each other, where the constant of
proportionality is 𝐸, known as the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus, named after Thomas
Young who introduced it. That is, 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖. From this relation, 𝐸 can be defined as the slope of the
strain-strain curve along the elastic region. Stress is no longer linearly proportional to strain
above this point.
Elastic Limit (𝜎𝑒𝑙 ) - it is the maximum stress that can be applied to the body without resulting in
permanent deformation when the load is removed. When the load is removed, the material
returns to its original size and shape.
Yield point (𝜎𝑌 ) – located just above the elastic limit, this is the stress at which the material
continues to deform without increase in load. At this point the material will have a permanent
deformation.
Ultimate Tensile Strength (𝜎𝑢 ) – this is the highest stress on the specimen which it can withstand.
Fracture Stress (𝜎𝑓 ) – also called breaking strength, it is the stress where the material fractures.
The different regions or areas of the stress-strain diagram represent the following:
Elastic region – this is the area in the stress-strain curve from initial point to elastic limit. In this
region, the material will return to its original size and shape when unloaded.
Plastic region – it is the area starting from the elastic limit to the fracture point. In this region, the
body does not go back to its original size and shape when the load is removed; i.e., it shows plastic
behavior.
Yielding region – this is the region where the body produces strain with a little or no increase in load.
It starts from the elastic limit to the yield point.
Strain Hardening – in this region, the body will elongate with increasing stress until the stress reaches
a maximum value and the cross sectional area will decrease uniformly. This is the area from the
yield point to the ultimate tensile stress.
Necking – this is the region where the cross sectional area of the material decreases in a localized
spot, forming a neck, and the capacity of the material to carry load will decrease. This covers the
area from the ultimate tensile stress to fracture point where the material breaks.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Mechanical properties are material properties that determine the applications and behavior of
materials which are helpful in identifying them.
1. Ductility – it is the measure of deformation in a material which it can withstand before fracturing.
2. Brittleness – this is the opposite of ductility. It is the property of material to fracture just after
elastic limit when stress is applied on it. Examples of brittle materials are clay, glass and ceramics.
3. Malleability – it is the ability of a material to bend or to be hammered in all the directions without
any fracture, therefore can be deformed to thin and flat sheets. Most of the malleable materials
are also ductile. Gold, iron, aluminum, lead and copper are some examples of malleable materials.
4. Toughness – is the ability of amaterial to absorb energy before rupturing. Total area under stress
strain curve represents toughness.
5. Strength – this is the capability of a material to withstand the load being applied on it without
failure. Fatigue strength represents the capability of a material to withstand cyclic loading while
impact strength is the capability of a material to withstand a load that is suddenly applied.
6. Elasticity – it is the ability of a material to produce strain in all directions under the action of
applied stress without permanent deformation. The body returns to its original size and shape
when unloaded.
7. Plasticity – the ability of material to change in size and shape permanently under the action of
applied force This property of materials is used to mold different materials to desired form.
8. Resilience – this is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically. When
the body is unloaded, it will release energy. It represents the maximum energy that can be
absorbed per unit volume without creating permanent distortion.
9. Poisson’s Ratio – it is the ratio of liner strain to the lateral strain.
10. Hardness – it is the ability of a material to resist scratch, bending, aberration, wear, tear, and
indentation. It is also the resistance to penetration of another body. Diamond is the hardest
naturally occurring material.
11. Flexural Strength – this is the maximum stress experienced by a body at its moment of fracture.
It is also known as the modulus of rupture or bends strength.
12. Fatigue Ratio – also called endurance ratio, this is the ratio of fatigue strength to tensile strength.
The material having high fatigue ratio shows that it will crack down during loading.
13. Young’s Modulus or modulus of elasticity – it is the ratio of stress applied to the strain under
elastic limit which measures the stiffness of an elastic material.
14. Tensile Strength or ultimate tensile strength – it is the measure of maximum stress that a body
can withstand while being stretched or pulled away before necking.

Simple Strain
The unit deformation of a material is called strain, represented by the equation
𝑑𝛿
𝜖= where: 𝜖 = strain
𝑑𝐿 d = differential elongation
dL = differential length
For an axially loaded member, it becomes longer when the applied load is in tension and shorter
when the applied load is in compression. This change in length is called the normal or linear strain.
The average value of the strain is determined from the equation
𝛿
𝜖= where: 𝜖 = average strain
𝐿
 = elongation
L = length
The use of the formula for average strain are restricted to the following conditions:
1. The specimen must be of constant cross section, that is, prismatic.
2. The material must be homogeneous.
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress.
Please click the link to watch another video. This shows the preparation of a material before
testing and how the strain is determined. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8U4G5kcpcM
Now, you have an idea how to determine the tensile strength and the strain of an axially loaded
material in tension.

Hooke’s Law
The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or compression,
as shown in the stress-strain diagram, can be expressed by the equation known as Hooke’s Law,
named after the famous English scientist Robert Hooke who first investigated the elastic properties
of materials,
where: 𝜎 = average stress
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 𝐸 = modulus of elasticity
𝜖 = average strain
 P 
If 𝜎 is replaced by and 𝜖 by , the equation becomes
A L
P  PL
=E or = where: 𝛿 = axial deformation
A L AE P = axial load
L = length
A = cross section
P
Since =  , deformation can be written as 𝐸 = modulus of elasticity
A
𝜎𝐿
𝛿=
𝐸
Since both stress and strain are simple, the use of the formula for axial deformation restricted by the
following conditions:
1. The specimen must be of constant cross section.
2. The material must be homogeneous.
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress.
Stiffness, k
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force P acting on an elastic body to the resulting displacement
𝛿, hence has the unit of N/mm; i. e.
𝑃
𝑘=
𝛿
Shearing Deformation
Shearing deformation causes a change in shape from a rectangle to a parallelogram, as shown
in Fig. 2. The action may be visualized as equivalent to the infinitesimal sliding of infinitely thin layers
past each other, thereby resulting in the total shearing deformation s in the length L.
The average shearing strain is
Ps s
𝛿𝑠 where: 𝛾 = average strain
𝛾= 𝛿𝑠 = shearing deformation
𝐿
𝐿 = length  L

If Hooke’s law is applied to shear, 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾, from which the shearing

deformation will be Ps

𝑉𝐿 where: 𝛿𝑠 = shearing deformation Figure 2

𝛿𝑠 = V = shear force
𝐴𝑠 𝐺
𝐿 = length
𝐴𝑠 = shearing area
G = modulus of rigidity or shear modulus

Working stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety

In most engineering structures, it is desired that the structure will not fail, therefore, its design
is based on some lower value called allowable stress or design stress, which is the maximum safe
stress that a material can carry. The ratio of the ultimate strength to the allowable stress is known as
the factor of safety; i. e.,
𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
This factor of safety includes such factors as the uncertainty of the load, the uncertainty of the
material properties, and the inaccuracy of the stress analysis.
The allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However,
since proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable stress can also be computed
from the equation
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading.

✓ Simple strain is a dimensionless quantity equal to 𝜖 = .

✓ If the material obeys Hooke’s Law, then or .

𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
✓ Factor of Safety =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 Sample problems
Here are sample problems for you to study. If you have any questions with the
solution, please feel free to consult your instructor.

1. A steel control rod is 5.5 ft long and must not stretch more than 0.04 in. when a 2-kip tensile load
is applied to it. Knowing that E = 29 × 106 psi, determine the smallest diameter rod that should
be used.
The given quantities are: Required:
L = 5.5 ft the smallest diameter to be used
δ = 0.04 in.
P = 2 kips
E = 29 × 106 psi
Solution:
P = 2 × 103 convert P to pounds: 1 kip = 1000 lb
L = 5.5 × 12 convert L to inches: 1 ft = 12 in
The cross sectional area of the rod can be determined by substituting 𝛿, 𝑃, 𝐿, and 𝐸 in the
equation for axial deformation.
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
2  103 (5.5  12)
0.04 =
(
A 29  106 )
A = 0.113793 in2
From this area, compute the required minimum diameter.
𝜋 2
4
𝑑 = 0.113793 ; d = 0.381 in. answer

2. Two gage marks are placed exactly 10 in. apart on a 12-in.-diameter aluminum rod with E = 10.1
× 106 psi and an ultimate strength of 16 ksi. Knowing that the distance between the gage marks
is 10.009 in. after a load is applied, determine (a) the stress in the rod, (b) the factor of safety.
The given quantities are: Required:
L = 10 in. a. σ
d = ½ in. b. factor of safety
E = 10.1 × 106 psi
σu = 16 ksi
δ = 10 – 10.009 = 0.009 in.
Solution:
a. To find the stress in the rod, we use the equation
L
=
E
Substitute values of δ, L, and E
  (10)
0.009 = ; σ = 9,090 psi or 9.09 ksi answer
10.1  106

b. Find the factor of safety

𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
16
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = = 1.76 answer
9.09

3. A bar of metal 25 mm in diameter is tested on a length of 250 mm. In tension, the following results
were recorded.
Load (kN) 10.4 31.2
Extension (mm) 0.039 0.089
a. What is the strain due to the 10.4-kN load?
b. What is the strain due to the 31.2-kN load?
c. What is the Young’s Modulus?
Solution:
a. From the given data, the deformation caused by the 10.4-kN load is 0.039 mm and the
length of the bar is given as 250 mm.

0.039
= = = 0.156  10−3 answer
L 250
b. Due to the 31.2-kN load, the deformation is 0.089
 0.089 answer
= = = 0.356  10 −3
L 250
c. The Young’s modulus is the slope of the stress-strain curve, therefore, we should know
the stresses caused by the two loads.
10.4 103 1 = 0.156 10−3
Due to the 10.4-kN load: 1 = = 21.187 MPa

(25)2 10−6
4
31.2 103
Due to the 31.2-kN load: 2 = = 63.560 MPa 2 = 0.356 10−3

(25) 10
2 −6
4
 2 − 1 (63.56 − 21.187)  106
Modulus of elasticity: E= =
2 − 1 (0.356 − 0.156)  10 −3
= 211.865 GPa answer
4. An 80-m-long wire of 5-mm diameter is made of a steel with E = 200 GPa and an ultimate tensile
strength of 400 MPa. If a factor of safety of 3.2 is desired, determine
a. the largest allowable tension in the wire,
b. the corresponding elongation of the wire.
Solution:
From the given factor of safety, compute for the allowable stress.
  ultimate 3.2 =
400
FS = ; ; σ = 125 MPa
 allowable 
P
a.  = ; 125 106 =
P ; P = 2454.37 N answer
A 
4
(5) 10−6
2

PL L 125 106 (80)

b.  = = = ; δ = 50×10–3 m = 50 mm answer
AE E 200 109

5. An aluminum pipe must not stretch more than 0.05 in. when it is subjected to a tensile load.
Knowing that E = 10.1 × 106 psi and that the maximum allowable normal stress is 14 ksi,
determine
a. the maximum allowable length of the pipe,
b. the required area of the pipe if the tensile load is 127.5 kips.
Solution:
a. Compute for the required length from the formula for deformation:
L 14 L
= ; 0.05 = ; L = 36.071 in. = 3.006 ft answer
E 10.1103
b. Substitute the allowable stress and the load in the formula for stress to get the area:
P 127.5
 = ; 14 = ; A = 9.107 in2 answer
A A

6. Link BC is 6 mm thick, has a width w = 25 mm, and is made of a steel with a 480-MPa ultimate
strength in tension. What is the safety factor used if the structure shown was designed to support
a 16-kN load P?

Solution: PBC
First, we find the axial force in the link BC by analyzing the FBD of AD.
MA = 0] 480PBC – 600(16) = 0; PBC = 20 kN
20 103
Compute for the stress in the link. = = 133.333 MPa
= 16 kN
6(25) 10 −6
480
Determine the factor of safety. FS = = 3.6 answer
133.333
7. A steel bar 8.0 ft long has a circular cross section of diameter d1 = 0.75 in. over one-half of its
length and diameter d2 = 0.5 in. over the other half. The modulus of elasticity E = 30 × 106 psi.
How much will the bar elongate under a tensile load P = 5000 lb?

A C
B

Solution:
PL
Compute for the elongation of segment AB:  = ;  AB = 5000(4)(12)
= 0.018 in.
AE  2
(0.75 )(30  106 )
4
Compute for the elongation of segment BC: 5000(4)(12)
 BC = = 0.041 in.

(0.5 2 )(30  106 )
4
Add for the total elongation:  total = 0.018 + 0.041 = 0.059 in. answer

8. The composite shaft, consisting of aluminum, copper, and steel sections, is subjected to the loading
shown. Neglect the size of the collars at B and C.
a. Determine the normal stress in each section.
b. Determine the displacement of end A with respect to end D.

PAB
Solution:
Find the axial forces.
PAB = 2.00 kips (T) PBC
PBC = 7 – 2 = 5.00 kips (C)
PCD = 1.50 kips (C)
PCD
P 2
a. Stresses:  = ;  AB = = 22.222 ksi
A 0.09
5
 BC = = 41.667 ksi
0.12
1.5
 CD = = 25 ksi answer
0.06
PL 2(18)
b. Deformations:  AB = = = 0.04 in. (elongation)
AE 0.09(10  103 )
PL 5(12)
 BC = = = 0.028 in. (contraction)
AE 0.12(18  103 )
 PL 1.5(16)
 AB = = = 0.014 in. (contraction)
AE 0.06(29  103 )
Displacement of end A with respect to end D:
 A / D =  AB −  BC −  CD = 0.04 – 0.028 – 0.014
 A / D = −0.002 in (A moves closer to D) answer

9. A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar as shown in the figure. Axial
loads are applied at the points indicated. Find the largest value of P that will not exceed an overall
deformation of 3.0 mm or the following stresses: 140 MPa in the steel, 120 MPa in the bronze, and
80 MPa in the aluminum. Assume that the assembly is suitably braced to prevent buckling. Use Es
= 200 GPa, Ea = 70 GPa, and Eb = 83 GPa.
Steel Bronze
Aluminum
A = 480 mm2 A = 650 mm2 A = 320 mm2
P 2P
3P 4P

1.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 m

Solution:
P Ps
Determine the axial loads:
Ps = P
Pb = 2P P Pb
3P
Pa = 2P
Pa 2P
From the allowable stresses, find P:
For steel: For bronze: For aluminum:
Pb Pa
σ=
Ps σ= σ=
A A A
140 = P 120 = 2P 80 = 2 P
480 650 320
P = 67.2 kN P = 39 kN P = 12.8 kN
From the overall deformation, determine P:
T = s − b + a
P(1) 2 P(2) 2 P(1.5)
3  10 −3 = − +
480(200)  103 650(83)  103 320(70)  103
P = 42.734 kN
From the results, maximum P = 12.8 kN. answer
10. Two identical wires, AB and BC, support a load P = 225 kN. The distance between supports A and
C is b = 1.0 m, and the wires are at an angle θ = 55 to the horizontal. The wires are made of
high-strength steel and have axial rigidity EA = 165 kN. Calculate the downward displacement of
point B due to the load P.

PAB PBC
L 35° 35°

δ 35°
ΔB

Solution: 225 N

Find the length of the wires:

0.5
cos 55 = ; L = 0.8717 m
L
Analyze the FBD of Joint B:
PAB = PBC = PB
PAB cos 35  + PBC cos 35  = 225 ; PAB = 137.337 N
Compute for the elongation of the wires:
137.337(0.8717)
= = 0.767  10 −3 m = 0.767 mm
156  10 3

From the deformation diagram:

 0.767
cos 35 = = ; ΔB = 0.936 mm answer
B B

11. The rigid bar ABC shown is hinged at A and supported by a steel rod at B. Determine the largest
load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 30 ksi and the vertical
movement of end C must not exceed 0.10 in.

Steel
L = 4 ft
A = 0.50 in2
E = 29  106 psi

•
A B C
2 ft 3 ft
P
Solution:
To find the axial force in the steel rod, we analyze the FBD of bar AC:
MA = 0] 5P – 2Ps = 0; Ps = 2.5P Ps

From the deformation diagram: AH A

C

AV P

s C
 Δ C δs
= ; δs = 2 (0.1) = 0.04 in.
5 2 5

From tension of the rod:

σ=
Ps
; 30 = 2.5P ; P = 6 kips
A 0.5
From elongation of the rod:
2.5P(4)(12)
δs = PL ; 0.04 = ; P = 4833.33 lb
AE 0.5(29  10 6 )
Therefore, the largest load that can be applied is 4833 lb answer

12. The rigid bar AB, attached to vertical rods as shown in the figure, is horizontal before the load P
is applied. Determine the vertical movement of P if its magnitude is 50 kN.

Steel
L=4m
Aluminum A = 300 mm2
L=3m E = 200 GPa Pa Ps
A = 500 mm2 C
E = 70 GPa
A B
A B
3.5 m 2.5 m P = 50 kN
P
Solution:
Compute for the axial loads in the rods caused by P = 50 kN. From the FBD of bar AB:
MA = 0] 3.5P – 6Ps = 0; Ps = 29.167 kN
MB = 0] 6Pa – 2.5P = 0; Pa = 20.833 kN

Determine the elongation of the bars:

29.167(4) = 1.944 mm
Steel: δs = PL = a
AE 300(200) C s
20.833(3)
Aluminum δa = PL = = 1.786 mm
AE 500(70)
From the deformation diagram:
δs − δa ΔC − δa
= ; 3.5δs − 3.5δa = 6ΔC − 6δa ;
6 3.5
3.5δs + 2.5δa
ΔC =
6

= 3.5(1.944) + 2.5(1.786)
6
ΔC = 1.878 mm answer
In this lesson, you learned the following:
✓ If a material is subjected to an axial load, it will elongate if
the load is in tension or it will contract if the load is in
compression.
✓ The strain in an axially-loaded member is equal to the
deformation divided by the length of the member.
✓ If the material obeys Hooke’s Law, the stress is proportional
to strain.
 1. Lesson 2 – Statically Indeterminate Members

Indeterminate members are structures where the reactive forces or the internal resisting
forces over a cross section exceed the number of independent equations for equilibrium. Such
structures are called statically indeterminate and their analysis require the use of additional relations
that depend on the elastic deformations of the members; i.e., additional geometric relations between
the elastic deformations produced by the loads, called equations of conditions or equations of
compatibility, and force-displacement relations that would relate the forces with the displacements.

Sample problems
Here are sample problems for you to study. If you have any questions with the
solution, please feel free to consult your instructor.

1. A reinforced concrete column 200 mm in diameter is designed to carry an axial compressive load
of 300 kN. Determine the required area of the reinforcing steel if the allowable stresses are 6 MPa
and 120 MPa for the concrete and the steel, respectively. Use Ec = 14 GPa and Es = 200 GPa.
Solution:
Compatibility equation: the deformations of the two materials are equal
s = c
P = 300 kN
 σL   σL 
  = 
 E  S  E C
σ s σc
= ; s = 14.2857c
200 14
If c = 6 MPa, s = 85.714 MPa (within the allowable)
Therefore, these are the working stresses in the two materials.
Find the axial load that can be carried:
Ps
For steel: σs = ; Ps = 85.714 As
A
P
For concrete: σc = c ; Pc = 6[ π (200)2 – As]
A 4
= 188495.5592 – 6As
From equilibrium, Ps + Pc = 300000
85.714 As + 188495.5592 – 6As = 300000
As = 1398.806 mm2 answer
2. A rigid block of mass M is supported by three symmetrically spaced rods as shown in the figure.
Each copper rod has an area of 900 mm 2, E = 120 GPa, and the allowable stress is 70 MPa. The
steel rod has an area of 1200 mm 2, E = 200 GPa, and the allowable stress is 140 MPa. Determine
the largest mass M which can be supported. W = 9.81M

Pc Ps Pc
Copper Steel Copper

Solution:
Compatibility equation: s = c
 σL   σL 
  = 
 E  S  E C

σ s (240) σ c (160)
= ; s = 1.111c
200 120
If c = 70 MPa, s = 77.778 MPa ⟵ within the allowable, therefore, these are the
working stresses of the materials
Ps
Hence, σ s = ; Ps = 77.778 (1200) = 93333.6 N
A
Pc
and σ c = ; Pc = 70 (900) = 63000 N
A
From the FBD of the block:
Ps + 2Pc = W
93333.6 + 2(63000) = 9.81M
M = 22.358 Mg answer

3. A homogeneous bar with a cross-sectional area of 500 mm2 is attached to rigid supports. It carries
the axial loads P1 = 25 kN and P2 = 50 kN, applied as shown in the figure. Determine the stress
in segment BC.
R1 P1 P2 R2

A B C D
0.6 m 1.2 m 0.9 m
Solution: Axial forces:
R1
PAB PAB = R1
R1 P1 = 25 kN PBC
PBC = R1 – 25
P1 = 25 kN P2 = 50 kN PBC
PCD = 75 – R1
R1
 From the compatibility eqaution, find R1:
AB + BC − CD = 0
R1 (0.6) + ( R1 − 25) (1.2) − (75 − R1 ) (0.9) = 0
AE AE AE
0.6R1 + 1.2R1 – 25(1.2) – 75(0.9) + 0.9R1 = 0
R1 = 36.111 kN
Stress in segment BC:
PBC = R1 – 25 = 11.111 kN
BC = 11111 = 22.222 MPa answer
500 10 − 6

4. Three steel eye-bars, each 4 in. by 1 in. in section, are to be assembled by driving rigid ⅞–in.
diameter drift pins through holes drilled in the ends of the bars. The centerline spacing between
the holes is 30 ft in the two outer bars, but is 0.045 in. shorter in the middle bar. Find the shearing
stress developed in the drift pins. Neglect local deformation at the holes.
0.045 in

P1
P2
P1
30 ft
Solution:
Compatibility equation: 2 + 1 = 0.045
P2 (359.955) P1 (360) = 0.045
+ Eq. 1
4(1)(29 10 )
6
4(1)(29 10 6 )
Equilibrium equation: P2 – 2P1 = 0 ; P2 = 2P1
2P1 (359.955) P1 (360) = 0.045
Substitute Eq. 2 in Eq. 1: +
4(29 10 )
6
4(29 10 6 )
P1 = 4833.736 lb and P2 = 9667.472 lb Eq. 2
Stress in the drift pins:
= V ;  = 4833.736
2
A π7
 
48
 = 8038.536 psi answer
5. The light rigid bar ABCD shown in the figure is pinned at B and connected to two vertical rods.
Assuming that the bar was initially horizontal and the rods stress-free, determine the stress in
each rod after the load P = 20 kips is applied. (Pytel, 1987)
Ps
Steel
L = 3 ft B
A = 0.5 in2
B E = 29  106 psi
A D Pa
C A 20 k
Aluminum
L = 4 ft
A = 0.75 in2 P δa
E = 10  106 psi 4 ft 2 ft 2 ft
δs
 Solution:
FBD of the bar:
MB = 0] 20(4) – 2Ps – 4Pa = 0
80 – 2Ps – 4Pa = 0
Ps + 2Pa = 40 Eq. 1
From the deformation diagram:
δa δ
= s
4 2
a = 2s
Pa (4) P (3)
=2 s
0.75(10) 0.5(29)
Pa = 0.7759Ps Eq. 2
Solve Eq. 2 and Eq.1 simultaneously:
Ps = 15. 6752 kips ; Pa = 12. 1624 kip
Required stresses:

σ s = 15.6752 σ a = 12.1624
0.5 0.75
= 31.35 ksi = 16.217 ksi answer

6. A cylindrical assembly consisting of a brass core and an aluminum collar is compressed by a load
P. The length of the aluminum collar and brass core is 350 mm, the diameter of the core is 25 mm,
and the outside diameter of the collar is 40 mm. The moduli of elasticity of the aluminum and
brass are 72 GPa and 100 GPa, respectively.
a. If the length of the assembly decreases by 0.1% when the load P is applied, what is the
magnitude of the load?
b. What is the maximum permissible load P if the allowable stresses in the aluminum and brass
are 80 MPa and 120 MPa, respectively?

Solution:
a. δ = 0.001(350) = 0.35 mm
 PL Pa (350)
Load carried by aluminum: = ; 0.35 =

AE (40 2 − 252 ) 10 −6 (72 109 )
4
Pa = 55134.95 N
Pb (350)
Load carried by brass: 0.35 =
 2
(25 ) 10−6 (100 109 )
4
Pb = 49087.39 N
Total load: P = Pa + Pb = 104222.34 N answer
b. If the allowable stresses are σa = 80 MPa and σb = 120 MPa,
aL bL Eb 100
Compatibility equation: a = b ; = ; b = a = a
Ea Eb Ea 72
If σa = 80 MPa, σa = 111.111 MPa < 120 MPa, hence,
these are the
working
stresses
Loads carried by the materials:
 
(
Pa = 80 40 2 − 252  = 61261.06 N
4
)
 
Pb = 111.111 (25) 2  = 54541.48 N
 4 
Total load: P = Pa + Pb =115802.54 N answer

7. A rigid bar of weight W = 800 N hangs from three equally spaced vertical wires, two of steel and
one of aluminum. The wires also support a load P acting at the midpoint of the bar. The diameter
of the steel wires is 2 mm, and the diameter of the aluminum wire is 4 mm. What allowable load P
can be supported if the allowable stress in the steel wires is 220 MPa and in the aluminum wire is
80 MPa? Assume Es = 210 GPa and Ea = 70 GPa.

PS PA PS

Solution:
SL  AL EA 70 1
Compatibility equation: S =  A; = ; A = S = S = S
ES EA ES 210 3
If σS = 220 MPa, σA= 73.333 MPa < 80 MPa , therefore, these
are the
working
stresses
 
Load carried by steel: PS = 220 (2) 2  = 691.15 N
4 
  
Load carried by aluminum: PA = 73.333 (4) 2  = 921.534 N
4 
Allowable load: P = 2PS + PA – W
P = 2(691.15) + 921.534 – 800 = 1503.835 N answer

13. Link BD is made of brass (E = 105 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 240 mm2. Link CE is
made of aluminum (E = 72 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2. Knowing that they
support rigid member ABC, determine the maximum force P that can be applied vertically at
point A if the deflection of A is not to exceed 0.35 mm.
PBD

PCE

δCE

δBD
ΔA

Solution:
Equations of equilibrium from the FBD of AC:

 M = 0 350P − 225P = 0 ; P = 1.555P

C BD BD

M = 0 125P − 225P = 0 ; P = 0.555P

B CE CE

Compatibility equation from the similarity of triangles,

 A +  CE  BD +  CE
= ; 350  BD + 125  CE = 225  A
350 225
14 BD + 5 CE = 9(0.35 ) = 3.15
1.555P(225) 0.555P(150)
14 +5 = 3.15
240(105) 300(72)
P = 14.744 kN answer

14. The aluminum and steel pipes shown in the figure are fastened to rigid supports at ends A and B
and to a rigid plate C at their junction. The aluminum pipe is twice as long as the steel pipe. Two
equal and symmetrically placed loads P act on the plate at C. Calculate the stresses for the
following data: P = 50 kN, cross-sectional area of aluminum pipe Aa = 6000 mm2, cross-sectional
area of steel pipe As = 600 mm2, modulus of elasticity of aluminum Ea = 70 GPa, and modulus of
elasticity of steel Es = 200 GPa.
 RA RA RA Solution:
Axial loads: PS = RA (tension)
PA = 2P – RA
PS PA = 100 – RA
(compression)
Compatibility equation:
S + A = 0 ;
PA RA L − (100 − R A )2 L
+ =0
600(200) 6000(70)
RA = 36.364 kN
RB Compute axial loads: PS = 36.364 kN
PA = 100 –
36.364
= 63.636 kN
36364 63636
Stresses: S = = 60.607 MPa A = = 10.606
600 10 −6 6000 10 −6
MPa

15. The figure shows a rigid bar that is supported by a pin at A and two rods; one made of steel and
the other of bronze. Neglecting the weight of the bar, compute the stress in each rod caused by
the 50-kN load. For steel, A = 600 mm2 and E = 200 GPa. For bronze, A = 300 mm2 and E = 83
GPa.

Solution: PS PB

δS
δB

Solution:
Equilibrium equation from the FBD of the bar: M A 
= 0 0.6PS + 1.6PB − 50(2.4) = 0
0.6PS + 1.6PB = 120 103
0.6 S (600 10−6 ) + 1.6 B (300 10−6 ) = 120 103
360 S + 480 B = 120 109
30 S + 4 B = 1109 Eq. 1
Equation of compatibility from the similarity of triangles:
S B  (1)  ( 2)
= ; 8 S = 3 B ; 8 S =3 B Eq. 2
0.6 1.6 200 83
Solve Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 simultaneously:
σs = 31.043 MPa ; σs = 17.177 Mpa answer
In this lesson, you learned the following:
✓ Statically indeterminate structures are those whose
reaction forces and internal forces cannot be determined by
the equations of statics.
✓ In addition to the equation of statics, compatibility
equations and force-displacement relations are needed to
analyze problems which are statically indeterminate.