Principles of Anatomy and Physiology

Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Introduction to human body Level of structural organization

(2CTOSO)
homeostasis
- state of relative stability of body’s internal Chemical level
environment - includes atoms and molecules
- feedback systems - essential atoms (CHON PCaS)
- corrective cycles - calcium, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
- help restore conditions - phosphorus, calcium, sulfur
- two common molecules
- dna = genetic material
Anatomy - glucose = blood sugar
- ana = up; tomy = process of cutting
- science of body structures and relationships Cellular level
among them - molecules combine to form cells
- dissection - basic struc and fxnal unit of orgsm
- first used to study anatomy - smallest living units
- careful cutting of body struc.
Tissue level
Branches of anatomy (Study; prices gshd) - tissues
- group of cells & materials surr. Them
Embryology - work together to perform part. Fxn
first 8 weeks of development after
fertilization - four basic types (EpiConMusNer)
Developmental biology
Complete development Epithelial tissue
Fertilization – death Cover body surfaces, lines hollow organs &
Cell biology cavities, forms glands
Cellular struc and fxn Connective tissue
Histology Connects, supports, protects body organs
Hist = tissue Distribute bv to tissues
Microscopic struc of tissues Muscular tissue
Gross anatomy Contracts to make body parts move
Struc that can be examined w/o Mscope Generates heat
Systemic anatomy Nervous tissue
Struc of specific systems of the body Carries info thru nerve impulses
Ex. Nervous/respi sys
Regional anatomy Organ level
Specific regions of the body - organs
Ex. Head/chest - composed of 2> types of tissues
Surface anatomy - specific fxn & recognizable shapes
Surface markings to understand int. anatomy - stomach, bone, skin, heart, brain
Thru: visualization and palpation (gent. touch) - ex. Stomach
Imaging anatomy - outer covering to reduce friction
Int body struc visualized thru tech - epi & con tissue
For clinical analysis/med inter. - inner lining to churn/mix food
Ex. Xray/mri/ct scans - smooth muscle tissue
Pathological anatomy - pushes to small intestine
Path = disease - innermost lining
Structural changes (grs – msc) assoc w/ - epithelial tissue layer
disease - prod: fluid and chem for dgt

Physiology System/organ-system level

- physio = nature; logy = study - system
- science of body functions - con. of organs w/ common fxn
- ex. Digestive system (break down/absorb fd)
Branches of physiology (Study; per crimen) - mouth, salivary glands, pharynx
(throat), esophagus (fd tube), stomach,
Molecular physiology small intestine, large intestine, liver,
Fxn of indiv mol (ex. Protein/dna) gallbladder, pancreas (MSP E2S 2LGP)
Neurophysiology - organs may be part of >1 system
Fxnal prop. Of nerve cells - ex. Pancreas : digestive & endocrine
Endocrinology
Endo =within; crin = secretion Organismal level
Hormones and how they control body fxns - organism
Cardiovascular physiology - any living indiv
Fxn of heart and blood vessles - all parts working together
Immunology
Body’s defenses agt. Disease causing agents
Respiratory physiology
Repsira = breathe
Fxns of air passageways & lungs
Renal physiology
Ren = kidney; fxns of kidneys
Exersise physiology
Changes in cell & organ fxn due to musc. Act.
Pathophysiology
Fxnal changes assoc w/ disease and aging

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Eleven Systems of The body Lymphatic system and immunity

- components
Integumentary system - lymphatic fluid & vessels
- components - spleen/thymus/lymph nodes/
- skin Tonsils
- assoc struc - cells that carry out immune resp.
- hair, finger/toenails, sweat - (ex. B & T cells)
& oil glands - fxn (r2c)
- fxn (predhs) - returns proteins/fluid to blood
- protect body - carries lipids fr GI tract to blood
- regulate body temp - contain stes of maturation and
- eliminate some waste proliferation of b & t cells
- help make vitamin d
- detect sensation (touch/pain/cold) Respiratory system
- store fat & provide insulation - components
- lungs
Skeletal system - air passageways
- components - pharynx (throat)
- bones/joints/assoc cartilages - larynx (voice box)
- fxn (spahs) - trachea (wind pipe)
- support & protect body - bronchial tubes
- provide surface area (muscle attch) - fxn (2thp)
- aid body movement - transfer O2 fr inhaled air to blood
- house blood cell-producing cells - transfer co2 fr blood to exhaled air
- store minerals & lipids (fats) - help regulate acid-base balance
Of body fluids
Muscular system - produce sound (air thru vocal chords)
- components
- skeletal muscle tissue Digestive System
- muscle attached to bones - components
- fxn (pmr) - organs of gastrointestinal tract
- participate in body movements - mouth/pharynx/esophagus/
- walking stomach/s & l intestine/ anus
- maintain posture - accessory organs (assist digestion)
- produce heat - salivary glands/liver/
gallbladder/pancreas
Nervous System - fxn (2ae)
- components -achieve physical and chemcical
- brain/spinal cord/nerves/special Breakdown of food
Sense organs (ex. Ears/eyes) - absorb nutrients
- fxn (GDIR) - eliminate solid wastes
- generate action potentials
- reg. body activities Urinary system
- detect changes in body’s int/ext envi. - components
- interprets changes - kidneys/ureters/urinary bladder/
- responds thru Urethra
- muscular contraction - fxn (perm2h)
- glandular secretion - produce,store, eliminate urine
- eliminate wastes
Endocrine system - reg. volume and chem compo of blood
- components - help maintain acid-base bal. of bf
- hormone-producing glands - maintain body’s mineral balance
- pineal gland/hypothalamus/ - helps reg. prod of rbc
Pituitary gland/thymus/
thyroid gland/parathyroid Reproductive system
glands/adrenal glands/ - components
pancreas/ovaries/testes - gonads
- hormone-producing cells - testes
- fxn - ovaries
- regulate bodys activites - assoc organs
- release of hormones - uterine tubes or fallopian
- chemical msgrs tubes/ uterus/vagina/
mammary glands & epididymis/
Cardiovascular system ductus or vas deferens/
- components seminal vesicles/ protstate/
- blood/heart/blood vessels penis
- fxn - fxn
- heart - gonads
- pumps blood thru bv - produce gametes
- blood (2ch) - sperm/oocytes
- carry o2 & nutrients to cells - release hormones
- carry CO2 & waste away - reg. reproduction
- help reg acid-base balance/ - assoc organs
temperature/water content - transport and store gametes
of body fluids - mammary glands = milk
- blood components
- help defend agt disease
- repair damaged bv

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Noninvasive diagnostic techniques Differentation

- does not involve insertion of inst, thru - development of cell from unspecialized
Skin or body opening To specialized state
- stem cells
techniques - precursor cells/undergo diff.
- ex. rbc/wbc from precells in rbmarrow
Inspection
Observe body for abnormal changes Reproduction
Ex. Examine mouth cavity - formation of new cells (cell division)
Palpation - tissue growth/repair/replacement
Palp =gently touching - production of new indiv
Feel body surfaces w/ hands - thru fertilization = zygote
Ex. Palpate abdomen detect abnormal masses
Auscultation Autopsy/necropsy
Auscult = listening - clinical death
Listen to body sounds to evaluate fxning - loss of heartbeat
Uses stethoscope for amplification - absence of spontaneous breathing
Ex. Auscultation of lungs during breathing - loss of brain fxns
Percussion - lit. = seeing w/ one’s own eyes
Percus = beat through - post-mortem examination of body & dissection
Tap on body surface w/ fingertips and lisren Of internal organs
to resulting sound - confirm/determine cause of death
Provide size, consistency, position of struc - determine extent of injuries
Ex. May reveal abnormal presence of fluid in - uncover undetected diseases
lungs or air in the intestines - provide info about disease
- assist accum. Of statistical data
Characteristics of living human - educate health-care students
organism
Homeostasis
- homeo = sameness; stasis = standing still
Basic life processes - maintenance of rel. stable conditions
In body’s int. env.
Metabolism - ceaseless interplay of regulatory sys in bdy
- sum of all chemical processes in the body - reason for occurrence
- two phases - ex. normal glucose level in blood
- catabolism - 70 -110 mg of glucose/100mL of bld
- catabol = throwing down
- ism = condition Homeostasis and body fluids
- breakdown of complex - imp aspect: maintain volume/compo of body
Chemical substances – Fluids
Simple components - dilute,watery soln w/ dissolved chem.
- ex. digestive process - intracellular fluid; icf
- proteins – amino acid - fluid w/in cells
- anabolism - extracellular fluid; ecf
- anabol = raising up - fluid outside body cells
- build up of cpx chem sub - interstitial fluid
From small simple compo. - ecf; fills narrow spaces between
- ex. amino acid fr digestion cells of tissues
- aa – protein – bdy str. - blood plasma
- ecf; w/in blood vessels
Responsiveness - lymph
- Body’s ability to detect/respond changes - ecf; w/in lymphatic vessels
- ex. fever in response to change in int env - cerebrospinal fluid
- nerve cells - ecf; in/around brain and spinal cord
- respond thru generating e. signals - synovial fluid
- muscle cells - ecf; in joints
- respond by contracting = gen. force - aqueous humor & vitreous body
- ecf; of the eyes
Movement - internal environment
- motion of the whole body, indiv organs, single - ecf surrounding cells of body
Cells, and struc inside cells - interstitial fluid & blood plasma
- ex. coordination of leg muscles = walk/run - external environment
- ex. eating fatty meal – gallbladder contracts - space that surrounds body
- bile is released to gi tract for dgstn - exchange of nutrients
- ex. damaged tissue – wbc move thru blood - o2 thru respi
stream into the tissue – clean up and repair - nutrients thru digestive
- subs. Carried thru cv system
Growth - subs passed to interstitial fluid
- increase in body size - thru blood capillaries
- increase in size of cells - smallest bv
- increase in no. of cells (or both) - allow transfer
- increase in amt of material btwn cells - cells take up substances
- growing bone - release waste carried by cv system
- mineral deposits - co2 thru respi
Accumulate - nitrogen-containing waste thru US
- urea & ammonia

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Control of homeostasis - strengthen/reinforce change in concon

- disruption of homeostasis - action continues until disrupted
- ext. physical insult (heat/lack of O2) - ex. normal childbirth
- int. env. (low glucose) - stretching of cervix (concon)
- psychological stresses - contractions of labor (stimulus)
- nervous & endocrine system - push fetus to cervix
- often provide corrective measures - lowest part: uterus
- electrical signals (nerve impulses) - stretch sensitive nerve cells (recep)
- counteract changes - monitor amt of stretching
- nervous system - sends input to brain (CC)
- rapid changes - brain sends output
- hormones (messenger molecules) - release of oxytocin (output)
- secreted by glands By pituitary gland
- endocrine system - muscles in the walls of uterus (eff)
- work slowly Contract more forcefully
- due to oxytocin (output)
Feedback systems/feedback loop - contractions push fetus farther
- cycle of events where status of body - stretching the cervix more
condition is - cycle interrupted by eventual birth
- monitored & evaluated - must be shut off by external event
- changed - can be life threatening if not shut off
- remonitored & reevaluated - reinforce conditions that do not happen very
- controlled condition (controlled variable) Often
- monitored variable
- ex. body temp/bp/bgl Homeostatic imbalances
- stimulus - Disorder
- any disruption causing change - abnormality of struc/fxn
- disease
Three basic components of feedback loop - specific term for illness with
recognizable set of signs & symptoms
Receptor - local disease
- body struc that monitors changes in concon - affects one part/limited
- sends input to control center Region (ex. sinus infection)
- in the form of nerve imp/chem signal - systemic disease
- pathway is called afferent pathway - affects entire/several
- af = toward; ferrent = carried Parts (ex. influenza)
- info flows toward the control ctr - symptoms
- ex. nerve endings in skin (detect temp change) - subjective changes
- not apparent to observer
Control center - ex. headache/nausea/anxiety
- sets narrow range/set point w/in w/c - signs
concon should be maintained - objective changes
- evaluates input received - clinician can observe/measure
- generates output commands - anatomical
- nerve imp/hormones/chem signals - swelling/rash
- pathway is called efferent pathway - physiological
- ef = away from - fever/high bp/paralysis
- info away from control ctr - epidemiology
- ex. brain acts as control center - science: why, when, where d occurs
- how they are transmitted in community
Effector - epi = upon; demi = people
- body struc; receive output - pharmacology
- produce response/effect - pharmac = drug
- changeds concon - science: effects and uses of drugs
- almost all organ/tissue can become one In the treatment of a disease
- ex. body temp drops – brain sends output
To skeletal muscles (effector) Diagnosis
- shivering = generate heat - dia = through; gnosis = knowlegde
- science/skill of distinguishing a dise/diso
Type of feedback system from another
- basis for making diagnosis
Negative feeback system - patient’s symptoms & signs
- reverses change in concon - medical history
- ex. bp (force exerted by blood agt bv walls) - chief complaint/history of
- heart beats faster = bp increases present illness/past medical
- baroreceptors (loc: walls of bv) problems/family medical
- pressure-sensitive nerve problems/social history/
Cells review of symptoms
- detect higher pressure - physical examination
- baro send input (receptor) - orderly evaluation of body
- received by brain(control center) And its fxns
- brain sends nerve impulses (output) - noninvasive techniques
- received by heart and bv (effectors) - measurement of vital signs
- heart rate decreases - temperature/pulse/
- bv dilates = bp decreases respiratory rate/
- negation of orig stimulus (inc. in bp) Blood pressure
- regulate conditions that remain fairly stable - laboratory tests
Over long periods
Basic anatomical terminology
Positive feedback system

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Body positions Pollex – thumb

- anatomical position Anterior – lower limb
- std position of reference Femoral – thigh
- subject stands erect facing the Patellar – anterior surface of knee
Observer Crural – leg
- head level Pedal (foot)
- eyes directly facing forward Tarsal – ankle
- lower limbs are parallel Digital/phalangeal – toes
- feet flat & directed forward Dorsum – top of foot
- upper limbs at the sides Hallux – great toe
- palms turned forward
- reclining position posterior – cephalic (head)
- prone position cranial (skull)
- lying face down occipital – base of skull
- supine position posterior – trunk
- lying face up scapular – shoulder blade
vertebral – spinal column
dorsal – back
Regional names lumbar – loin
posterior – upper limb
principal regions of the body olecranal/cubital – back of elbow
dorsum – back of hand
Head posterior – lower limb
con: skull = encloses/protects brain sacral – between hips
& face = front portion of head gluteal – buttock
(eyes/nose/mouth/forehead/cheeks/chin) perineal – region of anus & external genitals
Neck popliteal – hollow behind knee
Supports head sural – calf
Attaches head to trunk plantar – sole
Trunk calcaneal – heel
Con: chest, abdomen, pelvis
Upper limb
Attaches to the trunk
Directional terms
- describe position of one body part relative to
Con: shoulder, armpit,
another
arm (portion of limb from shoulder – elbow),
forearm (portion of limb from elbow – wrist),
Superior/cephalic/cranial
wrist, hand
Toward the head/upper part of struc
Lower limb
Ex. heart to liver
Attaches to the trunk
Inferior/caudal
Con: buttock,
Away from head/lower part of struc
Thigh (portion of limb from buttock – knee),
Ex. stomach to lungs
Leg (portion of limb from knee – ankle)
Anterior/ventral
Ankle, foot
Nearer to/at the front of the body
Groin (area on front surface marked by crease
Ex. Sternum to heart
& where trunk attaches to thighs)
Posterior/dorsal
Nearer to/at the back of the body
Major parts of the body (anatomical & common)
Ex. esophagus to windpipe
Medial
anterior – cephalic (head)
Nearer to midline (imaginary v-line)
cranial (skull)
Ex. ulna to radius
frontal – forehead
Lateral
temporal – temple
Farther from midline
orbital/occular – eye
Ex. lungs to heart
facial (face)
Intermediate
otic – ear
Between two structures
buccal – cheek
Ex. transverse colon to ascending &
nasal – nose
descending colons
oral – mouth
Ipsilateral
mental – chin
On the same side as another structure
Anterior – cervical (neck)
Ex. gallbladder and ascending colon
Anterior – trunk
Contralateral
Thoracic (chest)
Opposite side fom another structure
Sternal – breastbone
Ex. ascending& descending colons
Mammary – breast
Proximal
Abdominal (abdomen)
Nearer to the attachment of limb-trunk
Umbilical – navel
Nearer to the origination of struc
Coxal – hip
Ex. the humerus (arm bone) to radius
Pelvic (pelvis)
Distal
Inguinal – groin
Farther from the attch of limb-trunk
Pubic – pubis
Farther from origination of a struc
Anterior – upper limb
Ex. phalanges to carpals
Axillary – armpit
Superficial/external
Brachial – arm
Toward/on the surface (ribs to lungs)
Antecubital – front of elbow
Deep/internal
Antebrachial – forearm
Away from the surface (ribs to chest skin)
Manual (hand) Planes and sections
Carpal – wrist
Palmar/volar – palm Plane
Digital/phalangeal – fingers - imaginary flat surface passing thru body

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- encircled by the abdominal muscular wall

Sagittal plane And bones & muscles of the pelvis
sagitt = arrow Abdominal cavity
vertical plane: right and left side - superior portion
- abdomin = belly
Midsagittal plane/median plane - contains:
sagittal plane passes thru midline - stomach
imaginary vertical line - spleen
equal left & right - liver
- gallbladder
Parasagittal plane - small intestine
para = near - most of the large intestine
sagittal plane doesn’t pass thru midline - peritonium
unequal left & right - serous membrane
- no wall separating from pelvic cavity
Frontal plane/coronal plane Pelvic cavity
corona = crown - inferior portion
divides body: anterior/posterior - pelv = basin
front & back - contains:
- urinary bladder
Transverse/cross-sectional/horizontal plane - portions of large intestine
divide body: superior/inferior - internal org of reproductive system
upper & lower - viscera
- organs inside thoracic &
Oblique plane Abdominopelvic
pass thru body at an oblique angle
any angle other than 90o Thoracic & abdominal cavity
w
membranes
- membrane
Section - thin, pliable tissue
- cut of the body made along one of the planes - cover/lines/partitions/connect
- midsagittal, frontal, transverse Structures
- ex. serous membrane
Body cavities - slippery, double-layered membrane
- spaces; enclose internal organs - assoc w/ body cavities
- covers viscera
Cranial cavity - lines abdomen/thorax walls
- hollow space of the head - parts:
- formed by cranial bones - parietal layer = thin
- contains brain epithelium; lines walls of
Vertebral/spinal canal cavities
- formed by vertebral column - visceral layer = thin
- contains spinal cord & beginnings of spinal epithelium; covers/adheres
nerves to viscera
- continuous with cranial cavity - serous fluid = lubricating
- brain & spine fluid; allow viscera to slide
- surrounded by : ex. lungs inflation/deflation
- meninges (three layers of - pleura = serous mem of pleural cav
protective tissue) - visceral pleura (cover)
- shock-absorbing fluid - surface of lungs
Thoracic/chest cavity - parietal pleura
- thorac = chest - line chest wall
- major body cavity (along w/ abdominopelvic) - cover drm sup sface
- formed by - pleural cavity
- ribs - in btwn pleura layer
- muscles of the chest - pericardium = sm of pericardial cav
- sternum - visceral pericardium (cover)
- thoracic portion of vertebral - surface of heart
column - parietal pericardium
pericardial cavity - lines chest wall
- peri = around; cardial = heart - pericardial cavity
- fluid-filled space surr. Heart - in between layers
- potential space btwn layers of pericardium - peritonium = sm of abdominal cav
Pleural cavity - visceral peritonium (c)
- pleur = rib/side - abdominal viscera
- two fluid-filled spaces - parietal peritonium
- potential space btwn layers of pleura (lung) - line abdominal walls
Mediastinum - cover drm inf sface
- media = middle; stinum = partition - peritoneal cavity
- between the lungs - between layers
- sternum to the vertebral column - retroperitoneal
- first rib to the diaphragm - organs posterior
- contains all thoracic organs except lungs To the peritonium
- heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, large bv - kidneys/adrenal
glands/pancreas/
Abdominopelvic cavity duodenum/ascending
- separated from thoracic by diaphragm & descending colons
- dome-shaped muscle
- from diaphragm to the groin

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

/portions of Common medical imaging procedures

abdominal aorta &
inferior vena cava Radiography
- oral/mouth cavity - procedure
- tongue & teeth - single barrage of xrays passes
- nasal cavity Thru body
- nose - produces image of interior struc on xray
- orbital cavity Sensitive film
- eyeballs - two-dimensional image
- middle ear cavities - radiograph/x-ray
- small bones - rel. inexpensive, quick, simple to perform
- synovial cavities - provides sufficient info for diagnosis
- found in joints - do not easily pass thru dense struc
- con: synovial fluid - bones appear white
- hollow struc appear black (lungs)
Abdominopelvic regions & quadrants - intermediate density (shades of gray)
- skin, fat, muscle
two methods of dividing admopelvic - low doses:
- examine soft tissues
two horizontal & two vertical lines - ex. mammography (breast)
- tic tac toe grid - determine bone density
- subcostal line - ex. bone densitometry/dexa
- sub = below; costal = rib Scan
- superior horizontal line - contrast medium
- pass across lowest level of - substance; make hollow/fluid-filled
10th costal cartilages Struc visible
- transtubercular line - make struc appear white
- inferior horizontal line - intro injection/orally/rectally
- pass across superior margins - contrast x-rays
of iliac crests of l&r hib bone - angiography (BV)
- l&r midclavicular lines - intravenous urography
- thru midpoints of clavicles (urinary system)
Just medial to the nipples - barium contrast x-ray
- nine admopelvic regions (gastrointestinal tract)
- right hypochondriac
- epigastric Magnetic resonance imaging (mri)
- left hypochondriac - procedure:
- right lumbar - body exposed: high-energy magnetic
- umbilical Field
- left lumbar - protons in body fluids &
- right inguinal (iliac) Tissues arrange themselves
- hypogastric (pubic) In relation to the field
- left inguinal (iliac) - ion patterns are read by pulse of
- more widely used for anatomical studies Radio waves
Quadrants - color-coded image is produced (VM)
- passed through umbilicus (belly button) - 2d/3d blueprint of cellchem
- midsagittal line (median line) - relatively safe; not for pts with metal
- transverse line (transumbilical line) - shows fine details for soft tissues (not bones)
- admopelvic quadrants - most useful: differentiating ab/normal tissue
- right upper quadrant - detect tumors and fatty plaques (clog artery)
- left upper quadrant - reveal brain abnormalities
- right lower quadrant - measure blood flow
- left lower quadrant - detect: musculoskeletal/liver/kidney dsrder
- more commonly used by clinicians for
Describing site of pain/tumor/abnormality Computed tomography (ct)
- formerly called computerized axial tomo (CAT)
Scanning
Aging and homeostasis - computer assisted radiography
- aging
- procedure:
- progressive decline in body’s ability
- xray beam traces an arc at multiple
To restore homeostasis
Angles around a section of body
- increase vulnerability to disease
- transverse section is the result
- wrinkled skin/gray hair/loss of bone
- called CT scan
mass/deccreased muscle mass &
- shown on vid monitor
strength/diminished reflexes/
- visualizes soft tissue/organs w/ much more
decreased production of hormones/
detail than conventional radiographs
increased incidence of heart disease
- tissue densities : varying shades of gray
/less efficient functioning of organs
- multiple scans for 3d views of struc
- whole-body ct scanning
Medical Imaging - targets torso
- techniques/procedures used to create images - beneficial for screeing for lung
Of human body Cancers/coronary artery disease/
- for precise diagnosis Kidney cancers
- conventional radiography (x-ray)
- grandparent if all MI techniques
- since late 1940s
Ultrasound scanning
- procedure:
- high-freq sound waves produced by
Hand held wand

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- reflect off body tissues - used to study activity of tissue/organ

- detected by the wand - search for malignant tumors/scars
- sonogram (VM)
- moving/still image produced
- safe, noninvasive, painless, no dyes
- most common: visualize fetus during preg
- doppler ultrasound
- observe: size/location/action
- of organs and blood flow
Thru bv
Coronary (Cardiac) computed tomography
Angiography (CCTA) scan
- procedure:
- iodine-containing contrast medium
- injected into vein
- beta blocker is given
- decrease heart rate
- numerous xray beams trace an arc
Around the heart
- scanner detects xray beams
- transmits to computer
- info transformed to 3d image of
coronary blood vessels on monitor
- called ccta scan
- generated less than 20 sec
- primarily: determine coronary artery
blockages (atherosclerotic plaque/calcium)
that may require intervention
(angioplasty/stent)
- take thousand images of heart in a heartbeat
- great detail: heart struc/fxn
Positron emission tomography (pet)
- procedure:
- substance that emits positron
Is injected then take up by tissues
- positively charged particles
- collision of posi w/ negative charged
Electrons = gamma rays
- detected by gamma cameras
Positioned around subject
- computer receives signal
- constructs PET scan img
- pet scan shows where injected subst
Is being used
- minimal activity
- black & blue
- greater activity
- red, orange, yellow, white
- study physiology of body struc
- ex. metabolism in brain/heart
endoscopy
- procedure
- involves visual exam of inside of body
Organs/cavities using endoscope
- lighted instrument w/ lenses
- imaged viewed
- eyepiece on escope
- projected on monitor
- colonoscopy
- examine interior of colon
- laparoscopy
- examine organs w/in admopelvic cav
- arthroscopy
- examine interior of join; usly the knee
Radionuclide scanning
- procedure:
- radionuclide intro intravenously
carried by blood to tissue to be imged
- gamma rays emitted detected by
Gamma camera (data sent to pc)
- pc constructs radionuclide image
- areas of intense color
- high tissue activity
- areas of less intense color
- low tissue activity
- single-photon-emission computed tomography
(spect) scanning
- specialized RS
- useful for studying brain/heart/
Lungs/liver

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Chemical level of organization trace elements (0.4%)

- aluminum/boron/chromium/cobalt/copper/
How matter is organized Flourine/iodine/manganese/molybdenum/
- chemistry Selenium/silicon/tin/vanadium/zinc
- science; struc & interactions of mtr
- occupies space and has mass Structure of atoms
- mass = amount of matter; doesn’t change - element made of atoms
- weight = force of gravity; changes - smallest units of matter
- farther from earth < gravity - retain properties of element
- hydrogen atoms
Chemical elements - <0.1 nanometer (0.1 X 10-9 m)
- three states - subatomic particles
- solid – compact w/ def shape/volume - nucleus = dense central core
- liquid – def volume; assume shape - protons = positively charged
- gas – no def shape/volume - neutrons = uncharged/ntrl
- chemical elements - electrons = negatively charged
- limited number of building blocks - form negatively charged
- all matter are composed of this Cloud enveloping nucleus
- element - exact position: no prediction
- cant be split into simpler substance - electron shell
By ordinary chemical means - region where e are likely to
- recognized elements Move about
- 118 elements - electron shell model
- 92 occur naturally on earth - best convey aspect
- rest prod thru particle acc. - 1st e shell
- chemical symbol - holds 2 electrons
- 1-2 letters of chemical’s name - 2nd e shell
- na – natrium – sodium - holds 8 electrons
- 3rd e shell
26 chemical elements present In body - holds 18 electrons
- iodine
major elements (96%) - most massive element
- oxygen – 65% Present in body
- part of h2o & organic molecules - 53 electrons
- for generating atp (store energy) - 2,8,18,18,7
- carbon – 18.5% - no. of e = no. of p
- form backbone chains/rings of all - balance each other
Org mol - atom = electrically
- carbohydrates Neutral; 0 total chg
- lipids
- proteins Atomic number & mass number
- nucleic acids - atomic number
- hydrogen – 9.5% - number of protons
- part of h20 & most org mol - two representations of atom structure
- ionized form (H+) makes fluid acidic - electron cloud model
- nitrogen – 3.2% - shading = chances of finding
- component of all proteins/nuc. Acid an e in regions outside nuc
- electron shell model
lesser elements (3.6%) - concentric circles w/ filled
- calcium – 1.5% Circles
- contributes to hardness: bone/teeth - mass number
- ionized form (C+) need: blood clotting - sum of protons + neutrons
- release of some hormones - isotopes
- contraction of muscle - atoms of same element
- phosphorus – 1.0% - diff. no. of neutrons
- components of nuc acid/atp - different mass numbers
- req. for normal bone/teeth struc - most are stable
- potassium – 0.35% - no change in nc struc
- ionized form (K+) - o-16, o-17, o-18
- most plentiful cation in icf - no. of e determine chem prop
-needed to generate action potentials - have identical chprop
- sulfur – 0.25% Bc same no. of e
- component of vit/proteins - radioactive isotope (radioisotopes)
- sodium – 0.2% - nuclei decay: stable config
- ionized form (Na+) - emits radiation
- most plentiful cation in ecf - subatomic particles
- essential: maintain water balance - packets of energy
- need: generate act pot - h-3, c-14, o-15, o-19
- Chlorine – 0.2% - decay of naturally occuring
- ionized form (Cl-) Radioisotope: release small
- most plentiful anion in ecf Amount of radiation
- essential: maintain water balance - localized accumul.
- magnesium – 0.1% May occur
- ionized form (Mg2+) need: action of ezy
- iron – 0.005%
- ionized form (Fe2+ & Fe3+)
- part of hemoglobin & ezy

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- radon-222 - free radical

- color/odorless - group of/ atom/s w/ unpaired e
- nat occ. Radioactive in the outermost shell
Breakdown product - ex. superoxide
Of uranium - formed: e + oxygen mol
- lung cancer - unstable, highly reactive, destructive
- benefits of radioisotopes - become stable: give up unpaired e
- use in medical imaging - taking electron
- tracers - may break imp. Body mol.
- follow movement of - source:
Subs in the body - exposure to uv radiation
- thallium-201 - exposure to xrays
- monitor blood flow - normal metablic process
Thru heart - carbon tetrachloride
- exercise stress test - give rise to free radicals
- iodine-131 - oxygen-derived free radicals; linked
- detect thyroid can. - cancer
- destroy part - atherosclerosis
- assess sz & ay - alzheimer’s disease
- cesium-137 - emphysema
- treat adv. Cervical c - diabetes mellitus
- iridium-192 - cataracts
- treat prostate canc - macular degeneration
- half-life - rheumatoid arthritis
- time req for half of its atoms - deterioration w/ aging
To decay in more stable form - antioxidants
- c-14 = 5730 years - subs: inactivate o-dfr
- becomes n-14 - slow pace of damage
- 1-131 = 8 days - dietary antioxidants
- atomic structures of stable atoms - selenium/zinc/beta
- hydrogen – at no., mass no., at mass Carotene/vit C & E
- 1,1 or 2, 1.01 - red/blue/purple
- carbon - 6, 12/13, 12.01 Fruits/veg
- nitrogen – 7, 14/15, 14.01
- oxygen – 8, 16/17/18, 16.00 Chemical bonds
- sodium – 11, 23, 22.99 - forces holding atoms of mol/com together
- chlorine – 17,35/37, 35.45 - valence shell
- potassium – 19, 39/40/41, 39.10 - no. of e in outermost shell
- iodine – 53,127, 126.90 - basis for probability
- atom will form chem bond
Atomic mass - 8 valence electrons
- aka atomic weight - chemically stable
- ave. mass of all nat. occ. Isotopes - unlikely to form bonds
- close to the mass number of its most - ex. neon & helium
Abundant isotope - stability
- dalton - max. no. of e the shell holds
- aka atomic mass unit (amu) - helium = valence shell=1st
- std unit for measuring mass of atoms - 2 valence e = stable
And subatomic particles - atoms of most bio imp. Elements
- proton = 1.003 daltons - no 8 valence e
- neutron = 1.008 daltons - octet rule
- electron = 0.0005 dalton - chem principle
- 2000x smaller - atoms will form bonds in order
To achieve 8 val e
Ions, molecules, compounds
- ion Ionic bonds
- atom that has +/- charge - FOA: that holds ions w/ opp charges 2gether
- due to unequal no. of p & e - cation = positively charged ion
- ionization - anion = negatively charged ion
- giving up/gaining electrons - ionic compounds (general)
- symbolized - exists as solids w/ orderly repeating
- chem symbol + number of Arrangement of ions
charge - ex. crystal of NaCl
- molecule - no. of ions may vary
- 2> atoms share electron - ratio always 1:1
- molecular formula - mainly found in teeth and bones
- indic. Elements + number of - give strength to structural tissues
Atoms of each element that - electrolyte
Make up the mol - ionic comp; breaks apart into +/- ions
- may consist of atoms of same kind In a solution
- 02 – oxygen molecule - sol’n can conduct: electric current
- may consist atoms of dif. Elements
- h2o – water molecule
- compound
- substance: con. atoms of 2> dif. Elem
- ex. water, sodium chloride
- molecules can be compounds

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

common ions in the body - increases work req for breathing

cations - thin film of water fluid
hydrogen ion - coats air sacs
sodium ion - must be overcome by enough
potassium ion Force in inhalation for
ammonium ion – NH4+ Air sacs to stretch/enlarge
magnesium ion – Mg2+ - collectively = consid. Strength & stability
calcium ion – Ca2+
iron (II) ion – Fe2+ Chemical reactions
iron (III) ion – Fe3+ - occur when atoms’:
anions - new bonds form
flouride ion - old bonds break
chloride ion - foundation of all life processes
iodide ion - basis: interaction of valence e
hydroxide ion – OH- - reactants = starting substances
bicarbonate ion – HCO3- - products = ending substances
oxide ion – O2- - total mass of reactants = tmass of products
sulfate ion - so42- - number of atoms unchanged
phosphate ion – po43- - chemical prop changed (diff arrg)
covalent bond Forms of energy and chemical reactions
- 2> atoms share electrons - energy = capacity to do work
- larger no. of electron pairs - two principal forms:
- stronger covalent bond - potential energy
- most common chemical bonds in the body - energy stored: position
- compounds form most of body struc - kinetic energy
- structural formula - energy assoc w/ motion
- bond denoted by straight line - chemical energy
- H –H - form of pe; stored in chem bonds
- molecular formula - law of conservation of energy
- number of atoms noted by subscripts - energy can be converted to dif form
- H2
- single covalent bond Energy transfer in chem reactions
-2 atoms share 1 electron pair - exergonic reactions
- double covalent bond - release more energy > absorbed
- 2 atoms share 2 e pairs - occur as nutrients: broken down (sug)
- triple covalent bond - energy trap:atp covalent bds
- 2 atoms share 3 e pairs - energy produce 32 mol of atp
- nonpolar covalent bond - endergonic reactions
- 2 atoms share electron equally - absorb more energy > released
- strength of attraction is equal - to build body struc, contract muscle
- ex.bonds of 2 identical atoms Or move subs, energy from ex Is used
- ex. bonds btwn carbon & hydrogen - key feat of metabolism = coupling of en/ex
- polar covalent bond - energy rel from ex is used to drive
- sharing of electrons is unequal Endergonic
- one attracts stronger than other - activation energy
- molecule w/ partial negative chrge - collision energy needed to break
- result of such bond Chem bonds of reactants
- near the atom w/ str attr - forceful collision disrupts valence e
- electronegativity Movement
- power to attract electrons - reactants absorb energy
- atom w/ partial negative - cause: break/form chem bond
Charge has greater eneg - unstable chem bonds
- the other will have partial - valence e forms new combi
Positive charge - energy is released
- partial charges - initial energy: need to start rxn
- indic. Lowercase - determining factors for collision
Greek delta + chrge - concentration
- ex. in living systems - more particles present
- bond of O & H in water - more chances of col
- ex. nitrogen & hydrogen - increases: more pt are added
- ex. oxygen & carbon - increases: pressure increases
- temperature
Hydrogen bonds - high temp: pt move rapidly
- hydrogen atom w/ partial pos charge - catalyst
attracts partial neg charge of neighboring - chemical compounds: speed up chem
atoms Reaction
- most often: large o/n atoms - lower act energy needed
- bonds result - enzymes = most imp. Catalyst in body
- attr of opp charged parts of mol. - help orient colliding particles to hit
- weaker compared to former two Precise spot
- cannot bind atoms – molecules - interact at spots
- attraction between molecules not atoms - unchanged at the end of reaction
- this bond give water cohesion - single catalyst molecule
- tendency of like part. To stay 2gether can assist many chemical reactions
- create very high surface tension
- measure of difficulty of
Stretching/breaking the
Liquid’s surface
- influence of surface tension on the body

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Types of chemical reactions Water as a solvent

- water: most versatile solvent known
Synthesis reactions – anabolism - solvent dissolves solute
- combination of aim to form new/larger mol - reasons for water’s versatility as a solvent
- A + B -> AB - polar covalent bonds
- ex. 2H2 + O2 -> 2 H2O - bent shape
- anabolism - allows each water mol to
- collective term for all synthesis rxn Interact w/ neighboring ions
In the body - hydrophilic
- usually endergonic - solutes: charged
- ex. combine simple mol - contain polar covalent bonds
- amino acids = proteins - dissolve easily in water
Decomposition reactions – catabolism - ex. sugar and salt
- splitting of large mol into smaller aim - hydrophobic
- AB -> A + B - contain mainly non polar cov bonds
- ex. CH4 -> C + 2H2 - not very water-soluble
- catabolism - ex. animal fats & vegetable oils
- collective term for decomposition - dissolution of salt in water
Rxn in the body - electronegative o2 attracts sodium
- usually exergonic Cations
- ex. break down: glucose – pyruvic acid - electropositive h2 attract chloride
- net prod: 2 mol of atp Anions
Exchange reactions - attraction results to separation
- consist of both synthesis & decomposition rxn - breaking the ionic bond
- most prevalent reactions in the body - water mol surrounding the ions
- AB + CD -> AD + BC lessen chance for reformation of
- ex. HCl + NaHCO3 -> H2CO3 + NaCl bond
- sodium bicarbonate - water is an ideal medium for metabolic rxns
- carbonic acid - as a versatile solvent
Reversible reactions - dissolves reactant to collide
- products can revert to original reactants - dissolves waste products (urine)
- indicated by two half-arrows in opp direction
- AB -><- A + B Water in chemical reactions
- some rxns are reversible only under spec con - hydrolysis
- condition is written above/below - break down/splitting of macromol
- enzymes are required for most reversible To monomers by addition of water
Rxn in the body - decomposition rxn
- guide rxn in opposite directions - enable dietary nutrients to be
Oxidation-reduction reactions Absorbed into the body
- concerned with transfer of e btwn atom/mol - dehydration synthesis rxn
- oxidation - two smaller mol join to form larger
- loss of electrons Molecule
- oxidized sub = release energy - water becomes byproduct
- reduction - removal of water to create macromol
- gain of electrons - ex. synthesis of proteins
- reduced sub = gain energy
- always parallel Thermal properties of water
- spontaneous oxidation/reduction - high heat capacity
- essential to life - water: absorb/release large amt of
- rxn: break down food mol = energy Heat w/ modest change in its temp
- due to large no. of hydrogen bonds
Inorganic compounds & solutions - energy absorbed is spent on breaking
- inorganic compounds Hydrogen bonds
- usually lack carbon - less energy for increasing motion
- structurally simple Of water mol
- only have a few atoms - large amount of body water
- ex. water, salts, acids, bases - lessens impact of env temp changes
- water = 55-60% body mass - help maintain body temp hs
- others = 1-2% - high heat of vaporization
- ionic or covalent bonds - large amount of heat: liquid – gas
- with carbon - water evaporates on skin surface
- carbon dioxide - large amt of heat removed
- bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) - cooling mech
- carbonic acid (H2CO3) Water as lubricant
- organic compounds - major component of mucus & lubricating fluid
- always contain carbon - lubrication necessary:
- usually contain hydrogen - chest = pleural & pericardial cavities
- always have covalent bonds - abomen = peritoneal cavity
- make up 38-43% of the body - where internal org touch and slide
- where joints/bones/ligaments/
Water Tendons rub against each other
- most imp. And most abundant inorg comp - gi tract = moisten food for smooth
- polarity Passage in digestive system
- uneven sharing of electrons
- most imp. Property of water
- makes water excellent solvent
- for ion/polar subs
- gives water molecules cohesion
- allows water to resist temp changes

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Solutions, colloids,and suspensions Acid-base balance: ph

- mixture - acidic = more dissolved hydrogen ions
- combi of elements/comp - ph below 7
- blended but not bound by chem bonds - basic/alkaline = more dissolved hydroxide ion
- ex. air = n, o, co2, Ar - ph above 7
- three common liquid mixtures - pH scale
- solution - expresses acidity/alkalinity
- solute evenly distributed - based on concentration of H + in M
- very small - extends from 0-14
- do not settle - ph of 7 = 1X 10-7
- colloid - per liter of solution 1 ten
- solute particles Millionth of a mole of H+
- large enough to Is present
Scatter light - midpoint
- appear translucent/opaque - ex. pure water
- ex. milk = solution & colloid - interval represents tenfold change
- large milk proteins - 10 times more/less h +
- colloid
- calcium salts, ions Maintaining pH: buffer systems
Lactose - pH of blood = 7.35-7.45
- solution - slightly basic than pure water
- do not settle - below floor limit = acidosis
- suspension - above ceiling limit = alkalosis
- suspended material mix w/ - buffers
Suspending medium - (chem comp) convert strong
- settles after a time acids/bases into weaker version
- ex. blood - remove/add protons (H+)
- freshly drawn – red - acid/base ionize easily and contribute
- after a while– rbc Oh/h ions = drastic change In ph
settle to the bottom, - carbonic acid-bicarbonate buf sys
Blood plasma (pale - imp buffer system in body
yellow; liquid part) - carbonic acid can act as
becomes upper layer Weak acid
- blood plasma - bicarbonate ion can act as
- soln & colloid Weak base
-ex. acidic condition
expression of the concentration of solution - bicarbonate ion
- mass per volume percentage Acts and removes
- relative mass of solute found In a Excess H+
given volume of soln - result = H2CO3
- no. of grams of sub/100 ml Of soln - ex. alkaline condition
- ex. 10% NaCl soln - carbonic acid
-10g of NaCl + water = 100 mL Acts and provides
- moles per liter (mol/l) H+ needed
- aka molarity (M)
- total no. of mol in a vol of solution Ph value of selected substances in the body
- 1M soln = 1 mole of solute/1l soln Acidic
- ex. 1M soln of NaCl Gastric juice – 1.2 – 3.0
- 1 mole of NaCl (58.44g) + Vaginal fluid – 3.5 – 4.5
Water = 1l Urine – 4.6 – 8.0
- mole = amt of subs w/ mass in g = Saliva – 6.35 – 6.85
Sum of the atomic mass of its atoms Neutral to basic
- same number of particles Blood – 7.35 – 7.45
- avogadro’s number Semen – 7.20 – 7.60
- 6.023 X 1023 Cerebrospinal fluid – 7.4
Pancreatic juice – 7.1 – 8.2
Inorganic acids, bases, and salts Bile – 7.6 – 8.6
- when dissolved in water = dissociates
- separate into ions Ph value of selected substances
- surrounded by water mol Acidic
- acid Lemon juice – 2.3
- dissociates = 1> hydrogen ions (H+)& Vinegar – 3.0
1> anions Carbonated soft drink – 3.0 – 3.5
- proton donor = H+ is a single proton Orange juice – 3.5
- base Tomato juice – 4.2
- dissociates = 1> hydroxide ions (oh -) & Coffee – 5.0
1> cations Milk – 6.8
- proton acceptor = remove h+ fr soln Neutral to basic
- salt Distilled water – 7.0
- dissociates = cations & anions Milk of magnesia – 10.5
- in body = potassium chloride Lye (sodium hyrdoxide) – 14.0
- electrolytes; carry electric
Currents (ion movement)
In nerve/muscular tissues
- ions: provide chem elem for ecf/icf
- acid + base = salt
- HCl + POH = KCl (salt) + water

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Overview of organic compounds - have –cooh group

- properties of carbon essential to life At one end
- can form bonds w/ other c atoms - ester(R─||o^c ─O─R)
- can build many org comp - predominate dietary fats/oils
- large size, not easily dissolved in h 2o - occurrence in body: triglycerides
- useful for building struc - ex. aspirin
- has 4 e in valence shell - ester of salicylic acid
- elem that often bond w/ c - pain relieving mol
- hydrogen - bark of willow tree
- oxygen
- nitrogen - phosphate(R─o─o||^p |o- ─ o-)
- carbon skeleton - very hydrophilic
- chain of c atoms in org mol - dual negative charges
- many of w/c bonded to h - occurrence: phosphates
- yields hydrocarbon - contain p-ate group (-po42-)
- functional groups - ex. atp
- other atoms/mol bound to hc skel - transfer chem energy btwn
- macromolecules Org mol during chem rxns
- usually polymers - amino(R─N<H<H)
- polymers
- occurrence: amines
- large mol formed by covalent
- have –NH2 group
Bonding of identical/similar
- act as base
Monomers - pick up H+
- monomers - gives positive charge
- small building block mol - pH of body fluids
- dehydration rxn - most a groups have
- joins two monomers Charge = 1+
- h atom is removed from one - all amino acids
Monomer - amino group: one end
- oh group from another
- forms mol of water - R─N+─R<H<H<H
- ex. carbo, lipids, proteins, nuc acids Shorthand method for structural formula
- dehydration synthesis rxn - carbon atoms are not written
- isomers - understood to be at locations
- mol w/ same mol formula but dif stc Where two bond lines intersect
- ex. glucose & fructose - ex. R─c─r = R──R
- indiv atoms dif position
- single h atoms not indicated
Major functional groups of org molecules - condensed form
- hydroxyl (R─O─H) - ex. H─h|^C─oh = CH2OH
- polar & hydrophilic
- enegative o atom Carbohydrates
- many: dissolve easily in water - include
- occurrence: alcohols - sugars, glycogem, starch, cellulose
- have –oh group - represent 2-3% of total body mass
- source of chem energy for gen atp
- sulfhydryl (R─S─H) - few carbo for building struc units
- polar & hydrophilic - deoxyribose
- enegative s atom - building block of dna
- occurrence: certain amino acids - c,h,o – present
- ex. cysteine - ratio of H:O = 2:1
- have –sh groups - generally contain 1 h2o molfor each c atom
- stabilize protein shapes - reason why: carbohyrates
- carbonyl - watered carbon
- polar & hydrophilic - there are exceptions
- enegative o atom - major carbohydrate groups
- occurrence: - monosaccharides
- ketones - simple sugar – 3-7 c atoms
- carbonyl group - examples
Within cskel - glucose (main blood sugar)
- R─||o^c ─r - fructose (fruits)
- aldehydes - galactose (milk sugar)
- carbonyl group - deoxyribose (DNA)
End of cskel - ribose (RNA)
- disaccharides
- R─||o^c ─H - simple sugar – 2 mono by ds
- carboxyl - examples
- negatively charged form - sucrose (table sugar)
- predominates pH of body - glucose+fructose
Cells - lactose (milk sugar)
- hydrophilic - glucose+galactose
- R─||o^c ─0- - maltose
- occurrence: - glucose+glucose
- carboxylic acid
- contain carboxyl
Group at end of cskel
- R─||o^c ─oh
- all amino acids

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- polysaccharides Types of lipids in the body

- tens/hundreds of mono by ds - fatty acid
- examples - for synthesizing
- glycogen - triglycerides & phospholipids
- stored form (animals) - catabolized
- starch - generate atp
- stored form in plants - triglycerides (fats and oils)
- main carbo in food - protection, insulation, engy storage
- cellulose - phospholipids
- part of cell wall in - major lipid component of cell memb
Plants; indigestible - steroids
- aids movement: food - cholesterol
Thru intestine - minor compo of all animal cell memb
- precursor of bile salts, vit d,
Monosaccharides & disaccharides Steroid hormones
- known as simple sugars - bile salts
- monosaccharides - needed for:
- designated by - digestion
- prefix = no. of c atoms - absorption of dietary lipids
- -- ose suffix - vitamin d
- ex. pentose, hexose - help reg. calcium level in body
- monomers of carbohydrates - need: bone growth & repair
- pentose - adrenocortical hormones
- deoxyribose - help regulate:
- ribose - metabolism
- hexose = broken down = prod atp - resistance to stress
- glucose - salt & water balance
- fructose - sex hormones
- galactose - stimulate reprod fxns & sexual char
- disaccharides - eicosanoids (prostaglandins/leukotrienes)
- combi of 2 mono by dehydration syh - diverse effects: modifying responses
- water of molecule is removed - hormones
- glucose & fructose - blood clotting
- isomers - inflammation
- immunity
Artificial sweeteners - stomach acid secretion
- aspartame (nutrasweet/equal) - airway diameter
- 200x sweeter than sucrose - lipid breakdown
- saccharin (sweet n’ low) - smooth muscle contraxn
- 400x sweeter than sucrose - carotenes
- no calories - need: synthesis of vitamin a
- sucralose (splenda) - make visual pigments in eye
- 600x sweeter than sucrose - fxn as antioxidants
- zero calories - vitamin e
- promotes wound healing
Polysaccharides - prevent tissue scarring
- tens/hundreds of mono by dehydration syh - contrib to normal struc & fxn of
- insoluble in water; not sweet Nervous system
- glycogen - fxn as antioxidant
- main poly in the body - vitamin k
- stored form of carbo - req: synthesis of blood-clottng prot.
- made entirely of glucose monomers - lipoproteins
- limited amt - transpo lipid in blood
- liver & skeletal muscles - carry trigly & cholesterol to tissues
- can be broken down by hydrolysis - remove excess cholesterol fr blood
- ex. low blood sugar level
- liver breaks glyco Fatty acids
Into glucose - consists of carboxyl group & hydrocarbon
- release into blood Chain
- starches - saturated fatty acid
- made from glucose by plants - only single covalent bonds
- found in food - btwn c atoms of hc chain
- cellulose - lack double bonds
- from glucose by plants - hence : saturated w/ h atoms
- help eliminate feces - ex. palmitic acid (C15H31COOH)
- unsaturated fatty acid
lipids - 1> double covalent bonds
- 18-25% of body mass (lean adults) - has a kink (bend)
- contains CHO - at the site of double bond
- do not have 2:1 ratio of H to O - monounsaturated
- proportion of enegative o < carbo - 1 double bond 1 kink
- few polar covalent bonds - polyunsaturated
- insoluble in polar solvents - 1> double bond 1> kink
- hydrophobic - oleic acid (C17H33COOH)
- only smallest lipids dissolve in blood plasma
- lipid mol join hydrophilic protein mol
- lipoproteins –soluble
- lipid-protein complex
- protein-out; lipid-in

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Fatty acids in health and disease - oil

- essential fatty acids (EFAs) - liquid at room temp
- cannot be made by body - fa mostly unsaturated
- obtained fr foods/supplements - kinks at double bonds
- omega-3 & omega-6 fatty acids -prevent:solidification
- polyunsaturated fa - monounsaturated fats
- protective effect agt - tg w/ monoun fa
- heart dis & stroke - olive, peanut & canola oil,
- lower total cholesterol Nuts & avocados
- raising hdl (hi-density) - polyunsaturated fats
- good chol - tg w/ polyun fa
- lowering (low-den) - corn, safflower, sunflower
- bad chol & soybean oil, fatty fish (tuna,
- decrease bone loss Salmon, mackerel)
- increase calcium util - both types of fatty acid
- reduce symptoms of arthritis - decrease risk of heart dis.
Due to inflammation - body’s most highly concentrated form of
- promote wound healing Chemical energy
- improve certain skin disorder - provide 2x > energy/gram vs carbo & proteins
- eczema,psoriasis,acne - our capacity to store tg in adipose tissue
- improve mental fxns - unlimited
- primary source of omega-3 - excess dietary carbo, proteins, fats, oils
- flaxseed - deposited as tg in adipose tissue
- fatty fish
- oils w/ polyun fa phospholipids
- fish oils - consists of
- walnuts - glycerol backbone
- primary source of omega-6 - 2 fa attached to first 2 carbons
- most processed food - phosphate group (po43-) at 3rd carbon
(cereals, bread, rice) - links small charged group
- eggs to the backbone
- baked goods - usually n-containing
- meats (organ meats) - amphipathic
- cis-fatty acids - mol w/ polar & nonpolar regions
- used to produce hormone like - polar = head
Regulators & cell membranes - nonpolar = tails (fa)
- hydrogenation (process) - have kinks
- heated, pressurized, - amphipathic phospholipids
combined w/catalyst - line up tail-to-tail in a double row
- becomes trans-fa - membrane of cells
- used to make veg. oil
Solid at room temp steroids
- trans-fatty acids - four rings of carbon atoms
- h atoms on opp side - sterols
Of double bonds - commonly encountered steroids
- when oil is reused - have at least 1 hydroxyl group (-oh)
- increases total chol - polar hydroxyl make sterols
- increases trigly Weakly amphipathic
- increase risk of - cholesterol
Heart disease - cell membrane struc
- estrogen, testosterone
triglycerides - reg sexual fxns
- most plentiful lipids in body & diet - Cortisol
- aka triacylglycerols - maintain normal bs level
- two types of building blocks: - bile salts
- 1 glycerol molecule - need: lipid digestion
- three-carbon gylcerol - vitamin d
- forms backbone of tg - bone growth
- 3 fatty acid molecules - cholesterol
- attached by dsr - has large nonpolar region
- one to each carbon - 4 rings & hc tail
- ester linkage - synthesized in the liver
- chemical bond formed in drs - starting material for the synthesis
- can be solid or liquid at room temp Of other steroids in the body
- fat
- solid at room temp Other lipids
- fatty acids are saturated - eicosanoids (eicosan = twenty)
- lack double bonds - derived fr 20-c fa = arachidonic acid
-closely pack/solidify - two principal subclasses
- saturated fat - prostaglandins
- mainly consists of sat. fa - leukotrienes
- occur mostly in meats (red) - allergic/inflam responses
- nonskim dairy products - fat-soluble vitamins (a, d, e , k)
- cheese, butter, milk - beta-carotenes (yellow-orange pgmt)
- plant products - egg yolk, carrots, tomatoes
- cocoa butter, palm - converted to vit a
& coconut oil - lipoproteins
- associated with:
- heart disease
- colorectal cancer

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Proteins - polypeptide
- 12-18% of body mass (lean adult) - 10-2000 more aa
- contains : CHON; S - small proteins
- largely responsible for struc of body tissues - as few as 50 aa
- enzymes - large proteins
- proteins: speed up biochemical rxns - hundreds – thousands
- motors
- for muscle contraxn Level of structural org of proteins
- antibodies - primary structure
- defend agt microbes - unique seq of aa (lined by cov pepbond)
- form polypeptide chain
Fxns of proteins - genetically determined
Structural - ex. sickle cell disease
- form struc framework of body - valine replaces glutamate
- ex. collagen (bone & connective tissues), - nonpolar aa replace polar aa
Keratin (skin, hair, fingernails) - 2 mutations in hemog
regulatory - dimin. H2o solubility
- fxn as hormones - altered hemog forms crystal
- reg physiological processes Inside rbc
- control growth & dev - secondary structure
- ex. insulin - repeated twisting/folding of
- reg blood glucose level (BSL) neighboring amino acids in pp chain
- fxn as neurotransmitters - stabilized by hydrogen bonds
- mediate responses of nerv sys - form at reg intevals along
- ex. substance p Pp chain
- mediates sensation of pain - two common struc
Contractile - aplha helixes (cwise spiral)
- allow shortening of muscle cells - beta pleated sheets
- prod movement - tertiary structure
- ex. myosin, actin - 3d shape of pp chain
Immunological - overall folding pattern
- aid resp that protect body agt foreign subs - allow aa at opp ends to be close
& invading patho - bonds:
- ex. antibodies, interleukins - disulfide bridges
transport - s-s cov bonds
- carry vital subs thruout body - strongest
- ex. hemoglobin - least common
- transport most O2& sme CO2 in blood - form btw sulfhydryl
Catalytic Groups of 2 cysteine
- act as enzymes Monomers
- ex. salivary amylase, sucrase, ATPase - hydrogen bonds
- ionic bonds
Amino acids (20) - hydrophobic interaxn
- monomers of proteins - most proteins exist in watery env.
- consists of: - folding process places aa
- h atom w/ hydrophobic side chains
- three imp fxnal groups att to central in central core
Carbon atom - chaperones
- amino group (-NH2) - aid in folding process
- acidic carboxyl group (-cooh) - quaternary structure
- side chain (r group) - arrangement of 2> pp chains relative
- amino group & carboxyl group To one another
- ionized in normal pH of body fluids - bonds same with tertiary struc
- glycine - variation in struc and shape
- simplest amino acid; side chain = h atm - directly related to diverse fxn
- cysteine
- ½ aa containing sulfur Classification of proteins (overall shape)
- tyrosine - fibrous proteins
- side chain contains 6-c ring - insoluble in water
- lysine - pp chains form parallel long strands
- has 2nd amino group ( at end: side chain) - have many structural fxns
- protein - examples
- stepwise fashion - collagen = strengthen bones
- 1 aa joined to another, third is added Ligaments and tendons
- peptide bond - elastin = provides stretch in
- covalent bond joining amino acids Skin, bv, and lung tissue
- forms btwn - keratin = forms struc of hair
- c of carboxyl group (-cooh) And nails; waterproofs skin
Of one amino acid - dystrophin = reinforces
- n of the amino group (-nh2) Parts of muscle cells
Of another - fibrin = form blood clots
- molecule of water is removed (DSR) - actin & myosin = involved in
- dipeptide muscle cell contraction,
- 2 aa combine Cell division, substance
- tripeptide Transpo w/in cells
- 3 aa combine
- chainlike peptide
- 4-9 aa

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- globular proteins Mechanism of enzyme action

- >< soluble in water - substrate makes contact w/ active site
- pp chains are spherical (globular) (surface of enzyme mol)
- have metabolic fxns - form enzyme-substrate complex
- examples - temporary intermediate comp
- enzymes = fxn as catalysts - enzyme catalyzes reaction
- antibodies & complement - substrate mol: transformed into products
Proteins = help protect agt Of rxn
Diseases - by brk dwn of substrate mol
- hemoglobin = transpo o2 - or rearrangement of existing atoms
- lipoproteins = transpo lipid - or combi of several substrate mol
And cholesterol - after rxn is completed, rxn prod move away
- albumins = help reg blood pH From ez; ez is unchanged & free to catalize
- membrane proteins = transpo - ex. sucrose & water attaches to active site
Subs in and out of cell - transformed to glucose & fructose
- insulin = reg BSL - single enzyme may catalize reversible rxns
- homeostatic mechanisms - ex. carbonic anhydrase (ez)
- maintain temp and chemical compo of - co2 + h2o -><- h2co3
Body fluids - during excersise
- denaturation - co2 produced –blood
- process of unraveling; protein lose - increased h2co3 level
Characteristic shape (org struc) - co2 exhaled & level
- renders proteins not fxnal In blood decreases
- some cases: can be reversed - h2co3 converted to
- ex. frying egg co2 + h2o
- albumin (egg white protein)
- soluble, clear, nucleic acids
Viscous - so named: first discovered in nuclei of cells
- after - huge org mol containing: CHONP
- insoluble, white - 2 varieties
- deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
enzymes - forms genetic material
- most catalysts in living cells - gene = segment of dna mol
- lower activation energy by decreasing - determine traits
Randomness of collisions btwn mol - control protein syn
- help properly orient substrates - ribonucleic acid (RNA)
- not altered nor consumed - relays instruc from genes
- two parts: - guide cells in the synthesis
- apoenzyme (protein portion) Of protein from aa
- cofactor (nonprotein portion) - nucleotides (monomer of nucleic acids)
- may be a metal ion - nitrogenous base (CHON)
- (fe, mg, zn, ca) - purines (larger; double ring)
- or organic molecule - adenine/guanine
- aka coenzyme - pyrimidines (smaller; single r)
- coenzyme - thymine/cytosine
- often derived from vit - uracil (rna)
- usually end in suffix –ase - basis for naming nucleotides
- categorized w/ chem rxn it catalyzes - ex.thymine nucleotide
- oxidases = add oxygen - project inward fr bckb chain
- kinases = add phosphate - pentose sugar
- dehydrogenases = remove h 2o - deoxyribose
- ATPases = split atp - 5-c sugar
- anhydrases = remove water - att. To each base
- proteases = brk dwn protein - ribose (RNA)
- lipases = brk dwn trigly - phosphate group (PO4-3)
- alternate w/ pentose sugar
Three important properties of enzymes - form backbone
- ez are highly specific - F.H.C Crick of Great britain & J.D watson
- binds only to specific substrates - 1953 = published brief paper how
- reactant mol on w/c ez acts Three compo might be arranged in dna
- active site (part of ez) - watson-crick double helix model
- catalyzes rxn - dna made of two twisted
- fits substrate like: key – lock Strands in spiral staircase
- induced fit like structure (double helix)
- change in shape of active site - each strand consist of
To fit around substrate Nucleotides bound together
- catalized specific rxn - each nucleotide consists of:
- ez are very efficient - deoxyribose sugar
- can catalyze rxn at rates from 100 - phosphate group
Mil to 10 bil times more rapid - 1 of 4 nitrogenous bases
- gen. 1-10,000/ high as 600,000 - two strands of alt p group
- no. of substrate mol a single And deoxyribose sugars
Ez can convert to product - form uprights of ldr
Mol/sec - nitrogenous bases paired by
- ez are subject to variety of cellular control Hydrogen bonding
- rate of synthesis & concetration - form steps of ldr
- controlled by cell’s genes - pairing: A&T ; G&C
- rate of change fr active to inactive vv
- determined by cell’s chem env

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- each time dna is copied (ex. cell division)

- two strands unwind
- mutation
- change in the base seq of dna strand
- rna
- (humans) single-stranded
- sugar = pentose ribose
- uracil instead of thymine
- three kinds:
- messenger rna
- ribosomal rna
- transfer rna

Dna vs Rna
dna
nitrogenous bases – a,c,g,t
sugar in nucleotides – deoxyribose
number of strands – 2 (double helix)
base pairing (no. of H bonds) – A&T (2) ; G&C (3)
how it is copied – self-replicating
fxn – encodes info for protein synthesis
types – nuclear & mitochondrial
rna
nitrogenous bases – a,c,g,u
sugar in nucleotides – ribose
number of strands – 1
base pairing (no. of H bonds) – A&u (2) ; G&C (3)
how it is copied – made by using dna as blueprnt
fxn – carries genetic code; assist in prot syn
types – mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

adenosine triphosphate
- energy currency of living systems
- transfers egy from exergonic rxn
- to power cell act that req egy (enrxn)
- example
- transport of subs
- muscle contraxn
- movement of struc w/in cells
-anabolism
- consists of
- 3 phosphate groups attached to
- adenosine
- composed of
- adenine
- 5-c sugar ribose
- adenosine diphosphate (adp)
- when 3rd p group is removed by
Hydrolysis; catalyzed by ATPase
- overall rxn liberates energy
-atp + h2o ---ATPase- adp + P group + egy
- energy supplied by catabolism (atp – adp)
- constantly being used by cell
- chemiosmotic phosphorylation
- to replenish energy
- adp + P grp + egy –ATP synthase atp + h2o
- energy from cellular respiration
- cellular respiration
- catabolism of glucose
- two phases
- anaerobic phase
- do not req oxygen
- glucose partially brkn dwn
Into = pyruvic acid
- each glucose mol yields
- 2 atp mol
- aerobic phase
- in the presence of oxygen
- glucose  co2 & h2o
- generate heat
- yields = 30 -32 atp mol

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Three main parts of a cell - arrangement occurs

- average adult body: > 1oo trillion cells - lipids are amphipathic
- cells - have both polar & nonpolar parts
- basic living, structural & fxnal unit - phosphate-containing head
- cell biology/cytology - polar
- study of cells - hydrophilic
- plasma membrane - nonpolar tail
- cell’s flexible outer surface - two-long fatty acid tails
- separate internal & external environment - hydrophobic hc chains
- selective barrier: regulates flow of mtrl - arrangement of membrane proteins
- est. appropriate environment for cell - integral proteins
- plays role in communication among cells - extend thru lipid bilayer: firmly
& btwn cells and their ext. env. Embedded
- cytoplasm - most are transmembrane proteins
- all the cellular contents btwn plasma - span entire lb & protrude
Membrane and the nucleus Into cytosol & extcell fluid
- two components: - many are glycoproteins
- cytosol - ip w/ carbohydrate grps
- fluid portion of cytoplasm - cbe are oligosaccharides
- aka intracellular fluid - chains of 2-60 monosacc
- organelles - cbe portions: glycocalyx
- little organs - extensive sugary coat
- nucleus - like molecular signature
- large organelle: houses most of cell’s dna - amphipathic
- chromosome - peripheral proteins
- a single molecule of dna - not firmly embedded in membrane
- contains genes - attached to polar heads/integral
- hereditary units: control cell fxn Proteins

Functions of plasma membrane

- act as barrier separating inside & oustide of
Cell
- control flow of subs into & out of cell
- help identify the cell to other cell
- ex. immune cells
- participate in intracellular signaling

Functions of membrane proteins

- ion channel (integral)
- forms pore thru w/c ion can flow to get
Across membrane
- ex. potassium ions
- carrier (integral)
- transport specific subs by changing shape
- ex. amino acids enter cell via carriers
- transporters: carrier proteins
- receptor (integral)
- recog specific ligand & alter cell fxn
- specific mol that binds to receptor
The plasma membrane - ex. antidiuretic hormone binds to rp in kdny
- flexible;sturdy barrier: contains cytoplasm
- changes water permeability of pm
- fluid mosaic model
- enzyme (integral & peripheral
- best describes plasma membrane
- catalyzes reaction in/out cell
- molecular arrangement
- ex. lactase (epthelial cells of small int)
- resembles continually moving sea of
- split disaccharide lactose
Fluid lipids
- linker (integral & peripheral)
- contains mosaic of many diff. proteins
- anchors filaments in & outside pm
- allow passage of lipid-soluble molecules
- provide struc stability & shape
- act as barrier to entry/exit
- cell-identity marker (glycoprotein)
- charged/polar substances - distinguishes your cell from others’
- protein in plasma membrane - major histocompatibility (MHC) proteins
- allow movement of polar mol/ion: in & out - imp. Class of markers
- act as signal receptors: link pm to proteins

Structure of plasma membrane Membrane fluidity

- depends on:
- lipid bilayer
- no. of double bonds in fa tails of lipids
- basic structural framework of pm
- amt of cholesterol present
- back2back layers made of lipid molecules:
- enables movement of membrane proteins
- phospholipids = 75%
- allows bilipid layer to self seal
- contain phosphorus
- intracytoplasmic sperm injection
- cholesterol = 20 %
- steroid; attached hydroxyl (-OH)
grp Membrane permeability
- glycolipids = 5% - permeable = allow passage of subs
- lipids w/ att.carbohydrate grp - impermeable = do not permit passage of subs
- selective permeability
- property; permit some subs

- to achieve homeostasis

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- lipid bilayer portion - three types of diffusion

- highly permeable to nonpolar mol - simple diffusion
- oxygen, carbon dioxide & steroids - pasive process
- moderately permeable: small, uncharged - susb move freely thru lb of pm of cell
Polar molecules w/o help of membrane transport prtn
- water & urea (fr breakdown of aa) - nonpolar,hydrophobic molecules
- impermeable: ions & large, uncharged polar - make use of sd
Molecules - O2, co2, n gases, fatty acids,
- glucose Steroids, fat-soluble vitamins (adek)
- nonpolar, hydrophobic interior - small noncharged polar molecules
- the more hydrophobic/lipid soluble - also make use of sd
- > permeability - water, urea, small alcohols
- impt in
Gradients of plasma membrane - movememnt of o2 & co2
- concentration gradient - btwn blood & body cells
- diff. in the concentration of a chem fr one - btwn blood & air w/in lungs
Place to another - route for absorption of some
- oxygen molecules & sodium ions Nutrients & excretion of some wastes
- more concentrated in extracel fl > cytosol - facilitated diffusion
- carbon dioxide mol & potassium ions - for too polar/highly charged subs
- more concentrated in cytosol > extracel fl - integral prtn assists specific subs
- inner surface of pm - can either be membrane channe
- more negatively charged Or a carrier
- outer surface of pm - channel-mediated fd
- more positively charged - solute moves down its con grad
- electrical gradient - thru membrane channel
- constituted by diff in electric charges - ion channels
- membrane potential - most membrane channels
- term for the diff - integral transmembrane prtn
- substances will move down its con grad. - allow passage of small,
- from more con  less con = equilibrium Inorganic ions that are too
- positively charged substance Hydrophilic to penetrate lb
- tend to move toward charged--- area - most are available for
- vice versa - k+ or cl-
- electrochemical gradient - few are available for
- combined influence of con grad & el grad - na+ or ca2+
On movement of particular ion - generally slower < sd
- carrier-mediated fd
- carrier (transporter) moves
Transport across pm Solute down its con grad
- passive process - carrier undergoes shape change
- subs move down it con/el grad - transport maximum
- use own kinetic energy (intrinsic) - upper limit on the rate at w/c
- no input of energy Fd can occur
- ex. simple diffusion - due to no. of carriers availb
- active process - when reached
- cellular energy req to drive subs uphill - cmfd: saturation
Against its con/el grad - glucose, fructose, galactose,
- usually in the form of atp Some vitamins
- ex. active transport - how glucose enters cells
- ex. way some subs enter/leave cells - gl binds to glucose trans
- vesicles (tiny spherical membrane sac) Porter (GluT)
- used in this process - GluT undergoes shape chnge
- endocytosis = v detach; bring mtrl - glucose is released
- exocytosis = v merge; release mtrl - insulin via insulin receptor
- promotes insertion of many copies
Of GluT
Passive processes - elevates transport max.
- diffusion - body cells can pick up gl
- random mixing of particles in soln occurs Rapidly
- due to particle’s kinetic energy - diabetes mellitus
- solutes and solvent undergo diffusion - inability to produce insulin
- move down con grad
- solute In high con diffuse toward OSMOSIS
Area of lower con - TYPE OF DIFFUSION; PASSIVE PROCESS
- eventually evenly distributed = eqb - THERE IS NET MOVEMENT OF SOLVENT THRU
- factors influencing diffusion rate in pm SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE MEBRANE
- steepness of the con grad - LIVING SYSTEMS
- greater diff in con btwn two sides - WATER: SOLVENT
Of membrane = higher rate of dffsn - MOVES FROM HIGHER WATER CON - LOWER
- temperature CONCENTRATION
- higher temp = faster rate of dffsn - FROM AREA OF LOWER SOLUTE CON TO
- mass of the diffusing subs AREA OF HIGHER CON-
- larger mass of dffsg particle = - DURING OSMOSIS, WATER PASS:
Slower diffusion rate - MOVING BETWEEN NEIGHBORING
- surface area PHOSPHOLIPID MOL IN LB VIA SD
- larger membrane sa = faster dffsn - MOVING THRU AQUAPORINS (AQP)
- diffusion distance - INTEGRAL MEM PROTEINS
- greater distance = longer it takes FXN AS WATER CHANNELS

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)
- AQPS ARE RESPONSIBLE FR PROD:
- CSF, AQUEOUS HUMOR,
TEAR, SWEAT, SALIVA, URINE
- HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
- PRESSURE EXERTED BY LIQUID
- OSMOTIC PRESSURE
- PRESSURE EXERTED BY SOLN WITH
IMPERMEABLE SOLUTE
- PROP. TO CON OF SOLUTE PT
- HIGHER SOLUTE CON = >OSMPRE
- does not produce water movement
- prevents movement
- tonicity
- measure of soln ability to change the vol
Of cells by altering their water content
- osmotic pressure of cytosol
- equal to osmpre of interstitial fluid
Outside cells
- isotonic solution
- con of solutes that cant cross pm
Are same on both sides O=I
- rbc maintains its normal shape & vol
- ex. 0.9& nacl soln
- normal saline solution
- isotonic for rbc
- impermeable to na+ & cl-
- ex. d5w = dextrose 5% in water
- hypotonic solution
- has lower con of solutes than
Cytosol inside rbc O<I; I>O
- rbc swell and burst
- water mol enter cells faster
Than they leave
- rupture = hemolysis
- for other cells = lysis
- ex. pure water
- very hypotonic; rapid hemolysis
- hypertonic solution
- higher con of solutes tha cytosol
Inside rbs O>I; I<O
- ex. 2% nacl solutiion
- water mol leave cells faster than
They enter
- causes crenation
- shrinkage of cells
active processes
- active transport
- enery is req for carrier proteins to move
Move solutes against congrad
- two sources of cellular energy
- hydrolysis of atp
- source in primary active transport
- energy stored in ionic con grad
- source in secondary active trnsprt
- solutes actively transported
- Na+,k+,h+, ca2+, i-, cl-
- amino acids & monosaccharides
- primary active transport
- energy from atp hydrolysis chnages shape
Of carrier protein
- pumps subs against its con grad
- pumps
- carrier proteins that mediate PAT
- expenditure
- 40% of body cell’s generated atp
- sodium-potassium pump
- most prevalent PAT mechanism
- expels na+ from cells
- brings k+ inside cells
- aka na+--K+ ATPase
- part of the pump acts as ATPase
- maintain low con of na+ inside
& high con of k+
- for every 3 na+ = 2k+ is imported
파이팅!
- secondary active transport
- energy stored in na+ or h+ con grad
- used to drive subs agt congrad
- indirectly uses energy obtained from
Hydrolysis of atp
- sodium ions have potential energy
- due to steep congrad of na+
- if there is route for na+ to leak
Back in = kinetic energy
- harness energy by providing routes
- simultaneous binding of carrier protein
To na+ and another subs at same time
- symporters
- transporters move two subs
In the same direction
- antiporters
- tp move subs In opp direction
- ex. na+--ca2+ antiporters
- eject calcium ions
- low in cytosol
- na+--H+ antiporters
- regulate cytosol’ s pH con
- expel excess h+
- na+--glucose & na+--amino acid symporters
- absorb dietary glucose & amino acids
- lines small intestine
Transport in vesicles
- vesicle
- small, spherical sac
- endocytosis= materials move into cell
- exocytosis = materials move out the cell
- require energy by atp= active process
- endocytosis
- three types:
- receptor-mediated endocytosis
- highly selective type of endo
- cells take up specific ligands
- ex. cholesterol containing
Low-density lipoprotein
- ex. transferrin
- iron-transporting protein
- vitamins, antibodies
- process of REM of ldl
- binding
- ldl pt binds to specific receptor
- forms receptor-ldl complex
- clathrin-coated pits
- resp. integral membrane protein
- protein clathrin attaches to
Membrane on its cytoplasmic side
- causes pm to invaginate
- vesicle formation
- clathrin-coated pit fuse & small
Piece of membrane pinches off
- clathrin—coated vesicle
- resulting vesicle
- uncoating
- after formed, ccv immediately loses
Clathrin coat = uncoated vesicle
- fusion with endosome
- uncoated vesicle fuses with vesicle
Endosome
- ldl separate fr their receptors
- recycling of receptors to pm
- most receptors accumalte in
Elongated protrusions of endosome
- pinches off = transport vesicles
- return receptors to pm
- 10 min after it enters cell
- degradation of lysosomes
- transpo vesicle w/ ldl particles
- bud off endosome & fuse w/
Lysosome
- large protein & lipid mol is broken
Down = aa, fa, & cholesterol
- cholesterol = steroid syn/rbuild
- fa& aa = atp prod; mol build
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- phagocytosis (cell eating) - help gen mvment

- cell engulfs large solid particles - provide mechanical support
- worn out cells, bacteria, vir. - involved in:
- phagocytes - muscle contraction
- carry out phagocytosis
- two main types: - cell division
- macrophages =body tissues - cell locomotion
- neutrophils = type of wbc - invasion of tissues by wbc
- begins when pt binds to pm receptor - migration of skin cells = wound
- extends pseudopods Healing
- projection of pm & cytplsm - anchor mcs to integral proteins
- surround pt & mem. Fuse - provide mechanical support for
- phagosome Microvilli
- residual body - nonmotile, microscopic fingerlike
- undigested material Projections of pm
- secreted via exocytosis - greatly increase surface area
- stored as lipofuscin grnls - abundant in absorption cells
- bulk-phase endocytosis - epi cells = small intestine
- aka pinocytosis/ cell drinking - intermediate filaments
- tiny droplets of ecf are taken up - thicker > mf
- no receptor prtn involved - thinner > microtubules
- solutes dissolved in ecf are drank - found in parts of cells subjected
- occurs in most cells To mechanical stress
- esp. absorptive cells in - help stabilize pos. of organelles
Intestines and kidneys And help attach to one another
- exocytosis - microtubules
- releases materials from cell - largest cs componen
- all cells carryb out exocytosis - long, unbranched hollow tubes
- impt in two types of cells: - composed of tubulin (prtn)
- secretory cells - assembly begins in centrosome
- liberate digestive enzymes, hormone, - grow outward fr centrosome
Mucus - help determine cell shape
- nerve cells - movment of organelles:
- release neurotransmitters - secretory vesciles
- secretory vesicles - chromosomes (cell division)
- membrane enclosed vesicles form ind - cilia and flagella
- transcytosis
- vesicles undergo endocytosis on one side Organelles
of cell, move across cell, undergo exocyt - specialized struc within cell w/ shapes
opposite side - fxn: cell growth, maintenance, reproduction
- occur often across endothelial cells - centrosome
- line blood vessels - microtubule organizing center
- means for movement btwn plasma & if - located near nucleus
- antibodies: mother to fetus - pulls chromosomes to end of cells (cd)
- two components:
cytoplasm - pair of centrioles
- consists - (2) cylindrical structures
- all cellular contents btwn pm & nucleus - composed of 9 clusters of 3 mt
- two components: Arranged in a circular pattern
- cytosol - long axis of one ctr is at a right <
- organelles = tiny structures To long axis of other
- pericentriolar matrix
- surround centrioles
Cytosol (icf) - contains hundreds of ring-shaped
- fluid portion of cytoplasm Complexes
- constitues 55% of total cell vol - made fr tubulin
- 75%-90% water - organizing centers for growth of
- lipid droplets Mitotic spindle
- organic mol aggregation - cilia and flagella
- contain trigly & glycogen granules - dominant components: microtubules
- site of many chem rxn for cell’s existence - motile projections of cell surface
- catalyze glycolysis - cilia
- series of 10 chemrxn - numerous,short, hairlike projections
- produce 2 mol of atp from 1 mol of gluc - contains core of 20 mt
- cytoskeleton - anchored to a basal body
- network of protein filaments - initiate assembly of projections
- serve as scaffold: determine shape & - stiff during power stroke
Organzie cell contents - more flexible during recovery stroke
- aids movement of organelles w/in cell - respiratory tract have cilia
- mvmnt of chromosomes (cell division) - moves mucus
- whole cells such as phagocytes - flagella
- three types: - longer > cilia
- microfilaments - move an entire cell
- intermediate filaments - generates forward motion
- microtubules - rapid wiggling = wavelike pattern
- microfilaments - only example
- thinnest element of cs - sperm cell’s tail
- composed of actin & myosin - ribosomes
- most prevalent at edge of cell - sites of protein synthesis
- two gen fxn: - high content of ribonucleic acid

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- ribosomal rna (rRNA) - autophagy

- includes more than 50 prtn
- fxn:
- r assoc w/ er synthesize proteins
Destined for insertion in pm
- free r = synthesize prtn used in
Cytosol
- consist of two subunits
- made separately in nucleolus
- spherical body inside nucleus
- upon exit fr nucleolus = combine
- attached
- to outer surface of nuclear
Membrane
- to extensively folded membrane
- endoplasmic reticulum
- also located w/in mitochondria
- synthesize mito protein
- endoplasmic reticulum
- network of membranes in form of
Flattened sacs/tubules
- network of folded membranes
- intracellular transport
- extends fr nuclear envelope
- constitutes more than half of the
Membranous surfaces w/in cytoplasm
Of most cells
- rough er
- continuous w/ nuclear membrane
- studded with ribosomes
- phospholipids & glycoproteins
- where they are synthesized
- produces secretory, membrane &
Organellar proteins
- smooth er
- extends from rough er
- form network of membrane tubules
- synthesize
- fatty acids
- steroids
- estrogen/testosterone
- smooth er in liver cells
- help release gluc to bldstrm
- inactivate/detoxify lipid-
soluble drugs
- alcohol, pesticides, carcin
- smooth er in liver, kidney, int cells
- removes phosphate group fr
Glucose 6 phosphate
- allows gluc  bldstrm
- smooth er in muscle cells
- sarcoplasmic reticulum
- releases calcium ions
- trigger contraxn
- golgi complex
- first step in transport pathway
- consists of 3-20 cisterns
- small, flattened, membranous sacs
w/ bulging edges (pita bread)
- curved (cup-like shape)
- cisterns at opposite ends:
- convex entry/cis face
- faces rough er
- concave exit/ trans face
- faces plasma mmb
- medial cisterns
- sacs btwn entry & exit
- fxn:
- modify, sorts, packages, transport
Proteins received fr rough er
- forms secretory, membrane &
Transport vesicles (lysosome)
- all proteins exported fr cell is
Processed in golgi complex
- lysosomes
- membrane-enclosed vesicles
- form fr golgi complex
- contain as many as 60 enzymes
- lysosomal interior = ph of 5
- 100x acidic > ph of cytosol (7)
- worn-out organelles:digested
- autolysis
- destruction of entire cell
- self-destruct
- also operates in extracell dgstn
- acrosomal reaction
- when head of sperm release
Lysosomal enzymes to
Penetrate oocyte
- tay-sachs disease
- affect children of ashkenazi desct
- easter european jewish
- inherited: absence of hex a
Enzyme
- breaks down ganglioside
Gm2 (glycolipid)
- peroxisomes
- similar struc but smaller > lyso
- aka microbodies
- contains oxidases
- enzymes: oxidize/remove H atoms
- very abundant in liver
- where detoxification occurs
- hydrogen peroxide (H202)
- byprod of oxidation rxn
- decomposed by enzyme catalase
- proteasomes
- barrel-shaped
- 4 stacked rings of prtn
- destructs faulty protein
- plays part in negative feedback
- contains proteases
- cuts prtn = peptides
- not fxnal in alzheimers/parkins
- mitochondria
- generate most of atp thru aerobic
Respiration
- powerhouses of the cell
- active cells that use atp at high rate
- have large no. of mito
- consists of:
- internal mitochondrial mmb
- mitochondrial cristae
- series of folds
- mitochondrial matrix
- central fluid filled cavity
- external mitochondrial mmb
- apoptosis
- programmed death of cell
- self-replicaties; own dna
- mito genes: from maternal parent
Nucleus
- spherical/oval shaped structure
- rbc = no nucleus
- skeletal muscle cells = have multiple
- nuclear envelope
- double mmb; separates nucleus fr cytoplsm
- lipid bilayer
- has nuclear pores
- circular arrangement of proteins
- 10x wider > pore of channel prtn in pm
- control mvmnt of subs btwn cyto & n
- nucleolus
- spherical body inside nucleus
- fxn: produce ribosomes
- not enclosed by membrane
- sites of synthesis & assembly
- rRNA  ribosomal subunits
- genes
- within the nucleus
- cell’s hereditary units
- chromosome
- long mol of dna
- chromatin
- complex of dna, rna, prtn
- genome
- total genetic information

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- nucleosome Is responsible
- beads on string structure - football shaped assembly of
- dna wrapped 2x around eight prtn Mt Att to the kinetochore
- histones - push centrosomes to poles
- resp for separation of
Cell Division Chromatids to opposite sides
- process by w/c cells reproduce Of cell
- two types: - nucleolus disappears
- somatic cell division - nucelar envelope breaks dwn
- reproductive cell division - metaphase
- somatic cell - mt of mitotic spindle align centrmrs
- any body cell except germ cell (gametes) At the exact center of mitotic spindle
- undergoes mitosis - metaphase plate (equatorial plane)
- nuclear division - plane of alignment of centromeres
- undergoes cytokinesis - anaphase
- cytoplasmic division - centromeres split
- produce 2 identical cells - separating 2 members of chromatid
- same no. & kind of chromosomes as Pair
Parent cell - termed chromosomes
- reproductive cell division - telophase
- produces gametes - final stage
- meiosis - begins after chromosomal mvmnt
- 2step division Stops
- no. of chromosomes = reduced=half - chromosomes
- uncoil, revertto threadlike
Chromatin form
Somatic cell division - nucelar envelope forms
- cell cycle - nuceleolus reappears
- orderly seq of events - mitotic spindle breaks up
- somatic cell duplicates and divides - cytokinesis
into two - begins in late anaphase
- homologous chromosomes/homologs - w/ formation of cleavage furrow
- 2 chromo that make up a pair - slight indentation of pm
- sex chromo - always perpendicular to ms
- female = 2 x chromo - after finished = interphase begins
- male = 1 x & smaller y chromo
- somatic cells are called diploid cells
- two major periods ofcell cycle: Cellular diversity
- interphase = cell is not dividing - micrometers
- mitotic phase = cell division - unit for measuring cells
- interphase - 1 micrometer = 1 one-millionth of a meter
- cell replicates dna - oocyte
- state of high metabolic activity - largest cell (140 μm)
- s = synthesis; g =gaps - rbc
- three phases - diameter: 8 micrometer
- g1 phase - sperm cells
- interval btwn mitotic & sphase - only male cells req to move distances
- replication of organelles - disc shape of rbs
- replication of centrosomes - give it large surface area (o2transfer)
- last 8-10 hours
- g0 phase = cells that will never Cancers
Divide again - group of diseases
- characterized: uncontrolled/abnormal CD
- s phase - tumor/neoplasm
- interval btwn g1 & g2 - excess tissue developed
- last about 8 hrs - oncology = study of tumors
- dna replication occurs - malignant tumor = cancerous
- g2 phase - ability to metastasis (spread of cells)
- interval btwn s phase & mitotic p - benign tumor = doesn’t metastasize
- 4-6 hrs - ex. wart
- enzymes/prtns synthesized - types of cancers
- centrosome replication: complete - carcinomas
- mitotic phase (m phase) - malignant tumors fr epithelial cells
- results in formation: 2 identical cells - most prevalent type
- distrib. Of 2 sets of chromo into 2 - ex. cancerous growth of melanocyte
Separate nuclei - sarcoma
- prophase - gen term: cancer fr muscle cells/
- early prophase Connective tissue
- chromatin fibers condense - ex. osteogenic sarcoma
- shorten to chromosomes - most frequent type of childhoodC
- becomes visible - destroys normal bone tissue
- chromatids - leukemia
- pair of identical strands - cancer of blood forming organs
- centromere - rapid growth of abnormal leukocytes
- holds chromatid pair - lymphoma
- outside:kinetochore - malgnant disease of lymphatic system
- late prophase - causes of cancer
- mitotic spindle starts to form - carcinogens
- tubulins in pericentriolar - chemical agent or radiation that
Material of centrosomes Produces cancer

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- assoc w/ 60-90% of human cancers

- HC fr cigarette tar, radon gas, uv rad
- oncogenes
- cancer-causing genes
- derive from proto-oncogenes (nrmal)
- oncogenic viruses
- virus stimulate abnormal cell repli
- ex. human papillomavirus (HPV)
- causes cervical cancers
- proteasomes fr virus destroy
- p53 = cell division supressor
- treatment of cancer
- surgery
- chemotherapy
- radiation therapy

Medical terms
- anaplasia
- loss of tissue differentiation & fxn
- char of most malignancies
- atrophy
- decrease in SIZE of cells
- decrease in organ/tissue size
- dysplasia
- alteration in size shape & org of cells
- due to CHRONIC IRRITATION/INFLAMM
- may progress to neoplasia
- tumor formation
- hyperplasia
- increase in NUMBER of cells
- increase in frequency of cell division
- hypertrophy
- increase in SIZE of cells w/o cell div
- metaplasia
- transformation of one type of cell to
Another
- progeny
- offspring or descendants
- proteomics
- study of proteome
- all of organism’s proteins
- tumor marker
- indicates presence of tumor (subs)

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

Type of tissue - as transmembrane glycoproteins

- tissue - join the cells
- group of cells - inserts into the plaque fr opp side
- common origin in an embryo Of the PM, partially crosses
- fxn together Intercellular space (space btwn
- histology Cells) & connects to cadherins of
- study of tissues Adjacent cell
- pathologist - in epithelial cells
- physician; examines cells & tissues to - from adhesion belts
Help other phy make accurate diagnosis - extensive zones
- one of principal fxn: - encircles the cell
- examine tissues for any changes - help epi surfaces resist separation during
That might indicate disease Contractile activites (mvment of food)
- four basic types of tissues - desmosomes
- epithelial tissue - contain plaque & cadherins
- covers body surfaces - extend into Intercellular space
- lines hollow organs, body cavities - its plaque doesn’t attach to microfilaments
& ducts - desmosome plaque attaches to
- forms glands - intermediate filaments (md of keratin)
- allows body to interact w/ - extend fr desmo of one side of cell
- internal & external env. Across cytosol to desmo on opp
- connective tissue Side of cell
- protects & supports body & organs - contributes to cell stability
- binds organs together - spot weld-like junctions
- store enrgy reserves as fat - common in
- help provide immunity - epidermal cells
- muscular tissue - prevents separation under tension
- composed of cells specialized - cardiac muscle cells
For contraxn & generation of force - prevents cells fr pulling apart
- generates heat During contraxn
- nervous tissue - hemidesmosomes
- detects changes in conditions inside - resemble desmosomes
& outside body - do not link adjacent cells
- respond by generating elec. Signals - hemi = half
- nerve action potentials - look like half of a desmosome
- aka nerve impulses - integrins
- activate muscular contraxn - as transmembrane proteins
& glandular secretion - attaches to intermediate filaments
- epithelial tissue & most types of connective - inside of PM
Tissue ( except cartilage,bone,blood) - attaches to prortein laminin (present
- more general in nature In basement membrane)
- have wide distribution in body - outside of PM
- components of most body organs - anchor cells to the basement membrane
- most cells remain anchored to other cells - gap junctions
Or structures - connexins
- expt for: - membrane proteins that form
- phagocytes = move freely Connexons
- but cells migrate extensively - fluid-filled tunnels
- during growth & dev before birth - connect neighboring cells
- biopsy - gap junctions of pm are not fused together
- removal of a sample of living tissue for Compared with tight jxn
Microscopic examination - only separated by very narrow
Intracellular gap
- through connexons
Cell junctions - ions & small mol can diffuse fr the
- contact points between plasma membrane of Cytosol to another
Tissue cells - large mol (vital intracellular prtn)
- 5 most impt. Types: Is prevented
- tight junctions - gap junctions in avascular tissue
- consist of weblike strands of - where transfer of nutrients & wastes
- transmembrane proteins Takes place thru
- fuse together outer surfaces of - ex. lens & cornea
Adjacent plasma membrane - allow cells to communicate
- to seal off passageways - developing embryo
- present in epi tissue that lines: - chem & elec signals travel via gap jxn
- stomach - enable nerve/muscle impulses to spread
- intestines Rapidly among cells
- urinary bladder
- inhibit passage of substances btwn
Cells Comparison between epithelial &
- prevent contents of organs from connective tissues
Leaking into blood/tissues - ratio of cells to its ECM (substance btwn
- adherens junctions cells)
- contain plaque - epithelial tissue
- dense layer of proteins on inside of - cells are tightly packed together
Plasma membrane - little to no extracellular matrix
- attaches to - connective tissue
- membrane proteins - large amt of ecm separates cells
- microfilaments of cytoskeleton That are usually widely scattered
- cadherins - presence of blood vessels (vascularity)

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- epithelial tissue - excretion

- no blood vessels - epi tissue combines w/ nervous tissue
- connective tissue - form special sense organs
- significant networks of bv - two types
- being covered by another tissue - covering & & lining epithelium
- epithelial tissue - aka surface epithelium
- always forms surface layers - forms outer coveringof skin
- not covered by another tissue And internal organs
- excpt: epithelial lining of bv - forms inner lining of bv, ducts, etc
- Common bond: - glandular epithelium
- since epithelial tissue lacks bv and always - makes up secreting portion of glands
Forms surface layers - thyroid gland
- found immediately adjacent to - adrenal glands
Bv-rich connective tissue - sweat glands
- enables blood exchange - digestive glands
- to deliver o2 & nutrients
- removal of wastes Classification of epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissue - types of surface epithelium ( characteristics)
- aka as epithelium (pl: epithelia) - arrangement of cells in layers
- cells arranged in continuous sheets - simple epithelium
- either single or multilayered - single layer of cells
- closely packed & tightly held by cell jxn - functions in
- little intracellular space - diffusion
- two general patterns in body: - osmosis
- covering and lining surfaces - filtration
- forming secreting portions of glands - secretion
- protects, secretesm absorbs & excretes - absorption
- different types of surfaces: - secretion
- apical surface/free surface - prod & release of subs
- faces the body surface/cavity/ - mucus, sweat, enzymes
Lumen (interior space) of organ/ - absorption
Tubular duct receving cell secrexn - intake of fluids/subs
- may contain microvili/cilia - digested food
- lateral surfaces - pseudostratified epithelium
- face adjacent cells on either side - appears to have multiple layers
- may contain: - cell nuclei lie at different levels
- tight jxn - not all cells reach apical surface
- adherens jxn - all cells rest on the base mmb
- desmosomes - hence actually a simple epi
- gap jxns - may contain
- basal surface - cilia/goblet cells (mucus)
- opposite the apical surface - stratified epithelium
- adhere to extracellular materials - consists of 2> layer of cells
- ex. basement membrane - protect underlying tissues
- hemidesmosomes in this surface - loc w/ considerable
- attach epithelium to BM Wear & tear
- epithelia with multiple layers - cell shapes
- apical layer - squamous cells
- most superficial layer of cells - thin = allows rapid passage of
- basal layer Subs through them
- deepest layer of cells - cuboidal cells
- basement membrane - as tall as they are wide
- thin extracellular layer - shaped like cubes/hexagons
- two layers: - have microvilli at apical surface
- basal lamina - functions in
- closer to & secreted by epi cells - secretion
- contains proteins: - absorptio
- laminin & collagen - columnar cells
- glycoproteins - much taller than wide; like columns
- proteoglycans - protect underlying tissues
- laminin molecules - apical surface: microvilli/cilia
- adhere to integrins in hemiD - specialized for
- attaching epi cells to BM - secretion
- reticular lamina - absorption
- closer to underlying conn tissue - transitional cells
- contains proteins - change shape:
- collagen = prod by fibroblasts - squamous to cuboidal & back
- form surface along w/c epi cells migrate - ex. urinary bladder
During growth & wound healing - combination of the characteristics
- restrict passage of larger mol - simple epthelium
- participate in filtration of blood - simple squamous epithelium
- epi tissue is avascular - endothelium
- relyingon bv of adjacent conn tissues - lines bv, heart, lympatic vessels)
- exchange of subs thru diffusion - mesothelium
- most important roles of cells - forms epithelial layers of serous
- protection Membranes
- filtration - simple cuboidal epithelium
- secretion - simple columnar epithelium
- absorption - nonciliated

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- ciliated - lines bronchioles, uterine tubes, uterus,

- pseudostratified columnar epi Paranasal sinuses, central canal of spinal
- nonciliated Cord, ventricles of brain
- ciliated - FXN:
- stratified epithelium - cilia beat in unison
- stratified squamous epithelium - moves mucus toward throat
- nonkeratinized - coughing/sneezing speed up mvmnt
- keratinized - help oocytes move fr ovary to
- stratified cuboidal epithelium Fallopian tubes into uterus
- stratified columnar epithelium - nonciliated pseudostratified columnar epi
- transitional epithelium - appears to have several layers
- urothelium (lines most of urinary - nuclei at different levels
Tract) - all cells attach to the basement mmb
- not all extend to the apical surface
Covering and lining epithelium - cells lack: cilia & goblet cells
- simple squamous epithelium - lines epidydymis, large ducts, male urethra
- single layer of flat cells - FXN
- resembles tiled floor - absorption & secretion
- centrally located nucleus - ciliated pseudostratified columnar epi
- flattened - appears to have several layers
- oval/spherical - nuclei at different levels
- lines cardiovascular & lymphatic system - all cells attach to the basement mmb
- known as endothelium - not all extend to the apical surface
- forms epithelial layer of serous membrane - cells extending to surface
- called as mesothelium - goblet cells
- found in air sacs, Bowman’s capsule in kdny - bear cilia
Inner surface of tympanic mmb (ear drum) - lines airways of most of upper respi tract
- present at sites of: (FXN) - FXN
- filtration (blood filtration) - secretes mucus (trap foreign mat)
- diffusion (of o2 into blood) - cilia sweeps mucus away
- secretion in serous mmb - stratified squamous epithelium
- NOT found in areas - two or more layers of cells
- subject to mechanical stress - cells in apical layer & layers deep
- simple cuboidal epithelium - squamous
- single layer of cube-shaped cells - deeper layers
- centrally located nucleus - cuboidal/columnar
- round - basal cells divide
- strictly could not form small tubes - daughter cells rise toward surface
- more pie-shaped - move away fr blood supply
- covers surface of ovary - dehydrated
- lines anterior surface of capsule of lens - tough proteins dominate
- forms pigmented epitheliumof retina - cells become hard
- lines kidney tubules - keratinized strat squam epithelium
- makes up secretion portion of - develops tough layer of keratin
- thyroid gland & pancreas - apical cells & layer deep
- FNX - keratin
- secretion & absorption - tough, fibrous intracellular prtn
- nonciliated simple columnar epithelium - helps protect skin & tissue fr
- single layer of nonciliated columnlike cell Heat, microbes, chemicals
- nucleus near base of cells - amt increases the farther fr the
- oval The blood supply
- contains - organelles die
- microvilli - forms superficial layer of skin
- fingerlike cytoplasmic projections - nonkeratinized SSE
- increase surface area of PM - not contain large amt of keratin
- increase rate of absorption - constantly moistened by mucus
- found at the apical surface - fr salivary & mucous glands
- goblet cells - organelles are not replaced
- modified columnar epi cells - lines wet surfaces:
- secrete mucus (sticky fluid) - mouth
- accumulates in upper portion - esophagus
- lines gi tract (stomact – anus) - epiglottis
- lines gallbladder - pharynx
- FXN - vagina
- secretion & absorption - covers tongue
- higher level of secretion >cuboidal - FXN
- secreted mucus acts as lubrication: - protection
- digestive, respi, repro tracts - abrasion, water loss, Uv rad,
- help prevent destruction of stomach Foreign invasion
Lining by acid - form first line of defense agt
- ciliated simple columnar epithelium Microbes (kera & non)
- single layer ofciliated columnlike cells
- nuclei near base of cells
- oval
- goblet cells are interspersed

파이팅!
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Tortora & Derrickson (2017)

- stratified cuboidal epithelium

- two or more layers of cells
- cube-shaped
- fairly rare type
- found in ducts of
- adult sweat glands
- esophageal glands
- part of male urethra
- FXN
- protection
- limited secretion
- absorption
- stratified columnar epithelium
- basal layers
- consist of shortened irreg shaped
Cells
- only apical layer
- has columnar cells
- uncommon
- lines part of urethra & esophageal gland
- line smallareas in anal mucous mmb
- part of conjunctiva of eye
- FXN
- protection & secretion
- Transitional epithelium (urothelium)
- variable appearance
- relaxed/unstretched state
- looks like strat cuboidal epi
- stretched state
- looks like strat squam epi
- multiple layers & elasticity
- ideal for lining hollow struc
Subject to expansion fr w/in
- urinary bladder
- lines
- urinary bladder
- portions of urethra & ureters
- papanicolaou test
- pap test/pap smear
- epi cells scraped fr apical layer
- non kera strat squam epi
- vagina and cervix
- detect changes in cells of repro sys
- should be perf
- every three years; start at 21
- for 30-65 = every 5 yrs (w/ hpv test)

파이팅!