CLASSICAL MECHANICS AND BIOMECHANICS (I) v i +v f Δ v

KINEMATICS á= =
t f + t i Δt
Kinematics – how objects move INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION
Dynamics – effect of force in object’s motion
– The average acceleration of an object over an
Mechanics – branch of physics that deals with motion and
related concept of force and energy infinitesimally short time interval.
Δv
Reference Frame – any measurement of position, a=lim
distance, or speed must be made with respect to Δ→ 0 Δt
a reference frame. Velocity and acceleration are vectors.
Position – must be known at all times to describe +v The object is moving in (+) x-direction
the motion of an object. –v The object is moving in (–) x-direction
+a The object is accelerating/decelerating in (+) x-direction.
DISPLACEMENT –a The object is accelerating/decelerating in (–) x-direction.
∆ x=x f −x i The (+) and (–) of acceleration does not mean speeding up
Unit meter (m)(SI) (accelerating) or slowing down (decelerating).
*If velocity and acceleration are in the same direction, the
AVERAGE SPEED AND VELOCITY object is accelerating (speeding up).
AVE. SPEED AVE. VELOCITY
EQUATIONS OF KINEMATICS
distance displacement
ave . speed= ave . velocity= Five (5) kinematic variables:
elapsed time elapsed time
Unit for both: meter per second (m/s)(SI)
Displacement x or Δ x
Acceleration a constant
Final Velocity v or v f at time t
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
– (at any moment) is the average velocity of an object over
Initial Velocity v0 at time t 0=0 s
an infinitesimally short time interval.
Time Elapsed t since time t 0=0 s
(Constant acceleration)
 Ave. velocity does not convey any information how fast
an object is at a particular interval/instant of time. x a v v0 t
– The magnitude of instantaneous velocity is the
instantaneous speed. v=v 0 + at – ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
– If the object has the same velocity throughout… 1
v́=v x= ( v 0+ v ) t ✓ – ✓ ✓ ✓
2
– If object speeds up or slows down… 1
x=v 0 t + at 2 ✓ ✓ – ✓ ✓
2
v 2=v 20 +2 ax ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ –

x Applications of the Equations of Kinematics

(m)
Steps for solving problems:
0 2 4 6 8 10 1. Read and understand the whole problem.
t (s)
 RULING: Right-hand side is (+) x-direction; Left-hand
– If the object is speeding up constantly…
side is the (–) x-direction.
v i +v f
v́= 2 v́=v 2. Draw a diagram and choose coordinate axes
2 3. Write down the known (given) quantities, and then the
unknown ones.
ACCELERATION 4. Plan an approach to a solution.
– An object whose velocity varies from moment to * What physics applies here?
moment is said to be accelerating. * Which equations relate the known and unknown
– Specifies how rapidly the velocity of an object is
quantities?
changing.
* Are they valid in this situation?
AVERAGE ACCELERATION ( á) 5. Solve algebraically for the unknown quantities, and check
that your result is sensible (correct dimensions).
  Keep in mind that there may be two possible answers 1
to a kinematics problem. v x =v ox +a x t x= (v ¿ ¿ ox +v x ) t ¿
2
6. Re-check the solution and units.
1
FREE FALL x=v ox t+ ax t 2 v 2x =v 2ox +2 a x x
2
– One great example of constant acceleration is the
acceleration due to gravity.
y
1
– If the distance of the fall is small compared to the radius v y =v oy +a y t y= (v ¿ ¿ oy + v y )t ¿
of the Earth, then the acceleration remains essentially
2
1
constant throughout the descent. y=v oy t + a y t 2 v 2y =v 2oy +2 a y y
– In the absence of air resistance, it is found that all bodies 2
at the same location above the Earth fall vertically with
the same acceleration. PROJECTILE MOTION
– The idealized motion is called free-fall and the – Under the influence of gravity alone, an object near the
acceleration of a freely falling body is called acceleration surface of the Earth will accelerate downwards at 9.80/s 2
due to gravity. – Projectile motion is motion with constant acceleration in
Gravity two dimensions.
2 Projectile Motion
g=−9.8 0 m/s
¿−32.2 ft /s 2 a y =−9.80 m/s 2
FREE FALL a x =0
1 
v=v 0 +¿ x= ( v 0+ v ) t v x =v 0 x (constant)
2
1
v 2=v 20 +2 gy x=v 0 t + ¿2 DYNAMICS
2
FORCE
Acceleration ( y or g)
Displacement ( y or Δy ) – It is an interaction between two objects or between an
constant object and its environment. (It is the push or pull).
v a speed increases – When a force involves a direct/physical contact between
two bodies, it is called a contact force.
speed decreases
– When two objects exert forces on one another even
v a In which case the object eventually comes to a
though they are not touching, such forces are referred to
momentary halt and then falls back to earth.
as noncontact forces, action-at-a-distance forces
– The acceleration due to gravity is always a downward-
(Newton), or field forces (Faraday).
pointing vector.
MASS
KINEMATICS IN 2-D
– It is a measure of the amount of “stuff” contained in an
Displacement Average Velocity ( v́ ) object.
r f −r i Δr o Quantity of matter
Δr=r f −r i v́= =
t f −t i Δt – It is a scalar quantity (m).
Instantaneous Velocity ( v ) o Unit: kilogram (kg)(SI)
Newton’s Laws of Motion
Δr
v= lim – Isaac Newton developed three important laws that deal
Δt →0 Δt
with force and mass. These laws provide the basis for
Unit: meter per second (m/s)
understanding the effect that forces have on an object.
(SI)
1st Law of Motion (often called law of inertia)
Instantaneous
Average Acceleration (á ) – Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform
Acceleration (a )
velocity in a straight line, unless compelled to
v f −v i Δv Δr change that state by a net force.
á= = v= lim
t f −t i Δt Δt →0 Δt – The net force is the vector sum of all the forces
acting on an object.
EQUATIONS OF KINEMATICS IN 2-D
x
 – A free-body-diagram is a diagram that represents
the object and the forces that act on it.

3rd Law of Motion (often called law of inertia)

– All forces occur in pairs and there is no such thing as
– Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to remain an isolated force, existing all by itself.
at rest or in motion at a constant speed along a – Whenever one object exerts a force on a second
straight line. object, the object exerts an equal force in the
– An inertial reference frame is one in which Newton’s opposite direction on the first.
Law of Inertia is valid. – Any time a force is exerted on an object, that force is
o All accelerating (and rotating) reference frames caused by another object.
are non-inertial. – A key to the correct application of the third law is
– Mass is the measure of inertia of an object. that the forces are exerted on different objects.
o It is a measure of the object’s resistance to Make sure you don’t use them as if they were acting
changes in its motion due to a force. on the same object.
 MASS ≠ WEIGHT – Helpful notation: the first subscript is the object that
– Mass is a property of an object. Weight is the force the force is being exerted on; the second is the
exerted on that object by gravity. source. This need not be done indefinitely but is a
– Mathematically, the net force is written as Σ ⃗F. good idea until you get used to dealing with these
– If the object is at rest or at constant velocity on a forces.
straight line, Σ ⃗
F =0.
F́ HD =− F́ HD
2nd Law of Motion (often called law of inertia) F́ WS=− F́ SW
– Newton’s first law explains what happens to an
object that has no net force (net force is zero) acting TYPES OF FORCES (an overview)
on it. – In nature, there are two general types of forces:
– An object that does have a net force acting on it will fundamental and nonfundamental.
accelerate. Fundamental Nonfundamental
– When a net external force acts on an object of mass, 1. Gravitational – 1. Friction
the acceleration that results is directly proportional Gravitation 2. Tension
to the net force and has a magnitude that is 2. Weak – W and Z Bosons 3. Normal
inversely proportional to the mass. The direction of 3. Electromagnetic – Photon
the acceleration is the same as the direction of the 4. Strong – Gluon
net force. – Theory of Everything is the theoretical framework that
would unify the four fundamental forces.
Σ⃗
F ⃗
á= Σ F =m á
m
GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
– Force is a vector, so Σ F=ma is true along each
– The acceleration due to gravity is like any other
coordinate axis
acceleration, and Newton’s second law indicates that it
o The unit of force: newton (N) (SI)
must be caused by a net force.
Units for Mass and Force – In addition to his famous three laws of motion, Newton
System Mass Force also provided a coherent understanding of the
newton (N) gravitational force.
SI kilogram (kg)
(¿ kg × m/s 2) NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
dyne – Every particle in the universe exerts an attractive
cgs gram (g)
(¿ g ×c m/s 2) force on every other particle is a piece of matter,
British slug pound (lb) small enough in size to be regarded as a
1 dyne = 10-5 N; mathematical point. The force that each exerts on
Conversion factors: 1 lb ≈ 4.45 N; the other is directed along the line joining the
1 slug ≈ 14.6kg. particles.
 For two particles that have masses m 1 and m2 and are Apparent Weight=F N True Weight=F N
separated by distance r, the force has a magnitude given
by:
FRICTION
Gravitational Force – When an object is in contact with a surface there is a
m 1 m2 force acting on that object. The component of this force
F=G
r2 that is parallel to the surface is called the frictional force.
Universal Gravitational Constant – Surfaces that appear to be highly polished can actually
look quite rough when examined under a microscope.
G=6.673× 10−11 N ∙ m 2 /kg 2
 (Kinetic) friction opposes object’s motion (Applied
Force) that causes it to slow down and stop.
– When the two surfaces are not sliding across one
another friction is called static friction.
– It is the frictional force that keeps an object at rest.

WEIGHT
– The weight of an object on or above the earth is the
Static Friction
gravitational force that the earth exerts on the MAX
object. The weight always acts downwards, toward fs≤f s

the center of the earth. f MAX

s =μ s F N
Weight 0 ≤ μs
W =mg μs – Coefficient of static friction
The unit weight: newton (N)(SI) – Kinetic friction is the frictional force that acts between a
– On or above another astronomical body, the weight moving object and the surface with which it is in contact.
is the gravitational force exerted on the object by
Kinetic Friction
that astronomical body.
f k =μk F N
Relation between Mass and Weight
0 ≤ μs
ME m ME
W =G W =mg g=G
⃗ μk – Coefficient of kinetic friction
r2 r2
– The static frictional force increases as the applied force
Gravitational Force on Earth’s Surface
increases, until it reaches its maximum. Then the object
ME starts to move, and the kinetic frictional force takes over.
g=G
R2E
( 5.98 ×1024 kg )
¿ ( 6.67 ×10−11 N ∙ m2 /kg2 ) ×
( 6.38 × 106 m)
¿ 9.80 m/s 2

NORMAL FORCE
– The normal force is one component of the force that a
surface exerts on an object with which it is in contact –
namely, the component that is perpendicular to the
surface.
APPARENT WEIGHT *The magnitude of the frictional force does not depend on
– The apparent weight of an object is the reading of the contact area of the surfaces.
the scale. It is equal to the normal force the man – Friction depends on the nature of material from which
exerts on the scale. each surface, and other variable such as temperature.
Apparent Weight – In an inclined plane, the value of coefficient of static
friction can be determined by
ΣF=ma F N −W =ma
μs =tan θmax
F N =W +ma
θ – Maximum angle just before object starts¿ slide
TENSION
– It is the forces transmitted by ropes and cables.
– A massless rope will transmit tension undiminished from
one end to the other.
– If the rope passes around a massless, frictionless, pulley,
the tension will be transmitted to the other end of the
rope undiminished.