English ‫اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬ FIND US ON

Cruise report ‫הים השחור‬

of
R/V Mediterranean Explorer Black Sea Expedition
21st July – 3rd August 2005 ‫דף הבית‬
‫מידע לחוקרים‬
‫אודותינו‬
William B.F. Ryan1, Yossi Mart2 and M. Namik Çagatay3 ‫ספינת המחקר‬
‫מחקרים‬
Co-Chief Scientists ‫סקר קרקעית עמוק‬
Figure 1. The Istanbul-Uskudar isthmus ‫מדידות אלקטרומגנטיות‬
separates the Sea of Marmara from the ‫מערבל רודוס‬
Black Sea. Exploration was carried out in ‫בוסתן הגליל‬
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, NY, 10964, USA.1 areas designated A, B and C south of the
Recanati Institute for Marine Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel .2 ‫פיטופלנקטון חופי‬
isthmus and area D located north of it. ‫רכסי הכורכר‬
Division of Geology, Faculty of Mineral Resources, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, .3 Area Ais located at the Çekmece
Turkey -‫פרויקט צונאמי בקיסריה‬
submarine canyon, area B – south of 2
Prince Island, and area C is located south -‫תוכנית ממפיס‬
of the southern edge of the Bosporus ‫ניטור חופי הים הישראליי‬
October 2005 Straits, all in the Sea of Marmara. Area D ‫ם‬
is located in the Black Sea, at the shelf ‫פיטופלנקטון במים עמוקי‬
edge north of the Straits. Note the ‫ם‬
orientational similarity between the ‫יונקים ימיים‬
Bosporus and other valleys in the ‫הים השחור‬
isthmus. ‫פרויקט צונאמי בקיסריה‬
Variable sealevels and flooding phenomena in the Sea of Marmara and
‫אריתראה‬
the Black Sea during the latest Pleistocene and the early Holocene ‫קיבוע חנקן‬
‫במזרח הים התיכון‬
‫אנשי צוות‬
Introduction ‫צור קשר‬
Ageological and geophysical marine survey was carried out along both sides of the Bosporus
(Istanbul) Straits, both in the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, from 21st July to 3rd August,
2005 on board R/V Mediterranean Explorer. The survey was a joint project of earth scientists
from Turkey, the U.S.A, and Israel, and its purpose was to elucidate the details of the transition
of these two aquatic bodies from lakes to seas in the late Pleistocene and the early Holocene.
The survey encompassed ca. 1000 km of high-resolution seismic profiles and obtained 14
gravity cores. Our analysis of these data suggests that both seas were fresh to brackish water
lakes at the late Pleistocene, and that the marine flooding of both seas was abrupt. Specific Figure 2-a. Area 1_2 in the Black Sea is a
evidence for extensive subaerial erosion on the present continental shelf was encountered in prime example of the research
.the Black Sea which preceded the subsequent intensive marine flooding methodology of dense lattice of seismic
profiles. On board interpretation of the
Rational chirp survey led to sophisticated mapping
Conflicting geological and geophysical articles regarding the water composition of the Sea of of the seafloor and subsurface
Marmara and the Black Sea and their changing levels and variable composition during the unconformities. The isopach map is
latest Pleistocene and the earliest Holocene were presented during the last 12 years in the between unconformity 1 and the
scientific literature. While it is generally agreed that fresh water lakes occurred in those basins seafloor.
after the Last Glacial maximum (LGM), when global sealevel was 125 m lower than the
present level, there is disagreement on the mode in which the Sea of Marmara and the Black
Sea changed into their present marine environment as global sealevel was rising in the latest
Pleistocene and the early Holocene. While some persistently argue that a steady aquatic
connection existed between the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara after the LGM (e.g. Aksu et
al., 2002), accumulating evidence suggests that abrupt marine flooding took place first in
Marmara Lake and then in the Euxenic Lake, the fresh water predecessor of the Black Sea, in
the latest Pleistocene and the early Holocene, respectively (e.g. Cagatay et al., 2000; Görür et
al., 2001; Major et al., 2002). In an effort to explore this dispute further, an international marine
geological exploration was carried out in the Sea of Marmara and the southern Black Sea
during July 21 – August 3, 2005 aboard the R/V Mediterranean Explorer, to advance the Figure 2-b. Track chart and bathymetry of
investigation of the sub-recent to recent geological history of the Black Sea and the Sea of the eastern flank of Çekmece Canyon.
Marmara, and their interconnection with the Mediterranean Sea after the Last Glacial Contours in seconds of reflection time
.Maximum (TWT). The depth of the Straits of the
Dardanelles, 86 m, is equivalent to the
Participants 0.114 sec TWT, but the transition from the
:Co-Chief scientists gently dipping continental shelf to the
Prof. M. Namik Çagatay, ITU-EMCOL, Maden Fakultesi, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, steeply dipping continental slope occurs
Turkey at reflection time ca 0.13 (change from
Prof. Yossi Mart, Recanati Institute for Marine Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel yellow to red), that equals to 97.5 m.
Prof. William B.F. Ryan, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, Palisades,
NY, USA

Scientists
Mr. Kedir Eris, ITU-EMCOL, Maden Fakultesi, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
Dr. Liviu Giosan, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, USA
Dr. Cecilia McHugh, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367, and
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University of New York, Palisades, NY, USA
Dina Vachtman, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Ben Gurion University,
Beer Sheva, Israel Figure 3-a. Sevaral coastal terraces along
the Çekmece shelf, NE Sea of Marmara
were discerned at 98, 93 and 86 m water
Supervisors depths. The Dreissena shells indicate
Dr. Kerim Sarikavak, MTA, Ankara, Turkey fresh-water depositional facies. Cores
Prof. Atilla Ulug, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey obtained at MeDex05 cruise are marked
by green circles. See Table I for additional
data regarding the cores.
Equipment
The expedition was conducted from R/V Mediterranean Explorer, which was equipped with
chirp sub-bottom imaging system that was linked to the GPS navigation system. The chirp
data were analyzed on board using the Kingdom Suite interpretation package, which had
been donated both to the University of Haifa and to Columbia University by Seismic
Microtechnologies Inc. of Houston, TX. The expedition also deployed a 3 m long, 10 cm
diameter gravity corer. With this equipment the expedition obtained nearly 1000 km of chirp
profiles and 14 cores. The seismic profiles were interpreted on board, and the cores were
split open, described and sampled right after their acquisition. The seismic data were

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distributed to the interested participants in SEGY or JPG formats, and the split cores were Figure 3-b. Schematic interpretation of the
sampled by the participants and their storage is shared between Istanbul Technical University Chirp profile (a) shows foredelta
.and the University of Haifa for archiving and further research depositional patterns along the shelf-
slope transition zone of the northeastern
The expedition was financially supported by EcoOcean, Israel. Additional support was Sea of Marmara off the Çekmece Canyon.
.generously offered by the participating research institutes The gradient of the present seafloor
increases seawards of the shelf edge,
Scientific Background and similar features can be discerned in
The last Ice Age reached its maximum expansion approximately 22,000 BP. That accumulation the older strata. The unconformity at the
of continental glaciers led to a drop of approximately 125 m of the global sealevel. As post- base of the Holocene sediments (heavy
glacial global warming gradually thawed the glaciers, sealevel started to rise, and but for a dashed line) truncated the upper portion
short cold span in the Younger Dryas period, some 12,000 BP, sealevel rose steadily until it of the prograding sedimentary
stabilized at its present level some 6,000 years ago. The effect of this global warming on sequences. The level of the unconformity
lakes was twofold, the melting glaciers increased the inflow of rivers into inland lakes leading is deeper than 86 m (0.1147 sec reflection
the water levels to rise, but the continued global warming led lakes in some continental time), is deeper than the paleo-sill depth
regions to desiccation and their water levels dropped. Approximately 16,000 years ago no of the Dardanelles Straits, suggesting
interchange of water took place between the Aegean Sea, the Marmara Lake and the Euxenic subaerial exposure of the Marmara shelf
Lake, because water level is those three aquatic provinces was lower than the topographic when global sealevel was lower than 86
elevation of the sills that bound the Marmara from north and south, namely the Bosporus and m, before the Younger Dryas Period.
the Dardanelles, respectively. The depth of the Dardanelles is 86 m below the present Location of core #3 is shown on the chirp
sealevel, and that of the Bosporus was probably similar to the present sill depth of 33 m. profile. Core #5 is projected from the
Some 12,000 years ago the rising Mediterranean Sea invaded the Marmara, submerging the Kurbagali delta.
coastal structures but not obliterating them. Global sealevel continued to rise after the short
intermission during the Younger Dryas Period, but the simultaneous warm and dry continental
climate led to the drop of the level of the Euxenic Lake, until the sill of the Bosporus was
.breached too ca. 8000 years ago, and the fresh-water Euxenic Lake became the Black Sea

The marine geologists who explored the Black Sea in the past were well aware that the
chemical composition of the water of that sea changed from nearly fresh lake water to marine
salty water in the Plio-Pleistocene (Arkhangel’sky, 1927; Strakhov, 1967, 1969; Ross and
Degens, 1974). They also found out that in late Pleistocene to early Holocene times the level
of the Euxenic Lake changed drastically, it rose after the deglaciation, then dropped drastically
due to the warm and arid climate in its drainage basin, and estimates of sealevel drop of
more than 100 m had been presumed. Such large variations in lake levels are not unique to
the Euxenic Lake, and were measured also in Lake Van in central Anatolia (Landmann et al.,
1996), in the Dead Sea (Bartov et al., 2002), in lakes in North America (Harrison, 1989) and in
the Altiplano pf South America (Baker et al., 2001). However, the late Pleistocene Euxenic and
Marmara Lakes differed from the other lakes because of narrow and shallow valleys that
detached them from the Aegean offshoot of the Mediterranean Sea. The Dardanelles, some
40 m above the LGM low stand, separated the Marmara from the Aegean Sea, and the
Bosporus, some 60 m above the low stand, disconnected the Euxenic Lake from the global
ocean system. Since the drop of the water level in the lakes coincided with the global rise in
sealevel, the level of Lake Marmara was traced at depths of 93 and 98 m below its present
level. When global sealevel breached the Dardanelles Straits at present water depth of 86 m,
just before the Younger Dryas Period, it not only changed the water composition from fresh to
marine, but also raised the water level by circa 10 m. In the early Holocene, when the level of
the Mediterranean rose above the Bosporus threshold of ca. -33 m (Çagatay et al., 2000;
Görür et al., 2001), the level of the Euxenic Lake was at the approximate level of the Marmara
lake before flooding, namely ca. 90 m below the present sealevel. That difference of water
levels resulted in very intensive flow of marine water into the Euxenic Lake that turned abruptly
.into the Black Sea Figure 5. The three areas surveyed in the
Black Sea are shown in frames blocks.
The drastic change in water salinity was characteristic to both the Black Sea and the Sea of The eastern block is a multibeam map of
Marmara, and it was detected by sampling fresh-water shells from submarine layers at the inflow canyon along proximal
shallow depths below the seafloor, which were overlain by sediments bearing shells of continental slope. Line marked "chirp"
Mediterranean provenance. The rate of these oceanographic changes has been debated, and was obtained in the present survey, and
some earlier explorers presumed that the variations in sealevel and water chemistry of the lines 6,7,and 19 are locations of profiles
Sea of Marmara, and especially the Black Sea, were gradual and lasted several thousand obtaines byAksu et al. (2002). The
years. The period of that change was suggested to span some 15,000 – 7,000 years before inserted image of the seafloor off the
the Present (e.g. Yanko, 2003). One of the objective difficulties that led to the wide range in Bosporus is courtesy Dr. Daniella Di Iorio
determining the timing of a subrecent geological event in the Black Sea is the uncertainties from University of Georgia and the NATO
regarding the carbon reservoir in the Euxenic Lake, which, unlike the oceanic reservoir, is not SACLANT Center.
well known. That uncertainty had cast doubt on the precision of the dating of some of the fresh
.water carbonate sediment and endemic Euxenic fauna

In 1991, in the aftermath of the meltdown of the power reactor at Chernobyl, William Ryan of
Columbia University of New York joined an expedition that assessed the content of radioactive
matter at the floor of the Black Sea. En route he obtained several core samples bearing
marine shells located right above the interface with fresh water sediments. Ryan discovered
that his samples, obtained from various depths, yielded a uniform age of approximately 7500
uncorrected 14C years BP. Consequently he suggested that the flooding of the Euxenic Lake
was abrupt and not gradual, and occurred in the early Holocene, and not in the latest
Pleistocene as had been previously presumed (e.g. Ryan et al., 1997; Tchepalyga, 2003).
Furthermore, Ryan and Pitman (1998) hypothesized that the flooding of the Euxenic Lake was
a terrible catastrophe to its dwellers. It is well-known that lakes offer favorable settlement sites
because they provide fish and water for drinking and agricultural irrigation, therefore it is
plausible to presume that the large deltas along the shores of the Euxenic Lake could have
been well-settled in the Neolithic Period, when flooding occurred. Arough estimate of the rate
of flooding, based on the dimension of the Bosporus Straits and on the ~60 m of vertical
difference between the Euxenic lake and the Mediterranean Sea, suggests that water levels
across the Bosporus, between the Euxenic Lake and the Mediterranean Sea, reached Figure 6. Survey areas in the southern
equilibrium after a few months from the initial marine connection. For the inhabitants of the Black Sea. The eastern area comprises
river deltas along the shores of the Euxenic Lake such rapid rise of the water level would two mapping units.
mean that they had to retreat inland for several kilometers each day, an ordeal that many might
have failed to survive. Only the fishermen could have boarded their boats and arks and obtain
their food from the new species of marine fauna that flowed into their evolving sea. Ryan and
Pitman (1998) suggested that it were reasonable to presume that such a catastrophe left its
mark on the survivors, and could have become a myth that found its way to the Sumerian
literature and then to the Bible. Ryan and Pitman (1998) suggested further that the
catastrophic flooding of the Black Sea, that occurred some 8000 years ago, could be the
factual foundation of the Biblical myth of the Deluge, of Noah's Flood. This model of
catastrophic flooding of the Black Sea raised some controversy, and alternate explanations to
the variations in water level and composition of the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara have
.(been suggested (e.g. Aksu et al., 1999; 2002; Tchepalyga, 2003; Hiscott et al., 2005 Figure 7. Research area 1_2 shows
several features of sedimentary accretion
Working Hypotheses and Methodology and erosion. Aridge trending SW-NE
The purpose of the present expedition was to explore changes in water level and composition transects most of the study area, and

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at the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea during the latest Pleistocene - early Holocene time probably was fluvial levee when the area
span, approximately 12,000 – 5,000 years BP through sampling and imaging their uppermost was subaerially exposed, while the S-N-
sediments. Our expedition mapped the bathymetry, the stratification patterns, and delineated trending valley in the eastern section of
the stratigraphic contact between marine and fresh water sediments in selected sites in the the area seems to belong to the
southwestern Black Sea and the northeastern Sea of Marmara, to uncover evidence for the distributary system of the Bosporus flood.
low water levels of both aquatic bodies and their subsequent flooding. The post-cruise Aseries of contour-parallel ridges east of
laboratory research at the second stage of our investigation dated the flooding of both lakes by the levee is probably a feature derived
determining the age of some marine and fresh-water shells in the sediments located right from the strong flow of the Mediterranean
above and below the transitional layer, respectively. The sea-going campaign and laboratory waters as it flooded the Black Sea.
:research tested the soundness of the following working hypotheses

Toward the end of the Pleistocene the Marmara and the Euxenic Lakes were two aquatic
.bodies of fresh or brackish water, with intermittent fluvial connection between them
Lake Marmara was invaded by the Mediterranean water after the Younger Dryas cold period,
approximately 12 Kyr BP. The water level of Lake Marmara was approximately 10 m lower than
the Dardanelles sill when it was invaded by the Mediterranean Sea as global sealevel rose
.above the 86 m mark
The Euxenic Lake was invaded by Mediterranean water some 8 Kyr BP. The water level of the
Euxenic Lake was nearly 60 m lower than the elevation of the Bosporus threshold when the
latter was breached by the Mediterranean waters in the early Holocene, as global sealevel
.rose above the 33 m mark
Figure 8. The bathymetry of research area
3 is distinguished by arcuate channels
In order to test our working hypotheses we surveyed and sampled the upper sedimentary with contour-parallel ridges in between. A
sequence in several selected areas along the distal continental shelf of the Sea of Marmara previous seismic profile that transected
and the Black Sea, using Edgetech chirp SB-424 for the geophysical survey and a 3 m long, the area was used byAksu et al. (2002) to
10 cm diameter gravity corer for sediment sampling. Six areas were selected for detailed suggest that the ridges were offshore
geophysical mapping and core sampling. Three of the exploration areas were in the bars, but their juxtaposition near the delta
northeastern part of the Sea of Marmara and three were in the southern Black Sea. We channels rather indicates their deltaic
surveyed and sampled the upper reaches of the Çekmece Canyon (Figure 1 area A), the distal origin.
continental shelf south of Prince Island (Figure 1 area B), the delta of Kurbagali River, located
south and southeast of the southern edge of the Bosporus (Figure 1 area C), and three select
areas in the distal continental shelf of the Black Sea, 30-40 km NW of the northern opening of
the Bosporus Straits. The gravity cores that were obtained in the surveyed areas were split
open, sampled and described on board. The archive half remained in Istanbul Technical
University, and the sampled half is stored at the University of Haifa. The chirp records were
converted to SEGY format and interpreted on board and copies of the entire data set are found
in Istanbul Technical University, the University of Haifa, and Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
.of Columbia University in New York

The exploration thus comprised two parts, the seismic survey and the sediment sampling,
where the location of the samples was determined by the findings of the seismics. Two Figure 9. DTM bathymetric color chart of
seismic reflectors were determined in all the profiles – the seafloor and the unconformity that the Bosporus delta, ranging from blue
marks the lake-sea transition. The determination of these reflectors led to the preparation of a (shallow) to green (deep) shows deltaic
.(series of isopach maps which were used for the coring (Figure 2 depositional patterns. The central river
channel is accompanied by numerous
Survey details – The Sea of Marmara distributaries. Depth contour of 90 m (thin
Three sites were surveyed in the northeastern continental shelf and shelf edge of the Sea of red line) marks the approximate position
Marmara (Figure 1). Two were surveyed thoroughly and cored, one was surveyed thoroughly, of the Euxenic shore during the flood. The
but coring operations failed due to sandy seafloor. Aforth area, located very close to the image of the seafloor is courtesy Dr.
incoming transport channel of the Bosporus Straits, was surveyed intermittently, and there Daniella Di Iorio from University of
.coring of the sandy seafloor failed as well Georgia and the NATO SACLANT Center
Çekmece Canyon .1
Çekmece Canyon is the submerged extension of the Büyük Çekmece River, located some 40
km west of the Bosporus Straits. The river cuts a deep ravine in the upper continental slope of
the northern continental margin of the Sea of Marmara, and presents a sharp transition from
shelf to slope at depth circa 90 m. The Çekmece shelf-slope transition occurs at the depth of
the oceanographic threshold of the Dardanelles Straits which had been measured at 86 m,
and therefore it was selected for detailed investigation. Aseries of chirp profiles trending E-W
and N-S was carried out at the rim of the canyon. Six east-west and 16 north-south chirp
profiles were obtained there, and based on the interpretation of these profiles, 4 gravity cores
were sampled (Figure 3). The bathymetry of the area shows a sharp transition between the
gently dipping continental shelf and the steep continental slope. The transition between these
two bathymetric zones was encountered at depth of approximately 97.5 m, or 0.13 seconds
reflection time (Figure 3). This transition is lower than the threshold of the Dardanelles Straits
of 86 m, and could reflect some desiccation of the Marmara Lake before its flooding by
Mediterranean water. Preliminary analysis of the chirp data shows a clear pattern of strong,
shallow unconformity that truncates the underlying strata and is compatible with the
stratification above (Figure 3). The cores that were sampled showed that that unconformity
plane is probably subaerial erosion surface that prevailed in the continental shelf of the
Marmara Lake after its partial desiccation. Furthermore, the seawards dipping strata could be
interpreted as the foreset of the delta of Çekmece River. Since a large part of that unconformity
is at depths greater than 86 m, the depth of the Dardanelles sill, it seems that the erosion took
place before the marine transgression during the latest Pleistocene. It seems a priori that
sediments were accumulating and prograding at the Çekmece delta along the edge of the Figure 10. The bathymetry of area 4
continental shelf of the lake, then the lake level dropped and erosion affected the continental covers a transition zone. To the northwest
shelf. Finally the subsequent transgression led to the deposition of a veneer of marine mud the morphology is dominated by a steep
(Figure 3). The dating of the strata below the unconformity escarpment, which collapsed and formed
a large slump in the northeast. The
Table I. Gravity cores obtained at Çekmece Canyon sampled the brackish-marine transition collapse affected the orientation of the
.and in between, coastal zone sediments. CC-core catcher small ridges, which turned from contour-
parallel to contour-normal in the transition
Core ID Latitude Longitude Date Water Depth (m) General Coring Comments Objective zone between the cliff and the slump. The
MEDEX01 40°54.804' 28°30.713' 23/07/05 102 brackish/marine transition CC transgression trend of the ridges is compatible with that
MEDEX02 40°54.311' 28°30.913' 23/07/05 93 brackish/marine transition CC date terrace of the deltaic structure (Figure 9).
MEDEX03 40°54.896' 28°07.700' 23/07/05 93 brackish/marine transition CC date terrace
MEDEX04 40°54.876' 28°30.596' 23/07/05 117.5 brackish/marine transition CC transgression
Prince Island
The purpose of the survey off Prince Islands was to investigate the spatial configuration of the
deltaic deposit in that area, south of the Bosporus Straits (Figures 1,4). Consequently, several
chirp lines, shot in square-set pattern in two locations within the Prince Island research area,
were acquired north of Prince Island (SS), off the southern entrance of the Bosporus Straits,
and south of that Island (area C in Fig. 1, and Fig. 5). The survey in the northern section
encountered under a thin layer of sediments a dipping plane of depositional unconformity,
underlain by a series of northwards-dipping reflectors while similar reflectors were dipping

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southwards at the southern part of the survey area. Coring in this research area failed but the
little sediment at the core catcher during one of the sampling attempts was sandy, and the
seismic signature suggested the abundance of sandy sediments as well. Probably vibrocorer
.is required to sample this site

Some previous studies argued that the delta of Kurbagali River, which resembles the
Çekmece delta in its basic setting and its erosional truncation (q.v. Figure 3), was formed by
the Bosporus River that flowed steadily southwards when the levels of Lake Marmara were
low and the Euxenic Lake high (Aksu et al., 1999; Hiscott et al., 2002). Our observations
indicate that indeed a delta occurs south of the southern mouth of the Bosporus Straits, but
that delta is linked to Kurbagali River (Figure 4); it progressed southwestwards but thinned
and petered out northwestwards, towards the Bosporus, as well as southwards. Core were
previously obtained by ITU group to determine the age of the Delta off the Kurbagali River. A
presumption that was raised during the survey that the growth of the Kurbagali Delta is
derived from cutting-down of the forests in that area, which took place during the Early and
Middle Bronze Age to supply wood for the smelters. That presumption has been tested in the
laboratory, and preliminary 14C dating indeed indicates ages of 6,500 – 4000 for the deltaic
.accumulation off Prince Island

Table II. Gravity cores obtained at the delta of Kurbagali River sampled the brackish-marine
.transition and coastal zone sediments in that transition zone. CC-core catcher

Core ID Latitude Longitude Date Water Depth (m) General Coring Comments Objective
MEDEX05 40°49.811' 29°04.894' 24/07/05 92.3 brackish/marine transition CC transgression
MEDEX06 40°49.332' 29°04.908' 24/07/05 97.5 very well-sorted marine beach transgression
MEDEX07 40°50.392 29°04.908 24/07/05 87.5 marine beach transgression
MEDEX08 40°48.983' 29°04.325' 24/07/05 108.9 transgression

Survey details – Black Sea

Three research areas were selected for detailed chirp survey and gravity coring along the
shelf edge of the southwestern Black Sea, northwest of the northern edge of the Bosporus
Straits, marked as areas 1-2, 3 and 4 (Figure 5). The purpose of the investigation was to trace
evidence for a large and abrupt flow of water coming from the Bosporus Straits into the Black
Sea in the early Holocene and decipher the depositional regime that prevailed before and
.(after the marine transgression (Figures 1,6

Table III. Ages of samples from Black Sea (Core #10 and Sea of Maramara cores.
Submitter_Identification location 14C Age Age Error
Marmara Sea, MEDEX05-#01-76.3 cm Çekmece delta 15350 85
Marmara Sea, MEDEX05-#03-35-36cm Çekmece delta 25700 180
Marmara Sea, MEDEX #05-13-69 cm Çekmece delta 10750 70
Marmara Sea, MEDEX05-#05-80-81 cm Kurbagali delta 10450 80
Black Sea, MEDEX05 #10 134-136 cm Black Sea upper slope 4360 45
Black Sea, MEDEX05 #13 90-95 cm Black Sea upper slope 4360 >40,000

The upper part of the sedimentary sequence in the Black Sea shows three units separated by
two distinct depositional unconformities. The lower unit is probably Euxenic deposition
tentatively correlated to post-glacial Pleistocene, which is overlain by unconformity (Aksu et
al., 2002). This unconformity probably indicates subaerial exposure. The second layer,
tentatively correlated to post-Younger Dryas early-middle Holocene, was discerned commonly
in the distal shelf, is probably also Euxenic (termed Neoeuxinic by some authors, cf. Giosan et
al., 2005). This layer is truncated by unconformity , and it is overlain in turn by a thin layer of
recent (late Holocene) sediments, which covers the entire area. We presume that while the
uppermost layer represents sedimentation of the present Black Sea, the intermediate and
.bottom layers were deposited in the Euxenic Lake
Our findings repeatedly encountered the unconformity , the occurrence of which had been
questioned by Hiscott et al. (2005), in all the areas surveyed in the southern Black Sea.
Commonly the unconformity surface is settled by large shells of mytilids that exceed 7 cm in
.length
Area 1_2
Area 1_2 is located at the edge of the continental shelf, at median depth of ca. 105 m. The
area is distinguished by two types of erosional features – some indicate subaerial erosion,
and some are the products of the flood that affected the area. Alinear NNE-SSW-trending
ridge was discerned at the central part of the surveyed area with a parallel running channel to
the east, which could be interpreted as a river and its western levee (Figure 7). The linear
channel in the eastern section of this area could be a part of the large deltaic system that
occurs north of the Bosporus (Figure 7). Aseries of small parallel ridges trending WNW-ESE
was encountered east of the presumed levee, rising about a meter above the surface. Their
proximity to the levee suggests that these are flow-produced features. This distribution
patterns rules out the alternative interpretation that these small ridges are coastal bars
.suggested byAksu et al. (2002). See Figure 6 for details
Area 3
Area 3 (Figure 8) is located at the western part of the large Bosporus delta (Figure 9). Even
though sediment deposition at the main stream before the development of the distributary
system suggests that the delta is presently is not very active geomorphologically, it is still
characterized by deltaic features of erosion and deposition, such as large levees and
branching river arms, and such elements were discerned in detail in the survey of area 3,
which is located at the shelf-slope transition like the other research areas in the present
.exploration
Two arcuate flow channels can be discerned in Area 3, changing their trends towards the
northwest, and the levees of both were preserved in places. Aseries of contour-parallel ridges
was discerned also in this research area, most of them are located between the deltaic
distributary arms too. These ridges were observed byAksu et al. (2002) who attributed them to
offshore bars that reflect the gradually-rising level of the Black Sea; however the distribution of
the ridges to the proximity of the delta channels suggests rather the association of the ridges
.to subaerial catastrophic flow that deposited the Bosporus deltaic

Area 4
Area 4 (Figure 10) is dominated by a WNW-ESE trending steep coastal terrace in its
northwestern part, which seems to have collapsed and slumped at its eastern side. Fluvial
channels at the southern sction of the studied area trend NW-SE, parallel the sedimentary
ridges and the general trend of the bathymetric contours. The sedimentary ridges were

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affected by the slump, and changed their regular contour-parallel orientation to follow the
slump scar. Presuming that the coastal terrace is linked to the Euxenic Lake, not only the
channels but also the ridges are the product of a subaerial flow regime. The cause for the
slumping could have been a strong fluvial-like flow, but the possibility of an earthquake-
induced slump should not be discounted. Agravity core obtained in the fluvial channel at the
SW section of the studied area (Figure 10) contained numerous mytilid shells and spherical
pebbles of dark Quartzite, The shells yielded an age of 4360 +/-45 uncalibrated 14C years
(Table III), and are evidently of post-flood period, suggesting the effect of the strong current of
the Black Sea inflow. Furthermore, a shell sample from the base of core #13 reacted negative
to 14C assay (Table III). Since the lower part of that core is very rich in broken shells, it seems
.that the core sampled a pre-glacial erosional surface. See Appendix III for details

Five gravity cores were obtained in research areas 1_2 and 4 in the Black Sea (Table IV). In the
cores the transition from marine to fresh water sediments is readily discernible, it is
evidenced by the faunisic transition from dreissenids to mytilids, and it seems to be quite
narrow, suggesting abrupt oceanographic transition. See Appendix I for additional details

Table IV: Location and basic characteristics of the gravity cores obtained in the Black Sea Core
(ID Latitude N Longitude E Date Time GMT Water Depth (m) Core length (cm
MEDEX10 41°33.148' 28°59.467' 08/02/05 12:22 104.2 128.00
MEDEX11 41°33.156' 28°59.534' 08/02/05 12:45 96 73.00
MEDEX12 41°30.185' 29°11.683' 08/03/05 11:41 126.2 68.00
MEDEX13 41°29.902' 29°11.269' 08/03/05 12:22 117.9 95.00
MEDEX14 41°28.902' 29°09.655' 08/03/05 13:15 99.3 93.00
Discussion and conclusions
The processes associated with the transition of the Black Sea from a freshwater lake to a
marine province, and subsequently the similar transition that affected the Sea of Marmara has
been under a very vivid debate in recent years, ever since Ryan et al. (1997) published their
suggestion for the abrupt marine flooding of the Black Sea. Numerous arguments were
raised to refute that catastrophic model, based on data gathered in the Sea of Marmara and
the Black Sea. It was argued, for example, that a large submarine fan occurs off the southern
opening of the Bosporus Straits (Aksu et al., 1999). Such fan, it was argued, indicates a
steady flow of water from the Black Sea into the Sea of Marmara after LGM, barring the
possibility of a strong flow in the inverse direction (Aksu et al., 2002; Hiscott et al., 2002). It
was argued further that a series of small hills on the distal continental shelf of the southern
Black Sea are a series of offshore sand bars that gradually ascend the continental shelf as
the water level of the Euxenic Lake, and subsequently the Black Sea, rise slowly vis-à-vis the
post LGM rise of the global sealevel (Aksu et al., 2002). Some models argued for a
continuous flow of fresh or brackish water from the Euxenic Lake to the Marmara Sea after
LGM through the early Holocene (e.g. Tchepalyga 2003). Core #13 that sampled a >40,000
years old shell, and the abundance of broken shells and quartz grains in the lower part of that
core, suggest an unconformity surface, which merges with unconformity. This unconformity
preceded most of the sedimentary deposition of the Euxenic Lake, while the shallower
sediments in core #12, sampled in the same depositional environment, above unconformity
.( 1, were dated to 4,360 year only (Table III
The present survey scrutinized areas where evidence for gradual marine transition in the sea
of Marmara and the Black Sea was presented, as well as the evidence for a strong southward
.(flow in the Bosporus Straits (e.g.; Aksu et al., 1999; 2002
Our survey in the Sea of Marmara encountered evidence for subaerial erosion of deltaic
deposits off the Çekmece canyon and Prince Island that reflect lake levels somewhat lower
than 90 below present MSL. Dating suggests that the straits of the Dardanelles were
breached before the Younger Dryas than stabilized at the level of 85 m below MSL (Çagatay et
al., 2000; 2003) while global sealevel was stopped during that climatic cold spell. We found
out that there is no evidence for deltaic deposition by a continuous Black Sea flow south of the
Bosporus Straits, and the evidence brought forward to that effect byAksu et al. (1999)
.encompasses the mid-Holocene delta of Kurbagali river
The large and elaborate delta located north of the Bosporus Straits was formed by a flow that
is much stronger than the present flow, and silting of distributary channels was discerned in a
few places. Our data suggests that the distal continental shelf of the southern Black Sea was
subaerially eroded, and the rivers that flowed there cut channels and accreted levees, part of
which was subsequently flushed. We confirmed the observation of Aksu et al. (2002)
regarding two major unconformities in the upper sedimentary sequence of the Black Sea, but
differ on their interpretation. The strong erosion of the lower unconformity , is probably the
subaerial erosion, when the level of the Euxenic Lake dropped drastically (Ryan et al., 1997;
Tchepalyga, 2003), and indicated by the coastal terrace discerned in Area 4. The layer topped
by the upper unconformity 1, is probably the last phase of the lacustrine deposition, which
was terminated by the abrupt invasion of the Mediterranean waters. The thin veneer of post- 1
.deposition can be attributed to the present Black Sea
Acknowledgements
We are deeply grateful to the Government of Turkey and its representatives in Israel for their
permission to explore the territorial seafloor of Turkey, and their wholeheartedly help and
cooperation. The assistance and guidance of the Embassy of Israel in Ankara was critical to
the success of the cruise. The research benefited from the support of Lamont-Doherty Earth
Observatory of Columbia University, the University of Haifa, Istanbul Technical University, Ben
.Guryon University of the Negev, and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

We thank Master Danny Schaffer, Chief Engineer Itai Katzman, mate Omri Ben-Eliahu and the
crew of R/V Mediterranean Explorer for their expertise in obtaining the nautical and scientific
.objectives of the cruise

The project was made possible by the moral and financial support of Eco-Ocean organization
.of Herzliya, Israel
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