 The four fundamental forces of natures are nuclear force, electromagnetic force, weak-interaction force and

gravitational force
 The nuclear force, which is the strongest of the four, but its range is limited to subatomic scales, such as nuclei
 The electromagnetic force, which exists between all charged particles. It is the dominant force in microscopic system,
such as atoms and molecules, and its strength is on the order of 10−2 that of the nuclear force
 The weak-interaction force, whose strength is only 10−14 that of the nuclear force. Its primary role is in interactions
involving certain radioactive elementary particles
 The gravitational force is the weakest of all four forces, having a strength on the order of 10−41 that of the nuclear force.
However, it often is the dominant force in macroscopic systems, such as the solar system
 One coulomb is the amount of charge accumulated in one second by a current of one ampere
 One coulomb represents the charge on 6.241 ×1018 electrons
 The charge of an electron is 1.602× 10−19 C
 If any point charge q ' is present in an electric field E (due to other charges), the point charge will experience a force
acting on it equal to F c =q' E
 Electric flux density (D) is equal to εE
 Electric charges can be isolated, but magnetic poles always exist in pairs
 Static condition is when charges are stationary or moving, but if moving, they do not do so at a constant velocity
 Under static conditions, electric and magnetic fields are independent, but under dynamic conditions, they become
coupled

 Waves can carry energy and they have velocity

 Many waves are linear: they do not affect the passage of other waves; they can pass right through them
 Transient waves are caused by sudden disturbance
 Continuous periodic waves are caused by a repetitive source
 The types of waves include: Circular waves, Planar and Cylindrical waves, and Spherical waves
 A medium is said to be lossless if it does not attenuate the amplitude of the wave travelling within it or on its surface
 The wave travels in the positive direction if both coefficients have opposite signs
 The wave travels in the negative direction if both coefficients have the same sign
 When the phase is positive, it is leading but when it is negative, it is lagging
 When in a lossy medium, the attenuation factor must be considered
y ( x , t )= A e−αx cos ( ωt−βx +ϕ o )
 Types of LED lighting includes: Incandescence, Fluoresce and white LED
 Incandescence is the emission of light from a hot object due to its temperature
 Fluoresce means to emit radiation in consequence to incident radiation of a shorter wavelength
 To convert from sine to cosine, add a phase of -90

 Transmission line include: Two parallel wires, Coaxial Cable, Microstrip Line, Optical Fiber and Waveguide
 A pair of wires connecting the voltage source to the RC load is a transmission line
l lf
= ≥ 0.01
λ c
ωl 2 πfl 2 πl
ϕ o= = =
c c λ
 The velocity of propagation is related to both its frequency and wavelength
 If the wave velocity is not constant as a function of f, then the line is dispersive
 A dispersionless line does not distort signals passing through it regardless of its length
 A dispersive line distorts the shape of the input pulses because the different frequency components propagate at
different velocities
 The degree of distortion is proportional to the length of the dispersive line
 Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) is when the electric and magnetic fields are orthogonal to one another and both are
orthogonal to the direction of propagation
 Types of transmission modes include: Coaxial Line, Two-wire Line, Parallel-plate Line, Strip Line, Microstrip Line, Coplanar
Waveguide (TEM), Rectangular Waveguide and Optical Fiber (Higher-Order Transmission Line)
+ ¿¿
+¿ ,I 0 ¿
 A transmission line can support two traveling waves, an incident wave ( V 0 ) travelling along the +z direction
−¿¿
−¿ , I 0 ¿
(towards the load) and a reflected wave (V 0 ) travelling along the -z direction (towards the source)
 Z o is the characteristic impedance of the line
 The presence of two waves on the line propagating in opposite directions produces a standing wave
 If t and z have opposite signs, then the wave is along +z
 If t and z have the same sign, then the wave is along -z
 Wave phase velocity is frequency multiplied by wavelength
 If α is zero, then the medium is lossless, otherwise it is lossy
 Permittivity (ε ) describes how much electric flux is generated per unit charge in that medium
 Permeability ( μ) measures the material’s ability to support the formation of a magnetic field within itself
 Conductivity (σ ) measures a material’s ability to conduct an electric current
 Microstrip line:
c
up=
√ ε eff
' '
R =0 , G =0 , C =
' √ε eff , L' =Z2 C '
o
Zoc
ω
α =0 , β= ε
c √ eff
 If R' ≪ ωL ' and G ' ≪ ωC ' then:
L'
γ =α + jβ= jw √ L' C ' , Z o= '

2π 2π ω
C √
1
λ= = ,u = =
β ω √ L' C ' p β √ L' C '
1
L' C ' =με , β=ω √ με , u p=
√ με
 If sinusoidal waves of different frequencies travel on a transmission line with the same phase velocity, the line is called
nondispersive
 A load is said to be matched to the transmission line if Z L =Z o because there will be no reflection by the load
+ ¿¿

 If the load is open circuit, Z L =∞ , then Γ =1 and V 0

−¿=V 0 ¿

+ ¿¿

 If the load is short circuit, Z L =0, then Γ =−1 and V 0

−¿=−V 0 ¿

I −¿
0
¿
+¿ V −¿
0
I 0 =− +¿ ¿¿
V 0 =−Γ ¿
 Whereas the repetition period is λ for the incident and reflected waves considered individually, the repetition of the
λ
standing-wave pattern is
2
( 2 β dmin−θ r )= ( 2n+1 ) π
θr +(2 n+1) π
d min =
2β
 Maximum of voltage is minimum of current and vice versa
 For matched load, S=1, while for short, open or purely resistive load, S=∞
 Z( d) is the ratio of the total voltage (incident and reflected wave voltages) to the total current at any point d on the
line, in contrast with the characteristic impedance of the line Z o, which relates to the voltage and current of each of the
V +¿
o
Z o= ¿
two waves individually ( +¿ V −¿
o )
I o = −¿ ¿ ¿
Io ¿
~ 1+ Γ d
V (d )
Z(d)= ~ =Z o
I (d ) [ ]
1−Γ d

 Smith chart equations:

1+ Γ
zL= =r L + j x L
1−Γ