Présence de la danse dans l’Antiquité – Présence de l’Antiquité dans la danse,

Caesarodunum, XLII-XLIII bis, Clermont-Ferrand, 2013, ISBN : 978-2-900479-17-9

CAVE DANCING IN ANCIENT GREECE

par YIOUTSOS Nektarios Peter
(Université de Ioannina)

… kalo;n coro;n ejrrwvsanto … ejn filovthti mucw/' speivwn ejroevntwn…1

Introduction

How much do we know in reality about ancient Greek cave dancing ?

Dancing in caves for ritual purposes, a practice already known in-depth
from the prehistoric era, shows a special connection between religious
belief and the underground places. Many aspects of dance in antiquity
have been studied, but specific knowledge about the actual dance, which
was performed inside the grottoes, is rather vage. Sacred caverns and
rock shelters devoted to the ancient gods, such as Zeus, Apollo, and
Cybele and particularly to Pan and the Nymphs can be found all over the
Greek countryside. Dark places full of votive offerings and altars, which
would come to life during rituals attended by the ancient followers of the
Gods. Lucian’s precious testimony that no ancient ceremony was
celebrated without dance : ∆Ew§ levgein, o{ti teleth;n oujdemivan ajrcaivan
e[stin euJrei§n a[neu ojrchvsew~ 2 leads as to the conclusion that dancing
must have been performed inside the cave sanctuaries. Unfortunately
dance and especially cave dancing is an art form that leaves no trace and
research must study all relevant ancient sources and data from
archeological surveys only to retrieve small bits of information that can
prove its existence, its purpose and context.

History of research

Looking back to the course of Research we can detect a large number

of articles and monographies, which study ancient dance3 but there are no
essays about cave dancing in particular. Studies have been made of
course about the dance of the Curetes and the Corybantes already from
19134 but none of the research on the worship of the Pan and the
Nymphs, probably practiced in grottoes, refers to the existence of the
Nymphs’ cave dance. On the other hand, the existence of votive reliefs
dedicated to these Gods repeats a certain iconography that depicts the
three Nymphs dancing inside such underground halls5. The works of

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Feubel and Edwards, which study these reliefs, do not proceed to any
interpretation, or more profound analysis of the representations and they
confine to iconographical and typological remarks 6.
Dancing in caves and holy caverns has always been one of the basic
elements of ritual expression. A brief presentation of the evidence on
cave dancing starting from the Paleolithic era will be followed by a
presentation of various archaeological data and references from the
ancient sources. Our purpose is to show the continuity of this ritual
expression throughout the history of mankind. The essay will focus on
the sacred dance of the Nymphs inside these ritual gathering places in
antiquity and our aim is to explore the reasons why they chose the dark
and mysterious underground chambers as a dancing place. This essay is
certainly not complete, as there are still data waiting to be studied. Its
actual purpose is to inspire researchers to conduct a more in-depth and
spherical analysis of ancient cave dancing, not only in honour of the
Nymphs but also in honour of the other Gods as well.

Prehistoric era

The use of grottoes as a ritual place is something not new, but was a
common practice in antiquity already during the prehistoric era. Evidence
from a large number of caves prove that these breathtaking underground
halls were the site of recurring ceremonies – in some cases rites of
passage7 – and the large number of cave drawings, usually in extremely
unreachable parts of the caves, illustrate Man’s efforts during Stone Age
to encounter with the supernatural.
The Pech-Merle in France is one of the oldest known cave sanctuaries
containing Paleolithic art from the 20.000 BC. The startling paintings of
dotted horses for which it is famous are prominently displayed in a huge
hall, painted on a fallen rock surrounded by a large flat area that might
have been used for dances and ceremonies. Representations of the human
figure are rather scarce and those recognized as such combine human and
animal features. The famous “sorcerer” from Les Trois Frères in Ariège,
southern France probably depicts a shaman performing a ritual dance8.
The Le Tuc d’Audoubert, also in southern France, is known for the
remarkably well preserved bison sculptures of clay, around which there
have been discovered footprints of six people, all children, revealing a
distinct dance pattern. Footprints of people have been found recently, in
many places belonging to the Paleolithic era : Deep inside Niaux in the
Pyrenees more than 500 footprints of 13 to 15 year old children and
adults were discovered, the largest number so far found inside a cave,
indicating that ceremonies used to take place there 9.

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 Cave dancing in ancient Greece

A rock painting that belongs in the late Paleolithic period depicting a

circular dance performed by nine women around a central male figure in
Cogul in Catalonia of Spain, could be interpreted as a magical ceremony,
probably a fertility rite. A procession of warriors from Gasulla Ravine in
Castellon de la Plana district in Spain has been recognized as a ritual
dance. Dance scenes are also reported from the caves Minateda, Jimena
de Jean-Cueva de la Graja, Tivisa-Font Vilella, Cueva de Los Letranos,
and Cantos de la Visera in the Iberique Peninsula and in Bhimbetka in
India 10.
Finally the identification of several stalagmites’ and stalactites’
formations, like the famous organ, “Los Organos”, inside Nerja in Spain
and also inside Roucadour, Cougnac, Pech-Merle, Les Fieux in France,
Escoural in Portugal, as lithophones – natural percussion sets – is
undoubted evidence for the use of music inside grottoes during cult
ceremonies at an early age. These lithophones can be defined as natural
limestone or calcite configurations which have been subjected to
percussion by striking in order to obtain musical vibrations. It is not
farfetched to imagine the participants of a ceremony inside the sanctuary
of Nerja cave dancing to the music played by the magnificent natural
“organ”, chanting and praying to their Gods 11.

Minoan era

In Greece during the Minoan era the underground halls deep inside the
mountains and the mountain peaks had a special place in ancient religious
thought.
Lucian “On Dance” names as the birthplace of Greek dance the island
of Crete were according to Myth, Rhea, the Mother of Zeus, being
enchanted by this art, taught the Corybantes in Phrygia and the Curetes in
Crete how to dance :

Prw§ton dev fasin JRevan hJsqei§san th/§ tevcnh/ ejn Frugiva/ me;n tou;~
Koruvbante~, ejn Krhvth/ de; tou;~ Kourh§ta~ ojrcei§sqai keleu§sai.12

And he describes the Myth of the birth of Zeus :

oi{ ge [Kourhvte~] periorcouvmenoi dieswvsanto aujth/§ to;n Diva […]

ejnovplio~ de; aujtw§n hJ o[rchsi~ h|n, ta; xivfh metaxu; krotouvntwn pro;~ ta;~
ajspivda~ kai; phdwvntwn e[nqeovn ti kai; polemikovn.

As a result in Greek thought the art of Dance originated from Crete

and that is why Lucians writes 13: Meta; dev, Krhtw§n oiJ kravtistoi
ejnergw§~ ejpithdeuvsante~ aujto; a[ristoi ojrchstai; ejgevnonto.
Also the “Hymn to Zeus” composed by Callimachus reads14 :

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 Nektarios Peter Yioutsos

ou\la de; Kouvrhtev" se peri; pruvlin wjrchvsanto

teuvcea peplhvgonte", i{na Krovno" ou[asin hjchvn
ajspivdo" eijsai?oi kai; mhv seo kourivzonto".

In the Idean cave in Crete, which in later times was far – famed as the
birthplace of Zeus several fragments of copper shields have been
discovered during excavations conducted by Halbherr and Orsi in1885
and Sakellarakis in 1982 and 1983, probable votive offerings to the shrine
and it has been supposed they are evidence of weapon dances performed
inside the cave at least from the 8th century BC 15.
The concept of an area specifically designed for dancing seems to
have been Minoan in origin. Minoan frescoes and glyptic art indicate that
in the Bronze Age dances in Crete took place in settings of natural
beauty, around trees, altars and in and around caves and mountain peaks,
objects and places conducive to the epiphany of the divinity 16.
There has been noted a worship of stalactites in Minoan Crete,
something that outlines the religious beliefs towards the caves and their
hidden secrets. The discovery of stalactites and other similar limestone
configurations far away from their natural place is not insignificant,
according to N. Platonos. The complex formations and the vague images,
which they form, inspired the human imagination giving them magical
powers. Platonos believes that the stalactites, that were discovered inside
the palaces of the Minoan civilization used to be holy objects of worship.
Furthermore the mention of Homer, while referring to the Nymphs’
grotto in Ithaca, of krhth'rev" and ajmfiforh'e"17, is interpreted by
Platonos as limestone configurations, which sometimes took the form of
a bowl, a piece of cloth etc.18
At the Cave of Eileithyia near Amnisos in Crete, the excavations,
undertaken by Marinatos, revealed the special importance of stalactites in
ancient Greek religion. The chambers of the cavern are full of stalactites
and stalagmites and near the centre there are two cylindrical stalagmites
which are enclosed by a roughly built wall. Within the enclosure and in
front of the stalagmites is a roughly square stone, perhaps some form of
altar. Is this a clue verifying the existence of a short of worship ?
Marinatos feels confident when writing : “we are now able to claim that
the stalactites of the sacral caves contributed to the development of the
aniconic cult of the Great Goddess.” The pottery of the Eileithyia cave
covers a tremendous extent of time, from the earliest appearance of man
upon the island down to the fifth and sixth century AD. No other cult
place in Greece shows one of such duration, covering as it does, four to
five millennia.
It is worthwhile to mention the Psychro cave, also situated in Crete,
generally identified with the Dictaean cave, were the oldest Hesiodian
tradition localized the birth of Zeus. The British excavators J. Demargne

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 Cave dancing in ancient Greece

and D.G. Hogarth found a small offering in the little hollow between two
stalactites and systematic research soon showed that the Minoans
deposited their bronze offerings between the stalactites. The archeologists
had to break off some of them in order to obtain the artifacts 19.

Archaic period

In cave sanctuaries in Cephalonia and Leukada and other parts of

Western Greece, the worship of the Nymphs was practiced already from
the seventh and sixth century BC, as attested by the various votive
offerings discovered within them20. Homer in “Odyssey” mentions the
Nymphs’ grotto in Ithaca :

aujta;r ejpi; krato;" limevno" tanuvfullo" ejlaivh,

ajgcovqi dÆ aujth'" a[ntron ejphvraton hjeroeidev",
iJro;n Numfavwn, ai} Nhi>avde" kalevontai. 21

Therefore we can suppose that the cult of the Nymphs in caves existed
already before the seventh century. Homer is probably referring to the
Nymphs’ cave at Polis, in northern Ithaca, although Strabo in his
“Geography”22 didn’t see it, probably because the roof had collapsed, as
it was later confirmed during the excavations :

e[n te th/' jIqavkh/ oujdevn ejstin a[ntron toiou'ton oujde; numfai'o n, oi|ovn
fhsin ”Omhro": bevltion de; aijtia'sqai metabolh;n h] a[gnoian h]
katavyeusin tw'n tovpwn kata; to; muqw'de". tou'to me;n dh; ajsafe;" o}n [ejw']
ejn koinw/' skopei'n. 23

Homer writes during the eighth century BC and his reference on

votive mixing bowls and jars krhth'rev" and ajmfiforh'e" reveals a well
organized cult with past, present and future. It is probable that such
worships are connected with earlier religious practice in order to honor
and propitiate the Powers of Nature, personificated later on by the
Nymphs. Furthermore Homer’s reference 24 to the erection of an altar to
the Nymphs by Ithacos, Niritos and Polyctor reflects the first inhabitants
of the island and the ancientness of their cult 25.
Finally it is interesting that in Homer the grottoes are characterized as
places were dancing ceremonies were performed. So in the Nymphs’ cave
in Thrinakia :
koi'lon spevo" eijseruvsante":
e[nqa d∆ e[san Numfevwn kaloi; coroi; hjde; qovwkoi: 26

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Classical period

According to the research made by Wickens 27, during the archaic

period there were in Attica only four cave sanctuaries, that have produced
evidence of definite or probable use and none of them was devoted to the
Nymphs’ cult 28.
In the beginning the cult of the half goat God Pan situated in Arcadia
was not established inside caves, although most sacral caverns throughout
the Greek countryside were devoted to this particular God and to his
companions, the Nymphs. In Arcadia, the homeland of Pan, the God was
worshiped in sanctuaries. If someone runs through the description of the
land of Arcadia by Pausanias, he will easily notice that there is not even
one reference to any cave sanctuary, rock shelter or at least a sacral
underground hall devoted to Pan. On the contrary there are many
references on small sanctuaries and temples characterized by the author
with the term ijerovn, sometimes used to describe even a whole
mountain 29.
The Arcadians did not worship their beloved God inside grottoes but
instead they had founded iJerav like they did for other divinities as well.
Without excluding the possibility of the existence of a sacral cavern, in
fact the cave had no special meaning to the eyes of the Arcadians,
something that occurred later on in places outside the Arcadian land 30.
Things become amazingly different at the beginning of the fifth
century BC, when the cult of Pan was spread throughout Greece, first in
Attica and then to the rest of the ancient Greek world. Pan’s worship in
Attica and in Athens in particular is inextricably connected with a certain
historic event. This is one of the rare occasions that we have a clear
reference describing the entry of the cult of a God to a certain place at a
certain time. Pan’ s entry in Athens is reported by Herodotus as a
historical event occurring immediately after the Battle of Marathon in
490 BC, when the half goat God is supposed to have helped the
Athenians during battle. As described by the famous historian,
Philippides met the God on Mount Parthenion above Tegea and was told
by him to ask the Athenians, why they paid no attention to him, although
he was favorable to them. He continues that once the Athenians saw
things had gone well for them, they believed in the truth of Philippides’
story and founded at the base of the Acropolis a sanctuary to the Arcadian
God 31.
The Athenians were the first who established Pan’s cult inside a cave,
a natural sanctuary away from the urban centers and urban life. In Attica
the grotto symbolized something that was not necessary for the deity,
when his cult existed only in Arcadia : in the eyes of the Athenian citizen
the cave had similarities to his mountainous homeland and suited his

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bucolic characteristics. It also made the perfect frame to picture this God,
once transferred in Attica, a place much different culturally and
geologically from Arcadia. In other words this was the perfect place to
practice his cult and express at the same time his Arcadian origin and his
wild and primitive character 32.
Wickens concludes that “at least near the end of the archaic period
and the beginning of the classical period Attic cave use was increasing,
both for religious and other purposes” and believes “this increase may
reflect the rise of the population throughout Attica” at that time, “and the
subsequent greater and more extensive use of and traveling through the
countryside.” The victories of the Athenians during the Persian Wars, the
establishment of the Athenian Alliance and the economic rise that
followed, contributed to the greater utilization of the countryside (flocks,
cultivation) “causing the inhabitants to frequent more often the hills,
mountain flanks and ridges, the areas of the caves. This would have led
both to the sporadic use of the caves as shelters by shepherds, farmers
and travelers and to the greater likelihood that some of them may have
been established as shrines.” Whatever the reasons were during the
classical period in Attica, the number of caves that have definite use as
shrines, is twenty eight, nine of them devoted to the cult of the Pan and
the Nymphs, proving that their combined worship was first established in
Attica in the first quarter of the fifth century BC, after the end of the
Persian Wars 33.

The cave as dancing place – corei§on

The ancient sources that mention the caves devoted to the Pan and the
Nymphs characterize them sometimes as corei§on, which means a
dancing - floor. Menander’s play “Dyscolos” is situated in front of the
mouth, a sacral cavern dedicated to these divinities and gives us much
information on the way a sacrifice was performed to honor them.
Characteristic are Menander’s words :

siwph'i, fasiv, touvtwi tw'i qew'i

ouj dei' prosievnai. 34

And we here Sicon, the cook in the play saying :

kaiv ti" bracei'sa prospovlwn eujhvl iko" proswvpou

a[nqo" kateskiasmevnh corei'on eijsevbaine
rJuqmo;n met∆ aijscuvnh" oJmou' mevllousa <kai;> trevmousa,
a[llh de; sugkaqh'pte tauvthi cei'ra kajcovr euen. 35

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In many sanctuaries and especially grottoes throughout Attica and the

rest of the Greek countryside there have been discovered votive offerings,
reliefs, clay plates and clay statuettes that depict the circular dance of the
Nymphs36, either around the musician (usually on the clay statuettes), or
inside a grotto around an altar, while listening to the music played by Pan
(mostly on the reliefs) 37. These offerings represent a continuous tradition
that lasted for many centuries and despite the different stylistic and
thematic additions it preserved its basic characteristics unspoiled 38.
Dance, song and music were the appropriate acts of worship in order
to bring joy to the Gods and fulfill their ritual needs. As a result, the
double flute started to sound and the women began to sing and dance :

e[cairon aiJ ejpi; th'" pivdako" Nuvmfai. hJnivka de; ajnasta'sa katwrchvsato
kai; th;n ojsfu'n ajnekivnhsen hJ Plaggwvn, ojlivgou oJ Pa;n ejdevhsen ajpo; th'"
pevtra" ejpi; th;n pugh;n aujth'" ejx avllesqai.39

A basic question yet to be answered is whether these sacral caverns

had in fact places suitable enough for the “orchesis” to be performed.
Necessary elements in order to use a place as a dancing – ground is
smoothness and broadness. Homer mentions a dancing place that was
smoothed and prepared in order to host a dance, leaving a broad space in
the middle :
40
leivhnan de; corovn, kalo;n d∆ eu[runan ajgw'na.

Actually, if one runs through the reports from the excavations of these
caves, he will be able to trace some references in places inside them or
just in front of them, near the mouth of the cave, which could have hosted
a ritual dancing event.
Inside the well known Vari cave in Attica a certain place has been
reported, where small rocks have been gathered and used to fill cavities in
order to form a dance floor, “der sicherlich für Tänze gut geeignet war”41
as characterized by Schörner.
Interesting is the case of the plateau in front of the Idean Cave’s
entrance in Crete. Halbherr, while describing the plateau surrounded
amphitheatrically by the edges of the cavern’s mouth, admitted that it
reminded him a theatrical scene 42. A similar large space with altars is
mentioned by Marinatos when describing the Cave of Eileithyia, which
is, furthermore, large enough in the interior to host a dance and other
ceremonies. In both cases there was at least one altar 43. In the Hellenistic
acropolis of Rhodes the chambers w and e of the Grotto System I, a
probable sanctuary of the Nymphs, are also large enough to have been
used as a dancing place 44. The interior of the Pan and the Nymphs’ cave
in Mount Penteli in Attica, though small, it is flat and smooth enough to

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host a small group of dancers 45. Finally in front of the mouth of Pan’
Cave in Daphni there is a construction referred to as a small court. Also
the floor of the first hall, (Chamber Ι) was smoothed by small carvings
and with the use of plaster, creating a space large and flat enough to serve
as a dancing-floor 46.

The role of the cave in religious thought

The importance of grottoes in antiquity has been discussed by the

Neo-Platonist philosopher Porphyry on his essay, where, while analyzing
the already mentioned above extract from Homer on the cave of the
Nymphs in Ithaca, he believes that the poet is not absolutely accurate in
his description :

plavsma me;n wJ" e[tucen eij" yucagwgivan pepoihmevnon mh; ei\nai, ajll∆ oujd∆
iJstoriva" topikh'" perihvghsin e[cein. 47

But according to the philosopher, Homer tries to tell us more. Basic

key to the interpretation is regarded the grotto itself and he begins a
theological and philosophical interpretation of the significance of caves in
ancient religion. Furthermore, he explained that the ancient found in
them, due to their hollow shape and murky and shadowy atmosphere, the
elements that symbolize the cosmos and all the unseen powers of the
world 48.
According to Porphyry the connection between the noetic universe,
the cosmos with its invisible powers and the caverns, exists not due to
their shape, since not all caves are spherical, but because of the
atmosphere they create and because caves are natural, nocturnal, shadowy
and rocky 49.
All caves have a natural tendency to impress and inspire the visitor.
The rocks with their complex formations, which always remind us
something from the “outer” world and our everyday life, the stalactites
with their imposing patterns, the low almost non-existent light, which
hinders the visibility and stirs our imagination and the element of water,
either in form of humidity, or a spring, either in the form of an
underground lake, or a river, with strange sounds coming from unseen
sources echoing the walls of the dark chambers. All the above are
elements that impose us a sense of fear and respect towards the
magnificence of Nature. For the simple man, the farmer and the shepherd
in antiquity these places soon were considered as holy ground, places
were daemons and Nymphs dwelled, the protectors of sprigs and water,
the personifications of the life-giving Powers of Earth, necessary for the
cultivation of the farm and the survival of the flock.
Porphyry seems to have the same belief when writing :

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 Nektarios Peter Yioutsos

nuvmfai" te uJdavtwn prostavtisin oijkei'o n to; a[ntron, e[nq∆ u{dat∆ ajenavonta

e[nestin. 50

Besides the strange atmosphere they produce, one interesting element

we should take into consideration is the difficulty in accessing the caves.
Most cave sanctuaries, even the famous ones, are well hidden and are
difficult to access. According to Chatzioti the Nymphs’ Cave in
Paliampelo of Bonitsa in Western Greece, is literally unreachable and this
was one of the reasons for the excellent preservation of the archeological
finds, making at the same time it’s excavation extremely difficult. A
similar situation has been reported from the Nymphs’ Cave in Poros of
Cephalonia. The only way to enter the Melissani Cave in Cephalonia was
through the roof with a rope, and in order to reach the small island in the
centre of the underground lake, one required swimming skills 51. The
famous Caves of Mount Penteli and Mount Parnitha are almost
unreachable and mort caverns in Attica are barely accessible. The grotto
on Mount Penteli was discovered by accident in 1952 by workers while
opening a quarry nearby 52. Dodwell during his travels in 1801, 1805 and
1806 describes the cave on Mount Parnitha and the difficulties he had to
face in order to reach it 53. It should also be noted that even the small
shelters perched high on the North Slope of the Acropolis in Athens are
relatively inaccessible from the rest of the city 54. This fact makes
Wickens wonder whether this undoubted inaccessibility of the caves was
significant in their choice as shrines dedicated to the Pan and the
Nymphs. We should not forget that the rural and mountainous setting of
the caves generally seemed appropriate for these nature deities, especially
the one coming from the wild and mountainous Arcadia.
The difficulties in access have also been noted in Italy, were cave
sanctuaries, even the most famous grottoes, tend to be inconspicuous and
inaccessible and in most cases were found by accident as well 55.
Whitehouse in her work on underground religion in prehistoric Italy
notices the same phenomenon occurring in caverns of the Paleolithic
period and recognizes it as the so called “secrecy theme”, a general
characteristic attribute of underground cult. According to her the same
phenomenon can be identified even in the cave’s interior : frequently, the
most inaccessible parts of a grotto, the ones furthest from the entrance are
the most sacred at the same time, reminding us the much later adytum of
the ancient temples 56.
An interesting characteristic of the cave shrines already from the
prehistoric era is, according to Whitehouse, the existence of “abnormal
water” in various forms : still water (lakes), solid water (stalactites,
stalagmites), gaseous water, bumbling water, waterfalls etc.57 In caves
dedicated to Pan and the Nymphs abnormal water has an important role, a
fact already noted by Euvoulos 58. The existence of water inside the

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cavern could have been one of the basic reasons, which lead to the
selection of that underground hall as a sanctuary. Besides, nymphs were
considered to be daughters of rivers and representations of lakes and
springs.
In caves dedicated to the Pan and the Nymphs the water can be seen
either in the form of a spring, as in the caves in Vari, Penteli, Parnitha
and on the Acropolis, either in the form of small pits accepting dripping
water from the roof as in Oinoi II near Marathon, either in the form of hot
springs with healing powers as in the cave of the Anigrides Nymphs near
Samikon on the river Anigros, either in the form of a lake as in the
Melissani cave in Cephalonia, or in the form of waterfalls, like the one
situated west of the Boeotian cave of the Nymph Coroneia. Finally, the
most common form it can been seen is that of stalactites and stalagmites
as in the Corycian Cave on Mount Parnassus and the nymphs cave in
Iraklitsa in Kabala etc.59
Although inaccessible, most cave shrines were above all resting places
and pleasing to the senses. The use of the caverns for shelter by travelers
and shepherds with their flocks verifies this attribute. These places are
characterized by abundant water, shade and wild vegetation, often semi -
cultivated vegetation. They offer protection from bad weather conditions
and abundant water for the thirsty, they are located in beautiful,
sometimes breathtaking natural places and soon they were imbued with
the nymphs’ presence. According to Larson : “These places were above
all pleasing to the senses ; they invite the passerby to stop and refresh
themselves” 60.
The grotto of the Nymphs in Ithaca is mentioned by Homer as,
a[ntron ejphvraton hjeroeidev" 61, a pleasant, shadowy cavern and when
referring to another cave he writes :
aujta;r ejpi; krato;" limevno" rJevei ajglao;n u{dwr,
krhvnh uJpo; speivou": peri; d∆ ai[geiroi pefuvasin.62

Larson considers them as “locus amoenus”, which means pleasant

spots, and gives us a number of examples mentioned in the ancient
sources that verify here characterization 63.

In some cases there have been modifications and slight alterations in

the interior in order for the cave to become more pleasant and idyllic,
similar to a garden full of niches, statues, paintings and plants. An
inscription from the fourth century inside Pan and the Nymphs’ cave in
Pharsalus mentions Pantalkes who :
... e]mfuta kaiv pivnake~ kaiv ajgavl mata dw§ra te pollav ...
64
... o}sper tau§t∆ ejfuvteuse kaiv ejx eponhvsato cerssivn ...

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The so called “Grotto Systems of the Nymphs” on the Hellenistic

Acropolis of Rhodes decorated with numerous niches, carvings and
plants and other artificial enhancements reflect the garden like model of
locus amoenus and the Hellenistic aesthetic in a way that forced Rice on
his relevant article to reject the theory characterizing them as “pleasure
parks and he concludes : “this is surely a misconception based upon a
romantic modern view of “urban playgrounds””. As verified by the
inscription from the grotto in Pharsalus mentioned above, the artificial
formations inside the caves was not a rare phenomenon and must be seen
in its primary religious context as fitting adornments for a sacred area 65.
As a result the caves in their capacity as locus amoenus have been
connected with sexuality. Greek Mythology ιs full of tales of sexual
intercourses taking place within them. The “Homeric Hymn to
Aphrodite” mentions that Silenoi and Hermes used to mate inside caves :
th/'si de; Seilhnoiv te kai; eu[skopo" ∆Argeifovnth"
mivsgont∆ ejn filovthti mucw/' speivwn ejroevntwn. 66

Euripides in his tragedy “Helen” refers the rape of a nymph by Pan :

nuvmfa ti" / oi|a Nai>;" o[resi ††fugavda / gavmwn†† iJei'sa goerovn, uJpo; de; /
pevtrina guvala klaggai'si / Pano;" ajnaboa'i gavmou". 67

And in the tragedy’s prologue “Ion” Hermes describes the rape of

Kreousa by Apollo inside a cave :

ajphvnegken brevfo" / ej" taujto;n a[ntron ou|per hujnavsqh qew'i /

Krevousa. 68

Conclusion

Cave sanctuaries devoted to the cult of Pan and the Nymphs can be
found in many places outside Attica, some of which received great
attention in antiquity. Attica and Athens was not the only place, where
the worship of these deities occupied a prominent position in religious
thought and belief 69.
The Nymphs were thought to have dwelled in springs, rivers, trees,
mountains, grottoes, almost everywhere in the Greek countryside. In the
ancient imagination the playful figure of the pastoral dance - loving God
Pan and his music played on the syrinx always accompanied their joyful
dance and laughter. The survival of ancient beliefs and myths in the form
of imaginative stories and fairytales about “neraides “, fairies and other

46
 Cave dancing in ancient Greece

magical creatures living in the forests and caves today, should not be
considered as accidental.
When studying the ancient dance inside caverns we should keep in
mind that the use of grottoes as holy places appropriate for the
performance of ritual ceremonies and dance is not something new but
dates back to the prehistoric period. Cave dancing illustrates Man’s
efforts to encounter with the divine and the supernatural. In the classical
age caves and grottoes were usually the abodes and cult places of the
Nymphs and Pan, who in classical religion came to fill, at least to a great
extent, the place of the ancient Nature daemons. Pan’s worship outside
Arcadia was practiced in most cases inside grottoes and rock shelters,
places that fit the mountainous and bucolic character of the God. His
worship is in most cases combined with the cult of other pastoral deities
such as Apollo, Cybele and mostly the Nymphs. On the other hand the
cult of the Nymphs can also be found in caves or in places where the
watery element is strong, as in rivers, parks, and springs, pleasant spots
that fit the model of locus amoenus.
The combination of the two cults of the Nymphs and the horned God
can be found particularly in caves where the wildness of the scenery
matches the freshness of water. In most cases Pan’s worship was
performed in grottoes, where the cult of the Nymphs already existed, like
in the case of the Corycian Cave in Delphi. In some cases a new cave
sanctuary was created for their combined worship, like the Daphni cave
in Attica70. Cult places with high degree of inaccessibility but at the same
time appropriate for the traveler to rest and for the shepherd to protect his
flock. Underground halls situated away from the city, dark, with the
hollow sounds of floating or dripping water echoing the moistured walls,
with spectacular rocky formations, which have the power to impress the
human mind and inspire a mysterious awe. For the follower of these
Gods these are the naiad Nymphs singing and dancing to the sound of the
Syrinx played by the dance - loving God Pan, the leader of the Nymphs,
lord of the frivolous music, whose seductive melody echoes as far as
starry Mount Olympus and their grace stirs the whole earth and the sea,
as it is eloquently described by a hymn to Pan carved on a stone from
Epidaurus from the fourth or even fifth century BC :

PANI
Pa§na tovn numfagevtan
nai>avdwn megmq∆ ajeivdw
crusevwn corw§n a[galma
kwtivla~ a[nakt[a m]oivsa(~)
euvqrovou suvriggo~ eu
e[nqeon seirh§na ceuvei,
ej~ mevlo~ dev kou§fa baivnwn
eujskivwn phda§i kat∆ a[ntrwn

47
 Nektarios Peter Yioutsos

pamfuev~ nwmw§n devma~

eujcovr euto~ eujprovswpo~
ejmprevpwn xanqw§i geneivwi.
ej~ d∆ “Olumpon ajsterwpovn
e[rcetai panwidov~ ajcwv
Qew§n ∆Olumpivwn o{milon
ajmbrovtai rJaivqnousa moivsai.
cqwvn de pa§sa kaiv qavlassa
kivr natai teavn cavrin: suv
gavr pevlei~ e[reisma pavntwn,
71
w] ijhv Pavn Pavn.

The next time someone visits a cave sanctuary he should bear in mind
that this is not a mere dark and murky place inhabited solely by bats and
wild animals. It used once upon a time to serve as a ceremonial dancing
floor !

NOTES
1
“… and they joined the lovely dance in the recesses of pleasant caves…”.
(Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite 5. 261-63).
2
Lucian, On Dance, 277.
3
See the selective bibliography gathered by NAEREBOUT in NAEREBOUT, F. G.,
Attractive Performances, Ancient Greek Dance, Three Preliminary Studies, Amsterdam,
J. C. Gieben, 1997.
4
Their dance is connected to the Birth of Zeus inside Idean cave in Crete. Poerner’s
essay : POERNER J., De curetibus et corybantibus, Halle, 1913 (Dissertationes
Philologiae Halenses 22.2), see also for further bibliography on the matter NAEREBOUT,
1997, p 135-136.
5
N° 462, Ny. Carlsberg Glyplothek in Copenhagen, n° 2008, n° 1859, n° 1447, n° 1445,
n° 2009, n° 2007, n° 1448, n° 1879, Greek National Museum, n° 709, n° 711, Staatliche
Museen in Berlin.
6
FEUBEL, R., Die attischen Nymphenreliefs und ihre Vorbilder, Heidelberg, 1935,
EDWARDS, M. C., Greek votive reliefs to Pan and the Nymphs, New York, 1985,
References on the ancient dance inside caves have been made by BORGEAUD, P., The
cult of Pan in ancient Greece, Chicago, 1988, p. 168-9, while describing the ritual in
Menander’s “Dyskolos”, and also by SCHÖRNER, G., Die Pan-Grotte von Vari,
Schörner G. /Rupprecht Goette, Meinz am Rhein, Ph. v. Zabern, 2004, p 112-116. One of
the few distinguished studies which analyses the female circular dance, it’s role and
importance in ancient, with references on the dance of the Nymphs in Mythology is the
work of CALAME, C., Choruses of Young Women in Ancient Greece, Their Morphology,
Religious role and Social function, trans. by COLLINS, D. / ORION, J., New York,
Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Inc., 1997. See also LARSON, J., Greek Nymphs,
Myth, Cult, Lore, Oxford, 2001 and DELAVAUD ROUX, M.-H., Les danses pacifiques
en Grèce antique, Aix-en-Provence, Publications de l’Universite de Provence, 1994.
7
On Rites of Passage in general see VAN GENNEP, A., The Rites of Passage, 1909,
reprinted Chicago 1960.
8
On Shamanism see ELIADE, M., Shamanism and the archaic techniques of ecstasy, ed
Chatzinikoli, Athens, 1978.

48
 Cave dancing in ancient Greece

9
BURENHULT, G., “Pech-Merle : a 20.000-year-old Sanctuary”, in The Illustrated
History of Humankind, People of the Past, BURENHULT, G. ed., San Francisco, 2004,
p. 112-17 with illustrations.
10
In LANGE, R., The Nature of Dance, London, 1975, p. 63-67, and on the caves see
MARQUES DE LOZOVA, Historia del’ Arte Hispanico kai H. BREUIL, Les Peintures
rupestres schématiques de la Péninsule Iberique, Vol IV, also Gasulla RAVINE in
KUEHN, H., The Rock Painting of Europe, London, 1956, pl. XXXII, on the worship in
caves in Italy during the prehistoric era in WHITEHOUSE, R., Underground religion :
cult and culture in Prehistoric Italy, London, 1992, illustration with the cave paintings of
Gundabooka In New South Wales in Australia, also from Tadjelamin in Central Sahara in
The Illustrated History of Humankind, People of the Past, ed. Burenhult, G., San
Francisco, 2004, p. 432, 269, for Bhimbetka in India with Mesolithic rock paintings see
http://www.showcaves.com/english/in/caves/Bhimbetka.html
11
DAMS, L., “Palaeolithic Lithophones : descriptions and comparisons”, Oxford Journal
of Archeology, 4, 1985, p. 31-46.
12
Lucian, On Dance 272 : “They say that first of all Rhea was enchanted by this art and
tough the Corybantes in Phrygia and the Curetes in Crete how to dance.” and also “…and
the Curetes by dancing saved Zeus for her and their dance was in full armor and during
their dance they clanked the swords on the shields and their jumps had something divine
and warlike…”.
13
Lucian, On Dance 272, on prehistoric dance in Crete see LAWLER, L. B., Terpsichore,
The story of the dance in ancient Greece, Dance Perspectives 13, Winter 1962, p. 5, 12,
LAWLER L. B., The dance in ancient Crete, Studies presented to David
M. Robinson, 2 Vols, St Louis 1951, WARREN, P., “Circular platforms at Minoan
Knossos”, ABSA 79, 1984, p. 307-323.
14
“And lustily round thee danced the Curetes a war dance, beating their armor, that
Cronus might hear with his ears the din of the shield, but not thine infant noise.”
Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, Ι. 51-53, See also Apollodorus, Library, Ι. i, 7 : …Kouvr hte"
e[noploi… ta;" ajspivda" sunevkrouon… and Strabo, Geography, 10.3.11: …ejnovplion
kivnhsin met∆ ojrchvsew"… meta; tumpavnwn kai; toiouvtwn a[llwn yovfwn kai; ejnoplivo u
coreiva" kai; qoruvbou perievponte" th;n qeo;n…
15
a detailed report of all excavations in SAKELLARAKIS, G., Ανασκαφή Ιδαίου
Άντρου, ΠΑΕ 1983, p. 415-500 and for the shields in particular see KUNZE, E.,
Kretische Bronzenreliefs, Stuttgart 1931 and BENTON, S., “The date of the Cretan
Shields”, ABSA, 1938, p. 52-64, KAKRIDIS, J., “Ελληνική Μυθολογία”, Οι Θεοί”, τόµος
2, Εκδοτική Αθηνών, Athens, 1986, p. 299-302.
16
See note 12 and LONSDALE, S. H., Dance and ritual play in Greek religion,
Baltimore, 1993, p. 115-116 and on sacred caves in Minoan religion see NILLSON, M.
P., The Minoan – Mycenaean Religion and its survival in Greek Religion, Lund 1968,
p. 53-76 and 457-461, JONES, D. W., Peak Sanctuaries and Sacred Caves of Minoan
Crete, Jonsered, P. Aström, 1999, FAURE, P., “Cultes populaires dans la Crète antique”,
BCH, 96, 1972, p. 389-426, RUTKOWSKI B., “Minoan Sanctuaries : The Topography
and Architecture”, in LAFFINEUR, R., Annales d'archéologie égéenne de l’Université de
Liège 2 [Aegaeum 2], Liège, 1988, p. 71-98, DAWKINS, R. M./ LAISTNER, M. L. W.,
“The Excavation of the Kamares Cave in Crete”, BSA, 19, 1912-13, p. 1-34, FAURE, P.,
“Cultes de sommets et cultes de cavernes en Crète”, BCH, 87, 1963, p. 493-508, FAURE,
P., Fonctions des cavernes crétoises, Paris, 1964, FAURE, P., “Recherches sur le
peuplement du montagne en Crète, Sites, cavernes et cultes”, BCH, 89, 1965, p. 27-63,
FAURE, P., “Cavernes sacrées de la Crète antique”, Cretan Studies, 4, 1994, p. 77-83,
HAZZIDAKIS, J., “An Early Minoan Sacred Cave at Arkalochori in Crete”, BSA, 19,
1912-13, p. 35-4, KANTA, A., “To spelaio tou Lilianou”, Kretika Chronika, 23, 1971,
p. 425-439, MARINATOS, S., “Zur Frage der Grotte von Arkalochori”, Kadmos, 1, 1962,

49
 Nektarios Peter Yioutsos

p. 87-94, RUTKOWSKI, B., “Minoan Caves : The Main Cult Area”, in

B. RUTKOWSKI, Aegean Archaeology 1, Warsaw, 1994, p. 26-30, TYREE, E. L.,
Cretan Sacred Caves : Archaeological Evidence, Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Missouri at Columbia, 1974, TYREE, E. L., “Diachronic Changes in Minoan Cave Cult”,
in LAFFINEUR, R. / HÄGG, R., POTNIA. Deities and Religion in the Aegean Bronze
Age, Aegaeum, 22, Liège / Austin 2001, p. 39-50. See also more bibliography on Minoan
religion in general in jose@historia-antigua.com
17
Mixing bowls and jars, Hom. Οd. 13.105.
18
PLATONOS, N. E., Περί της εν Κρήτη λατρείας των σταλακτιτών, ΑΕφηµ, 1930,
p. 160.
19
MARINATOS, S. N., Ανασκαφαί εν Κρήτη, 1930, ΠΑΕ, 1930, p. 91-99 and
MARINATOS, S. Ν., The Cult of the Cretan Caves, 1939, p. 132-135. General
information on the cave in HOGARTH, D. G., “The Cave of Psychro in Crete”, The
Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 30, 1900, p. 90-91,
HOGARTH, D. G., “The Dictaean Cave”, BSA, 6, 1899-1900, p. 94-116, WATROUS,
L.V., The Cave Sanctuary of Zeus at Psychro : A Study of Extra-Urban Sanctuaries in
Minoan and Early Iron Age Crete, Aegaeum, 15, Liège, 1996, RUTKOWSKI, B. /
Krzysztof NOWICKI, The Psychro Cave and Other Sacred Grottoes in Crete, Polish
Academy of Science, Warsaw, 1996.
20
TZOUVARA SOULI, Chr., Οµάδα πήλινων Ειδωλίων από το σπήλαιο Ασβότρυπα στο
Φρύνι της Λευκάδας, Ioannina, 1999. Also according to Chatzioti, Ε. Μ. at the Nymphs’
cave in Poros of Cephalonia, in Paliampelo cave in Bonitsa and Boliatso cave in Leukada
(unpublished), see in CHATZIOTI, E. M., “Ευ., Νοµός Λευκάδας, Κάβαλλος, Σπήλαιο
Μπολιάτσω”, ADeltion, 52, 1997, p. 1176 and CHATZIOTI, E. M., “Νοµός Λευκάδας,
Σπήλαιο Μπολιάτσω στον Καβάλλο”, ADeltion, 49, 1994, p. 842, on the Poros cave in
Cephalonia in CHATZIOTI, E. M., “Κεφαλληνία, Πόρος Σπήλαιο Δράκαινα”, ADeltion,
50, p. 836 and pl. 256α, and CHATZIOTI / STRATOULI/ KOTSABOPOULOU, “Η
σπηλιά της Δράκαινας, Πρόσφατη έρευνα στον Πόρο Κεφαλονιάς”, ΑΑΑ, 22, 1989,
p. 36, p. 51, fig. 11, on Paliampelo cave in Bonitsa in TZOUVARA SOULI Chr., “Οµάδα
πήλινων ειδωλίων από το σπήλαιο Ασβότρυπα στο Φρύνι της Λευκάδας”, Dodona ΚΖ’,
1, 1998 (offprint), Ioannina, 1999, p. 376, pl. 96, CHATZIOTI / STRATOULI /
KOTSABOPOULOU, ΑΑΑ, 22, p. 51.
21
Hom. Οd. 13.102-112 : “At the head of the harbor is a long leafed olive tree, and near it
a pleasant, shadowy cave sacred to the nymphs called naiads…”
22
Strabo, Geography, I, III, 18.
23
BENTON, S., “Excavations in Ithaca III, The Cave at Polis I”, ABSA, 35, 1934-35,
p. 45-73 and BENTON, S., “Excavations in Ithaca III, The Cave at Polis II”, ABSA, 39,
1939, p. 1-51, pl. 1-24.
24
Hom. Od. 17.205-11.
25
Ithacos was the eponymous hero of the island and Niritos was a mountain, see
LARSON, J., Greek Nymphs, Myth, Cult, Lore, Oxford, 2001, p. 26.
26
Hom. Od. 12.317-18.
27
WICKENS, J. M., The archeology and history of cave use in Attica, Greece from
prehistoric through late roman times, Vol. I, II, UMI, Indiana University, 1986.
28
WICKENS, J. M., The archeology and history of cave use in Attica, Greece from
prehistoric through late roman times, Vol. I, II, UMI, Indiana University, 1986, p. 164 :
the Tomb of Iphigenia, the Profitis Ilias varathron, Karabola cave and the Ploutoneion.
29
Pausanias, Arcadia, VIII : iJero;n ei\nai Pano;" levgetai [24,4], e[sti kai; nao;" ejn th/'
JHraiva/ Pano;" [26, 2], to; de; o[ro" to; Mainavlion iJero;n mavlista ei\nai Pano;" nomivzousin
[36,8], iJero;n leivpetai Panov" [36, 7], ej" iJero;n Panov" [37, 11], e[sti de; ejn tw/' Lukaivw/
Panov" te iJero;n kai; peri; aujto; a[lso" devndrwn kai; iJppovdromov" te kai; pro; aujtou'
stavdion [38, 5], Panov" ejstin iJero;n kai; pro;" aujtw/' dru'", iJera; kai; au{th tou' Panov" [54,

50
 Cave dancing in ancient Greece

4], kai; Panov" te iJero;n ejn aujtoi'" ejstiv nomivo u [38, 11], which was excavated in the
beginning of the twentieth century by Kourouniotis, who discovered the foundation of a
small temple with ionic and Doric columns in KOUROUNIOTIS, Κ., “Ανασκαφή ιερού
Νοµίου Πανός”, ΠΑΕ, 1902, p. 72-5. Also on Carya hill on the road from Megalopolis to
Chrysovitsi there has been found a Pan’s shrine with votive offerings from the fifth
century down to Hellenistic period in STEINHAUER, G., “Λυκοχία επαρχία
Μαντινείας”, in ADeltion, 28, 1973, Chronicles, p. 178-180, and map 10. Temples are
also reported to have been founded near Olympia and the River Alpheios : mesth; d∆ ejsti;n
hJ gh' pa'sa ajrtemisivw n te kai; ajfrodisivw n kai; numfaivwn ejn a[l sesin ajnqevwn [plev]w/" to;
polu; dia; th;n eujudrivan [Strabo, Geography, VIII, III, 12]. See also FARNELL, Cults of
the Greek State V, Oxford, 1909, p. 464.
30
Few cult sites in Arcadia, devoted to the Nymphs though, are mentioned by the ancient
sources : a cave in Tegea, based in the discovery of an aniconic triple herm pillar once
used to mark a sanctuary of the Nymphs, a grotto at Glyphai on the Alpheios River with
the Glyphian Nymphs and one last possibly in Phigalia : see JOST, M., Sanctuaires et
cultes d’Arcadie, 1985, p. 476 and IG V 2. 65, on “Γλυφεῖον a[ντρον” near στον Alpheios
River see Hesychius and in Etym. Magn., on the Nymphs’ cave in Phigalia see epigram of
Crinagoras 43, Anthologia Palatina 6.253 and LARSON, J., Greek Nymphs, Myth, Cult,
Lore, Oxford, 2001, p. 156, note 121.
31
Herodotus, “Ιστοριῶν” VI 105-106 : Tw/' dhv, wJ" aujtov" te e[l ege Filippivdh" kai;
∆Aqhnaivoisi ajphvggelle, peri; to; Parqevnion ouj§ro" to; uJp e;r Tegevh" oJ Pa;n peripivptei:
bwvsanta de; to; ou[noma tou' Filippivdew to;n Pa'na ∆Aqhnaivoisi keleu'sai ajpaggei'lai
di∆ o{ ti eJw utou' oujd emivan ejpimeleivhn poieu'ntai, ejovnto" eujnovou ∆Aqhnaivoisi kai;
pollach/' genomevnou sfi h[dh crhsivmou, ta; d∆ e[ti kai; ejsomevnou. Kai; tau'ta me;n
∆Aqhnai'oi, katastavntwn sfi eu\ h[dh tw'n prhgmavtwn, pisteuvsante" ei\nai ajlhqeva
iJdruvsanto uJpo; th/' ∆Akropovli Pano;" iJrovn, kai; aujto;n ajpo; tauvth" th'" ajggelivh" qusivh/siv
te ejp eteivoisi kai; lampavdi iJlavskontai.
32
DELIGIORGI-ALEXOPOULOU, C., “Τα ιερά της Αττικής”, Archeology, 39
(magazine), p. 46.
33
WICKENS, J. M., The archeology and history of cave use in Attica, Greece from
prehistoric through late roman times, Vol. I, II, UMI, Indiana University, 1986, p. 168-9.
34
Menander, Dyscolos, 433-34.
35
Menander, Dyscolos, 950-953 : “…and then a joyful lady, covering her young flower
like face entered the dance floor shyly to dance. And another lady caught her hand and
danced beside her…” Unfortunately the publication of the excavations in 1900-1901 by
Skias at the Cave of Mount Parnitha, thought to be the actual cave in front of which the
play takes place, does not inform us on the degree of smoothness of the floor inside the
cave, something that would confirm the identification of a certain place as “χορεῖον”. In
fact Skias does mention a “πρόθυρο”, court in front of the mouth of the cave, smooth and
large enough to host a religious ceremony and maybe also a dance. In SKIAS, A., “Τό
παρά τήν Φυλήν a[ντρο τοu§ Πανός”, ΑΕφηµ, 1918, p. 1-28.
36
See the votive offerings from the Vari cave, Parnitha cave, Corycian cave in
AMANDRY, P., “L’antre Corycien II”, BCH, Suppl. IX, 1984, RHOMAIOS, K.,
“Ανασκαφή επί της Πάρνηθος άντρου”, ΑΕφηµ, 1905, p. 110-117 and THALLON, Ida C.,
“The cave at Vari, Marble reliefs”, AJA, 7, 1903, p. 301-319.
37
Numerous clay statuettes have been discovered in the Nymphs’ caves excavated by
Chatzioti in Paliampelo in Bonitsa and in Poros in Cephalonia (unpublished). See also
FEUBEL, R., Die attischen Nymphenreliefs und ihre Vorbilder, Heidelberg 1935,
EDWARDS, M. C., Greek votive reliefs to Pan and the Nymphs, New York, 1985 and
TZOUVARA SOULI, Chr., “Οµάδα πήλινων ειδωλίων από το σπήλαιο Ασβότρυπα στο
Φρύνι της Λευκάδας”, Dodona ΚΖ’,1, 1998 (offprint), Ioannina, 1999.

51
 Nektarios Peter Yioutsos

38
Longus (“Dionysiaca”, 1, 4 ) mentions musical instruments, flutes and syringes
hanging form the walls of a sacral Nymphs’ cave : ∆Anevkeinto de; kai; gauloi; kai; aujloi;
plavgioi kai; suvrigge" kai; kavlamoi, presbutevr wn poimevnwn ajnaqhvmata. (“There were
hung up milking pails, double flutes, and syringes and whistles, dedications of the elder
shepherds”).
39
Alkifron, “Letters to courtesans”, IV, 13, 12 : “The Nymphs at the spring were
delighted … Pan from his rock almost leapt upon her buttocks…”
40
Hom. Od. 8.260.
41
SCHÖRNER, G., RUPPRECHT GOETTE, H. éd., Die Pan-Grotte von Vari, Mainz am
Rhein, Philipp von Zabern, 2004, p 113. A similar case has been described to me by
Chatzioti on the Nymphs’ cave in Poros in Cephalonia, where she noticed in the interior
the floor in one part of the cavern had been smoothed by filing the cavities with flakes of
rock and this place could have been used as a dance floor. (unpublished)
42
SAKELLARAKIS, G., “Ανασκαφή Ιδαίου άντρου”, ΠΑΕ, 1983, p. 420.
43
MARINATOS, S., “Ανασκαφαί ἐν Κρήτη”, ΠΑΕ, 1930, p. 98, pic. 2, 7, 8.
44
RICE, E. E., “Grottoes on the acropolis of Hellenistic Rhodes”, ABSA, 90, 1995, p. 383-
405.
45
ZORIDES, P., “Η σπηλιά των Νυµφών της Πεντέλης”, ΑΕφηµ, 1977, p. 4-11, pl. Δ-Ι.
46
TRAVLOS, Ν. Ι., “Σπήλαιον Πανός παρά το Δαφνί”, ΑΕφηµ, Centennial Volume 1,
1937, p. 391-409.
47
Porphyry (223-303 AD), “On the cave of the Nymphs in Odyssey”, “Περί τοu§ ejν
jOδυσσείαι τw§ν Νυµφών a[ντρου”, Chapter 4,18-9 : it is not in fact a casual fiction created
for amusement, but neither is it a geographically accurate description”, see also here
footnote 21.
48
Chapters 5, 18 and 7, 21-25 :
“Antra me;n dh; ejpieikw'" oiJ palaioi; kai; sphvlaia tw/' kovsmw/ kaqievroun kaq∆ o{lon te
aujto;n kai; kata; mevrh lambavnonte", suvmbolon me;n th'" u{lh" ejx h|" oJ kovsmo" th;n gh'n
paradidovnte" (diov tine" kai; aujtovqen th;n u{lhn th;n gh'n ei\nai ejtivqento), to;n <de; > ejk
th'" u{lh" ginovmenon kovsmon dia; tw'n a[ntrwn paristw'nte", o{ti te wJ" ejpi; polu; aujtofuh'
ta; a[ntra kai; sumfuh' th/' gh/' uJpo; pevtra" periecovmena monoeidou'", h|" ta; me;n e[ndon
koi'la, ta; d∆ e[xw eij" to; ajperiovriston th'" gh'" ajnei'tai: aujtofuh;" de; oJ kovsmo" kai;
[aujtosumfuh;"] prospefukw;" th/' u{lh/, h}n livqon kai; pevtran dia; to; ajrgo;n kai; ajntivt upon
pro;" to; ei\do" ei\nai h/jnivttonto, a[p eiron kata; th;n aujth'" ajmorfiva n tiqevnte". rJeusth'" d∆
ou[sh" aujth'" kai; tou' ei[dou" di∆ ou| morfou'tai kai; faivnetai kaq∆ eJauth;n ejsterhmevnh",
to; e[nudron kai; e[nikmon tw'n a[ntrwn kai; skoteino;n kai; wJ" oJ poihth;" e[fh hjeroeide;"
oijkeivw" ejdevxanto eij" suvmbolon tw'n prosovntwn tw/' kovsmw/ dia; th;n u{lhn.
And also: Ouj movnon d∆, wJ" famevn, kovsmou suvmbolon h[toi genhtou' aijsqhtou' to;
a[ntron ejpoiou'nto, ajll∆ h[dh kai; pasw'n tw'n ajoravtwn dunavmewn to; a[ntron ejn sumbovlw/
parelavmbanon dia; to; skoteina; me;n ei\nai ta; a[ntra, ajfane;" de; to; tw'n dunavmewn
oujsiw'de".
49
Chapter 9, 13-24 : tou' me;n ga;r aijsqhtou' kovsmou dia; to; skoteina; ei\nai ta; a[ntra kai;
petrwvdh kai; divugra, toiou'ton d∆ ei\nai to;n kovsmon dia; th;n u{lhn ejx h|" sunevsthken oJ
kovsmo", kai; ajntivtupon kai; rJeusto;n ejtivqento: tou' d∆ au\ nohtou' dia; to; ajfane;"
aijsqhvsei kai; sterro;n kai; bevbaion th'" oujsiva": ouJtwsi; de; kai; tw'n merikw'n ajfanw'n
dunavmewn, kai; ma'llovn ge ejpi; touvtwn tw'n ejnuvlwn. kata; ga;r to; aujtofue;" to; tw'n a[ntrwn
kai; nuvcion kai; skoteino;n kai; pevtrinon ejpoiou'nto ta; suvmbola: oujkevti mh;n pavntw"
kai; kata; sch'ma, w{" tine" uJpenovo un, o{ti mhde; pa'n a[ntron sfairoeidev".
50
Porphyry, Chapter 12, 11-12 : ”the cave is likewise appropriate for Nymphs that preside
over the waters since it contains water which flows unceasingly”.
51
MARINATOS, S., “Το Σπήλαιον Μελισσάνης”, ΑΕφηµ, 1964, p. 17.
52
ZORIDES, P., “Η σπηλιά των Νυµφών της Πεντέλης”, ΑΕφηµ, 1977, Archeological
Chronicles, p. 4.

52
 Cave dancing in ancient Greece

53
DELIGIORGI-ALEXOPOULOU, C., “Σπήλαια της Αττικής αφιερωµένα στην λατρεία
του θεού Πάνα”, Archeology, 39, (magazine) p. 47.
54
WICKENS, J. M., The archeology and history of cave use in Attica, Greece from
prehistoric through late roman times, Vol. I, II, UMI, Indiana University, 1986, Vol. I,
p. 172.
55
Grotta Scaloria, Grotta San Angelo καστο Ostuni, Grotta di Porto Badisco.
56
WHITEHOUSE, R., Underground religion : cult and culture in Prehistoric Italy,
London, 1992, Ch. 6, p. 127-9.
57
WHITEHOUSE, 1992, Ch. 6, p. 132-3.
58
In Porphyry, Chapter 6, 14-19 : wJ" ga;r toi'" me;n ÆOlumpivoi" qeoi'" naouv" te kai; e{dh
kai; bwmou;" iJdruvsanto, cqonivoi" de; kai; h{rwsin ejscavra", uJpocqonivoi" de; bovqrou" kai;
mevgara, ou{tw kai; tw/' kovsmw/ a[ntra te kai; sphvlaia, wJsauvtw" de; kai; tai'" nuvmfai" dia;
ta; ejn a[ntroi" kataleibovmena h] ajnadidovmena u{data.
59
See WICKENS, J. M., The archeology and history of cave use in Attica, Greece from
prehistoric through late roman times, Vol. I, II, UMI, Indiana University, 1986, Vol. I,
p. 173, Pausanias, Attica, 38, 7, BAKALAKIS, G., “Ανασκαφή του παρά την
Ηρακλείτσαν (Καβάλας) άντρου των Νυµφών”, ΠΑΕ, 1938, p. 83-5, DONTAS, G. S.,
“Ευρήµατα από το παρά την Σάµην Κεφαλληνίας σπήλαιον Μελισσάνη”, ΑΕφηµ, 1964,
p. 28-35, KAMBOUROGLOU, Ε./ KYRITSI – KAMBOUROGLOU, S. /
CHATZITHEODOROU, Th., “Το σπήλαιο Νύµφης Κορώνειας στην Αγία Τριάδα
Βοιωτίας, Αναστήλωση, Συντήρηση, Προστασία µνηµείων και συνόλων Β”, ΥΠΠΟ,
p. 251-63, on Cave of the Anigrides Nymphs in Pausanias V, 5, 11, TSOURAS, A. S.,
Αράχοβα, Κωρύκειο άντρο Παρνασσού, Φυσικά εικαστικά ευρήµατα, Athens, 1992,
p. 103.
60
LARSON, J., Greek Nymphs, Myth, Cult, Lore, Oxford, 2001, p. 9.
61
Hom. Od. 13.103.
62
Hom. Od. 9.140-41 :
“At the head of the harbor, a spring of bright water flows from
beneath a cave. And round about it poplars grow.”
63
Similar places of the Nymphs’ worship are mentions also as : “kh§po~ ajkhvrato~”
[Ibycus fr. 286 1-4], o{qi krh'nai / Numfa'n kei'ntai / leimwvn t∆ e[r nesi qavllwn / clwroi'"
kai; rJodovent∆ / a[nqe∆ uJa kivnqinav te qeai'" drevpein: [Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis, 1291-
99], Carivtwn te khpeuvmata [Aristophanes, Birds, 1100], ejn khvpoi" iJero;n coro;n i{state
Nuvmfai"[Aristophanes, Nebulae, 271] see also LARSON, J., op. cit., p. 9-11, examples of
similar locus amoenus can be traced throughout Larson‘s book.
64
“…growing things and tablets and dedications and many gifts
…he tended these plants and shaped things with his hands…”
See GIANNOPOULOS, N., “Φαρσάλου ἄντρον ἔπιγεγραµµένον”, ΑΕφηµ, 1919, p. 48-
53.
65
RICE, E. E., “Grottoes on the Acropolis of Hellenistic Rhodes”, ABSA, 90, 1995,
p. 403-404. There is a similar case in Rhodini in Rhodes, see LAUTER, H., “Kunst und
Landschaft – ein Beitrag zum rhodischen Hellenismus”, AK, 15, 1972, p. 49-59 and Abb
4. There is an interesting description of a Nymphs’ cave in Longus’ Dionysiaca justifying
the term locus amoenus [1. 4] :
Numfw'n a[ntron h\n, pevtra megavlh, ta; e[ndoqen koivlh, ta; e[x wqen periferhv". Ta;
ajgavlmata tw'n Numfw'n aujtw'n livqoi" ejp epoivhto: povde" ajnupovdhtoi, cei're" eij" w[mou"
gumnaiv, kovmai mevcri tw'n aujcevnwn lelumevnai, zw'ma peri; th;n ijx uvn, meidivama peri; th;n
ojfruvn: to; pa'n sch'ma coreiva h\n ojrcoumevnwn. ï JH w[a tou' a[ntrou th'" megavlh" pevtra" h\n
to; mesaivtaton. ∆Ek phgh'" ajnabluvzon u{dwr rJei'qron ejpoivei ceovmenon, w{ste kai; leimw;n
pavnu glafuro;" ejktevtato pro; tou' a[ntrou, pollh'" kai; malakh'" pova" uJpo; th'" notivdo"
trefomevnh". ∆Anevkeinto de; kai; gauloi; kai; aujloi; plavgioi kai; suvrigge" kai; kavlamoi,
presbutevrwn poimevnwn ajnaqhvmata.

53
 Nektarios Peter Yioutsos

66
“With them the Silenoi and sharp eyed Argeiphontes
[Hermes] mate in the recesses of pleasant caves”
in “Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite” 5.259 - 63
67
Just as some naiad nymph, caught fleeing on the hills, voices with
Shrieks beneath the rocky hollows her mournful song, crying out on
Pan’s nuptials”
Euripides, Helen, 185-90.
68
“… she brought the new born/ in the same cave where she slept with the God…”
Euripides, Ion, 10-24 and also 16-18. Also, in an epigram dated to the second century AD
from the monument of Isidora at Hermoupolis, a tomb combining Greco-Roman with
Egyptian beliefs and tastes, mentions that the Nymphs built the burial chamber and refers
to the abduction of Hylas by the Nymph Krenaia, who is kept by her inside a grotto : “...
Krhnaiva de, ”Ula suvngamo~ aJrpagivmou, / keivo na~ ajmfotevrwqen a{te spevo~, h|ci kaiv
aujthv / phcuvsasa ”Ulan kalpofovron katevcei ...68
69
On Attic caves see WICKENS, J. M., The archeology and history of cave use in Attica,
Greece from prehistoric through late roman times, Vol. I, II, UMI, Indiana University
1986, DELIGIORGI-ALEXOPOULOU, C., “Σπήλαια της Αττικής αφιερωµένα στην
λατρεία του θεού Πάνα”, Archeology, 39, (magazine), ZORIDES, P., “Η σπηλιά των
Νυµφών της Πεντέλης”, ΑΕφηµ, 1977, Archeol. Chronicles, p. 4-11 with a list of cave
sanctuaries, Die Pan-Grotte von Vari, SCHÖRNER, G., RUPPRECHT GOETTE, H. éd.,
Mainz am Rhein, Philipp von Zabern, 2004, RHOMAIOS, K., “Ανασκαφή επί της
Πάρνηθος άντρου”, ΑΕφηµ, 1905, p. 110-117, THALLON, Ida C., “The cave at Vari,
Marble reliefs”, AJA, 7, 1903, p. 301-319, TRAVLOS, Ν. Ι., “Σπήλαιον Πανός παρά το
Δαφνί”, ΑΕφηµ, Centennial Volume 1, 1937, p. 391-409, SKIAS, A., “Τό παρά τήν
Φυλήν ἄντρο τοῦ Πανός”, ΑΕφηµ, 1918, p. 1-28. On Megara cave see THREPSIADES,
Ι., “Ανασκαφαί εν Μεγάροις”, ΠΑΕ, 1936, σελ 43-56, ZERVOUDAKIS, Τ., “Το
σπήλαιον µέγαρον”, Deltion of the Hellenic Speleological Society, 8, 1965, σελ 3-11 and
Καθηµερινή, 08/08/1993, Τα σπήλαια στην Ελλάδα. On Boeotia see MITROPOULOU,
Ε., “Η λατρεία των Νυµφών και του Πανός στην Βοιωτία”, Yearbook of the Boeotian
Studies Society, Β’, α’, 1995 (offprint), p. 331-387 and KAMBOUROGLOU, E.,
KYRITSI-KAMBOUROGLOU, S./ CHATZITHEODOROU, Th., “Το σπήλαιο της
Νύµφης Κορώνειας στην Αγία Τριάδα Βοιωτίας, Αναστήλωση, Συντήρηση, Προστασία
Μνηµείων και Συνόλων Β », ΥΠΠΟ, 1985, p. 251-263. On Leukada see TZOUVARA
SOULI, Chr., “Οµάδα πήλινων ειδωλίων από το σπήλαιο Ασβότρυπα στο Φρύνι της
Λευκάδας”, Dodona ΚΖ’,1, 1998 (offprint), Ioannina 1999 and TZOUVARA SOULI,
Chr., “Η λατρεία των Νυµφών στην Ήπειρο”, Ηπειρωτικά χρονικά, 29, Ioannina 1988-9
(offprint), p. 9-63, TZOUVARA SOULI, Chr., “Οι λατρείες στην Ήπειρο και την
Αιτωλοακαρνανία, Scoufas Θ’”, Arta, 1992/1, 78-9, p. 77-93, DONTAS, G., “Ευρήµατα
από το παρά την Σάµην της Κεφαλληνίας σπήλαιον Μελισσάνη”, ΑΕφηµ, 1964, p. 28-32,
SPETSIERI-CHOREMI, A., “Un depot de sanctuaire domestique de la fin de l’époque
archaïque à Corfou”, BCH, 115, 1991, p. 173-211. On Delphi see AMANDRY, P.,
“L’antre Corycien”, BCH, Suppl. IX and PASQUIER, A., “Pan et les Nymphes à l’ antre
Corycien, Études Delphiques”, BCH, Suppl. IV, 1977, p. 365-387. On Eleusina see
TRAVLOS, Ι. Ν., “Το ελληνιστικόν φρούριον και το ανευρεθέν ιερόν του Πανός επί του
λατοµηθέντος δυτικού λόφου”, Deltion, 16, 1960, p. 52-55. On Corinth see
MITROPOULOU, Ε., “Η λατρεία του Πανός και των Νυµφών στην Κόρινθο”,
Peloponnisiaca, Appendix 12, Acts of the 2nd Regional Congress, Loutraki 25-27 May
1984, Athens, 1986, p. 189-192, ORLANDOS, A. K., “Pitsa” in Enciclopedia dell’ Arte
antica classica e orientale, Roma, 1964. On Crete see FAURE, P., Ιερά Σπήλαια της
Κρήτης, Iraklion, 1996, p. 193-200 and MITROPOULOU, Ε., “Η λατρεία του Πανός και
των Νυµφών στην Κρήτη, Ζ’ Κρητολογικό Συνέδριο”, Rethymno, 27/08/91,
Announcement’ s summaries, p. 56. On Rhodes see KONSTANTINOPOULOS, G.,

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 Cave dancing in ancient Greece

Αρχαία Ρόδος, ΜΙΕΤ, Athens 1986, p. 219. On Thasos see OWEN, S., “New light on
Thracian Thasos : A reinterpretation of the Cave of Pan”, JHS, 120, 2000, p. 139-143. On
Thessaly see, WARE, A. J. B./ THOMPSON, “A cave of the Nymphs on Mount Ossa”,
ABSA, XV, 1908-09, p. 213-247, GIANNOPOULOS, N., “Φαρσάλου a[ντρον
ἐπιγεγραµµένον”, ΑΕφηµ, 1919, p. 48, LEVI, D., “L’ Antro delle Nimfe e di Pan a
Farsalo in Tessaglia”, ASAA, 6-6, 1923, p. 27-42. On Kabala see BAKALAKIS, G.,
“Ανασκαφή εν Καβάλα και τοις πέριξ, Β. ανασκαφή του παρά την Ηρακλείτσαν Καβάλας
άντρου των Νυµφών”, ΠΑΕ, 1938, p. 81. On Cassandra in Khalkidhiki see
LEVENTOPOULOU-GIOURI, E., “Το ιερόν του Άµµωνος Διός παρά την Άφυτιν”, ΑΑΑ,
IV, 1971, p. 356 -366. On Serres see the article of MIRTSIOTIS G, Καθηµερινή
25/02/2007, p. 33. On Ainos see CASSON, S., Macedonia Thrace and Illyria, Groningen,
1968, Appendix A’, p. 255-259. On South Italy and Sicily see TZOUVARA SOULI,
Chr., “Λατρείες και ιερά στην Ήπειρο, στη Μεγάλη Ελλάδα και τη Σικελία”, Dodona, 20,
1991, p. 151-216 and ARIAS, P. E., “Sul culto delle Nimfe a Siracusa”, RendLinc, Serie
VI, Vol XI, 1935, p. 605-608 and also in Timaeus by Athenaeus 6.250 Α : “e[θους o[ντος
κατά Σικελίαν θυσίας pοιεi§σθαι κατά τάς oιjκ ίας ταίς Νύµφαις καί περί τά ajγ άλµατα
παννυχίζειν µεθυσκοµένους o]ρχεισθαι τέ περί τάς θεάς”. On Minor Asia see TUCHELT,
K., “Pan und Pankult in Kleinasien”, IstMitt, 19/20, 1969/70, p. 223-36. On Syria see
Strabo, Geography, XVI, II, 8 : ei\ta to; numfai'on, sphvlaiovn ti iJerovn, see also
FARNELL, Cults of the Greek State V, Oxford, 1909, p. 459-468, were many sacral caves
and sanctuaries are listed.
70
KAMBOUROGLOU, D., Το Δαφνί Αθηνών, Athens, 1920.
71
BORGEAUD, P., The cult of Pan in ancient Greece, Chicago, 1988, p. 149, note 103.

55