EMAE 285 Course Documents Fall 2020-08 - 24 - 2020 PDF

EMAE 285
Course Documents
Updated August 24, 2020
1
Table of Contents
1.0 - SYLLABUS .............................................................................................................................................. 3
2.0 – TIMELINE ............................................................................................................................................ 10
3.0 – THEORY .............................................................................................................................................. 12
3.1 - Applied Statistics............................................................................................................................. 13
3.2 – Propagation of Uncertainty............................................................................................................ 16
3.3 – Strain Gauges ................................................................................................................................. 25
3.4 – Temperature Measurement Techniques ....................................................................................... 48
3.5 – Pressure Measurement Techniques .............................................................................................. 77
3.6 – Velocity Measurement Techniques ............................................................................................... 89
3.7 – Fourier Transform .......................................................................................................................... 99
3.8 - Digital Data Sampling .................................................................................................................... 104
4.0 – Labs .................................................................................................................................................. 107
4.1 - Experimental Determination of Moment of Inertia ..................................................................... 108
4.2 - Using a Three-point bending test to determine Young’s modulus of a 6061-T6 aluminum bar .. 116
4.3 - Determining Pressure in a Sealed Container Using External Strain Measurements .................... 122
4.4 - Measurement of convective heat transfer coefficients for a heated cylinder placed in airflow . 137
4.5 – Wind Tunnel ................................................................................................................................. 144
4.6 – Air Properties ............................................................................................................................... 156
4.7 - Digital data sampling report ......................................................................................................... 165
5.0 – Software Quick Start Instructions and FAQ ..................................................................................... 166
5.1 – PASCO Capstone Software Quick Start ........................................................................................ 166
5.2 - How to Connect a Strain Gauge to a NI 9237 ............................................................................... 172
5.3 - Calibrate Multiple Strain Gauges in LabVIEW ............................................................................... 175
5.4 - Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) ............................................................................................... 179
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1.0 - SYLLABUS
EMAE 285 Mechanical Engineering Measurements Laboratory
Instructors: Profs. Fumiaki Takahashi (fxt13@case.edu) and Kenneth Moses (kcm7@case.edu)
Lab Manager: Michael Butler (mxb672@case.edu)
Teaching Assistants: Yumi Matsuyama (yxm128@case.edu), Brian Gu (yxg499@case.edu), Yu Wang

(yxw1443@case.edu), One more (TBD)
TA Office Hours: Fall 2020 Exception: Canvas Discussion, email, and remote sessions only.
Yumi Matsuyama: TBD
Brian Gu: 2:00 – 3:00 pm on Wednesdays; no in-person
Yu Wang: 10:00 – 11:00 am on Thursdays; no in-person
Web Page: Canvas
Lectures: MW 8:25 am – 9:15 am
Fall 2020 Exception: Students are expected to attend synchronous (Zoom) lectures at designated days
and times. Students difficult to do so (due to different time zones) are expected to view recorded
lectures asynchronously. The recordings are available to view online up to 2 days after they are posted.
Under special circumstances they will be made available longer.
Following netiquette guidelines are recommended:

https://canvas.case.edu/courses/24124/files?preview=2752223
https://blog.zoom.us/video-conference-etiquette/
Labs (when scheduled, at Glennan 412):
Section 110: Monday 2:00 – 4:00 pm: XXX and Yumi Matsuyama; student groups TBD
Section 111: Tuesday 1:00 – 3:00 pm: Yu Wang and Brian Gu; student groups TBD
Section 114: Tuesday 4:00 – 6:00 pm: Brian Gu and Yu Wang; student groups TBD
Section 113: Friday 2:15 – 4:15 pm: Yumi Matsuyama and XXX; student groups TBD
Lab Groups: All lab work will be done in groups assigned by the instructors. Typically, lab groups will
consist of three to four students. A particular group will stay within the same lab session throughout the
semester. Refer to the document in Canvas for your teammates.
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Measurements and Lab Scheduling
We will have five hands-on labs, one calculation report, pop quiz, and a final measurements design
assignment during the semester. The maximum score a student can get is 650 and it will amount to
100% over the semester.
Lab # Description Score
Moment of inertia of an axially symmetric object

1 50
Calculation report (individual)
Strain gauges measurements – bending and pressure vessel

2, 3 50+50
Digital Sampling
4 40
Thermal/fluid experiment
5 60
Air properties
6 100
Written report (team) and calculation report (team)
Wind tunnel
7 100
Written report (team) and calculation report (team)
Pop Quiz* 50
Final Project (team) 150
Total 650
*Random quiz assignments will be handed during the lecture hours of the course.
Attendance in Lab Sessions

Students must attend all of their scheduled lab sessions, and are expected to arrive at the start of the
lab. Late arrivals (>10 minutes late) will not be permitted, resulting in zero grade being assigned to
that particular lab.
Change in lab sessions: If there are extenuating circumstances (one that is proven) that prevent a
student from attending a regularly scheduled laboratory session, they may attend another lab session
during the same week but only after obtaining permission from one of the instructors for the course. If
there are prescheduled events (collegial etc.) that prevent any student(s) from attending a laboratory
session, the student(s) need to present a proof for the activity and provide a week’s notice to change
their regularly scheduled lab session.
Fall 2020 Exception: All students are expected to view pre-recorded lab demonstrations prior to
designated lab days and times. Students on campus conduct lab experiments in-person (Glennan 412)
and share data/video streams with the other group members synchronously and/or asynchronously.
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Laboratory Reports
Some reports are done as a group and others are individual as indicated in the table above.
Two types of reports will be submitted: calculation reports, and/or written reports.
Calculation reports are intended to show details of data analysis, including data statistics, propagation of
uncertainty, values of measured variables and their units, and physical quantities derived from the
measurements. These might be displayed in tables or graphs. You must show samples of each
calculation used to analyze the data, including the literal form of the equations you are using, a written
description of each variable, and explicit, sample numerical calculations with units. All plots must have
their axes labeled with the name of the plotted variable and units. Calculation reports may include an
assigned set of questions focused on analyzing and presenting data you’ve collected, or data that is
given to you, and questions related to material covered in lectures.
Written reports will focus on specific sections such as Methods, Results or Discussion. Guidelines for
writing each of these sections will be discussed in class.
Text, tables and graphs, and equations must be created using a word processor, spreadsheet or other
software. All text must be 12 point Times Roman or Arial font. Figure and table captions may be as
small as 10-point font, but all text must be clear and easily readable. Reports must be double-spaced.
There are no rewards for lengthy reports. Please concentrate on making reports factual, clear and
concise.
Use the sample title page shown below for all labs.
Due date
The due date for each experiment is specified in later chapters of those experiments. The due time is no
later than the close of business (COB) at 5:00 PM Eastern Standard Time (EST, GMT-5). There will be a
box in front of Glennan 412 that is labeled as EMAE 285. Please staple your assignment and drop it in
the box. The Teaching Assistants will not be responsible for lost/misplaced pages in cases when the
assignments are not stapled. Submit laboratory reports through Canvas Assignments. Preferred file
format is MS Word (typed; no hand-written manuscripts are permitted).
Grading
Grades will be based entirely on lab reports completed by the group and/or individuals. All assignments
must be submitted before the report due date. Late assignments will not be accepted. There will not
be any exceptions except for in extenuating circumstances with relevant proof. There is no final exam in
this class, but there is a mandatory Final Term Project and Project Report.
Working in Groups and Grading

Working in groups may be the most difficult part of this course. It is likely that at least one group will
have a problem with at least one member who seems to do much less than his/her fair share of the
work. This may become an uncomfortable situation for everyone, and it should not be allowed to
continue. The grading system on the course is designed to clearly identify and grade the contribution of
each member of the group. An individual student’s grade is based on his/her participation in
preparation of the report; students, of a particular group, may not get the same grade. The title page for
lab report includes a section which shows the rating of an individual student’s contribution from 0% to
100%. If all members of a group contributed equally then each student should be given 100% on the title
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page. However, experience has shown that some students in a group contribute little or nothing
towards the report, or may turn in their contribution only a few hours before the report is due, which
makes it nearly impossible for the team members to incorporate their contribution in report. In such
cases, the group could assign as low as 0% for an individual’s participation.
You are expected to turn in your share of a written report to your team-members at least 24 hours
before the actual due date of the assignment. Failure to do so will result in a loss of 25% of the grade
for that assignment. This time is essential for the team members to assemble the final report, but
also, to improve the overall quality. If the members request any improvements in the content or the
quality of your section with justification, you are expected to address these deficiencies. More grades
may be lost if the quality of the report is deemed subpar by the team members.
Assigning less than 100% to an individual, e.g. 80%, will result in that person getting 80% of the final
grade for that assignment. If there are differences in each member’s contribution, then a brief
explanation must be included in the report.
Each member of the group must sign off on the individual member contribution section before the
report is submitted (see sample title page below). Reports that are handed in without signatures will be
counted as late.
If it appears that your group is going to have problems, there are some things you can try. Schedule
group meetings at times that everyone can attend. Sounds simple, but experience has shown that it is
not always done. Expectations from various group members should be clearly stated and understood.
An email summarizing the decisions made at group meetings, including deadlines, should be circulated
to all group members to ensure that all members are aware of their assigned tasks and report deadlines.
The instructors will help resolve issues to the extent possible. If problems persist within a group, the
instructors will convene a meeting of the entire group to hear all sides.
ACADEMIC INTEGRITY
All students are expected to abide by the University’s policy on academic integrity, which can be found
on line at https://students.case.edu/handbook/policy/integrity.html.
Any instances of suspected cheating will be referred to the Dean of Undergraduate Studies for review.
Notes
Lecture notes will be posted on Canvas to the extent possible.
Textbook
No textbook is required. Some books that you might find useful are:
• PR Bevington and DK Robinson, 2003, Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the Physical Sciences, 3rd
Edition, McGraw Hill, Boston
• JP Holman, 2001, Experimental Methods for Engineers, 7th Edition, McGraw Hill, Boston
• RS Figliola and DE Beasley, 2011, Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements, 5th Edition, Wiley,
New York
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Title page
Name of lab
Due date
Group number ##
Group members Grade assigned to other lab Signature

members (out of 100%)
*,**,***
* Deduct 25% if the team member did not turn in his/her part prior to 24 hours of the final deadline.
** Reduce more percent points if the team member did not address the deficiencies pointed out by
the other team members in his/her section.
***Reduce 10% if the team member was a no show at a scheduled/agreed-upon team meeting
date/time.
Catalog Description
Techniques and devices used for experimental work in mechanical engineering. Lecture topics include
elementary statistics, linear regression, propagation of uncertainty, digital data acquisition,
characteristics of common measurement systems, background for measurement laboratories, and
elements of report writing. Hands-on laboratory experiences may include measurements in solid
mechanics, dynamics, and fluid and thermal sciences, which are summarized in group reports. At least
one report will focus on design of a measurement. Recommended preparation: EMAE 181, ENGR 225
and ECIV310.
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Course Purpose and Objectives
There are two sets of course objectives associated with EMAE 285. The first are the broad objectives
associated with how this course fits into your training as mechanical and aerospace engineers. The
second objective describes what you should have the capability to do at the conclusion of this course.
This is the ABET criteria listed below.
The educational goals of the program are to produce graduates who:
1. Have a strong technical foundation in the fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering.
2. Can solve engineering problems by using their knowledge of design, analysis and experimentation.
3. Can communicate engineering and technical concepts.
5. Can use computer-based skills in the analysis and solution of engineering problems.
These overall program goals include but are not limited to the ABET criteria:
B. An ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data.
Detailed Content Objectives
Data Analysis I: Uncertainty, Error, and Simple Statistics
1. Define (loosely) error, uncertainty, accuracy and precision
2. Describe the types and origins of errors that arise in experiments.
3. Calculate the propagation of uncertainties from raw data to results.
4. Describe how uncertainties can be minimized and how this impacts the design of experiments
5. Describe what level of precision is reportable.
6. Define the population and sample means, variation, and standard deviation of a data set.
7. Define the error of the mean both mathematically and in terms of uncertainty. (In particular, what is
the difference between error of the mean and standard deviation?)
8. Define statistical significance and compute Student’s t statistic as a measure of significance.
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Data Analysis II: Linear Regression
1. Define linear regression and describe what it provides
2. Define nonlinear regression
3. Describe the process that generates the formulae for the coefficients in a linear regression
4. Describe the origin of the best-fit parameters’ uncertainties, calculate these uncertainties for a given
data set, and described how they can be minimized
5. Describe and compute a goodness-of-fit metric for a particular data set
Computerized Data Acquisition
1. Describe the key components and processes of computerized data acquisition
2. Define the key parameters of data acquisition
3. Describe why it is (usually) essential to use a computer
4. List and describe typical components and functions of analog signal conditioning
5. Determine the frequency content of an analog signal
6. Determine the computer sampling rate needed to acquire an analog signal
7. Describe the sort of errors computerize data acquisition produces and how to account for and
minimize these errors
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2.0 – TIMELINE
Lecture Schedule
Takahashi/
Aug 24 Course overview. Probability and Statistical Methods
Moses
Aug 26 Probability and Statistical Methods Moses
Aug 31 Probability and Statistical Methods Moses
Sep 2 Error & Uncertainty; Error Propagation Moses
Sep 7 Moment of Inertia Experiment: Lab 1 Background Moses
Sep 9 Strain gages Moses

Application of Strain gages: Three-point bending and
Sep 21 Moses
pressure vessel Experiments. Labs 2 & 3 Background
Sep 23 Digital Sampling Assignment. Lab 4 Background Takahashi
Sep 28 Temperature measurements (part 1) Takahashi
Sep 30 Temperature measurements (part 2) Takahashi
Oct 5 Thermal/fluid experiment: Lab 5 Background Takahashi
Oct 7 Velocity measurements (parts 1 and 2) Takahashi

Moses/
Oct 12 Introduction to Term Design and Measurement Project
Takahashi
Oct 14 Pressure measurements Takahashi
Oct 19 Air property measurement: Lab 6 Background Takahashi
Oct 21 Wind-tunnel experiment: Lab 7 Background Takahashi

Oct 26 to No Lectures – Groups work on the design and measurement
Dec 4 project
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Lab Schedule
Lab date Lab Topic Report Due Date
Section 110: Sep 14 Lab 1 Moment of Inertia of Bicycle Section 110: Sep 28
Section 111/114: Sep 15 Wheel -- Measurements will be Section 111/114: Sep 29
Section 113: Sep 18 completed in a single, two-hour lab Section 113: Oct 2
session
Section 110: Sep 28 Labs 2/3 Three-point bending and Section 110: Oct 12
Section 111/114: Sep 15 Pressure Vessel labs -- Both labs will Section 111/114: Oct 13
Section 113: Sep 18 be run concurrently in the same lab Section 113: Oct 16
session. Start times will be staggered.
All Sections: Oct 5 Lab 4 Digital sampling assignment Oct 19
Section 110: Oct 12 Lab 5 Thermal/fluid experiment Section 110: Oct 26
Section 111/114: Oct 13 Section 111/114: Oct 27
Section 113: Oct 16 Section 113: Oct 30
All Sections: Discuss in Course Term Project Last day of Classes
Class on Oct 12 Dec 4
Section 110: Oct 26 Labs 6/7 Air property measurement Air property
Section 111/114: Oct 27 or wind tunnel experiment Section 110: Nov 9
Section 113: Oct 30 In the case of multiple groups in the Section 111/114: Nov 10
session, half the groups will run the Section 113: Nov 13
wind tunnel lab and the other half will
run the air property measurement lab. Wind Tunnel
Each lab will be completed in one hour, Section 110: Nov 16
which will allow all the groups to Section 111/114: Nov 17
complete the two labs in a two-hour Section 113: Nov 20
session. Scheduling details will be
sent to all groups prior to the lab.
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3.0 – THEORY
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3.1 - Applied Statistics
(Double click the slide to access the 53 slides included in this section)
EMAE285
Brief Introduction to Statistical
Treatment of Experimental Data
1) Large number of samples (infinite statistics)
2) Sampling from a population
3) Small number of samples (finite statistics)
4) Hypothesis testing
Linear Regression:
• Regression analysis is needed when

the relationship between a dependent
measured variable and an independent
variable is investigated.
• Regression helps to establish a
functional relationship between the two
variables.
• Linear and polynomial relationships
can be derived by using regression analysis.
• The measurand yi,j follows normal
distribution at each fixed value of the
independent variable xj. Where i = 1, 2, …N
and j = 1, 2, … n
• An mth order polynomial relationship
can be expressed as :
yc = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + am x m (1)
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yc is the value of the dependent variable estimated from the polynomial equation.
• The highest order m of the polynomial that can be obtained for data set is limited by n,
such that m ≤ (n-1).
• Regression analysis seeks to determine the coefficients ai to define the relationship.
• Most common form of regression analysis is least squares method.
• Least squares minimizes the sum of squares or the deviations between the actual data
and the polynomial fit.
• The deviation D between the polynomial and measured value is
N
=D ∑(y − y
i =1
i ci )2 (2)
Combine equations 1 and 2:

N
D
= ∑ [ y − (a
i =1
i 0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + am x m )]2 (3)
Reduce D to a minimum by taking derivatives:

∂D ∂D ∂D
dD
= da0 + da1 + ... + dam
∂a0 ∂a1 ∂am
For dD to be zero, the partial derivatives of coefficients must be zero
∂D ∂ N m 2
∑ [ yi − (a0 + a1 x + a2 x + ... + am x )] 
2
=0=
∂a0 ∂a0  i =1 
.
. (4)
∂D ∂ N m 2
∑ [ yi − (a0 + a1 x + a2 x + ... + am x )] 
2
=0=
∂am ∂am  i =1 
These derivations results in (m-1) equations that can be solved
to yield the unknown regression coefficients a i .
• The standard error of the fit between data points and the polynomial fitted to the data
is defined as :
N
∑(y − yi ci )2
S yx = i =1
(5)
υ
where υ = N − (m − 1) is the degree of freedom of the fit
• Ideally (or when possible), the order of the fit should be determined by the physics of
the problem. For instance, if the relation between kinetic energy and velocity is
investigated, it is reasonable to expect a second order fit. Attempting higher or lower
order fits would not make sense.
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Regression Example: This example will consider a linear regression, where the line is
defined as a first order polynomial. The data are given as:
x (cm) y [V]
1.0 1.2 6
2.0 1.9
3.0 3.2 4
y (V)
4.0 4.1
5.0 5.3 2
Find an equation of the first order 0

form to define the relationship
0 2 4 6
between the two variables. N = 5
x (cm)
We seek a polynomial of the form:
y=
c ao + a1 x
That will minimize :
N
=D ∑(y − y
i =1
i ci )2
Setting derivatives to zero:

∂D N 
0=
= −2 ∑ [ yi − (a0 + a1 x)]
∂a0  i =1 
∂D N 
0=
= −2 ∑ [ yi − (a0 + a1 x)] x 
∂a1  i =1 
Solution of the above two equations provides the coefficients in terms of data points.
Σxi Σxi yi − Σxi 2 Σyi
ao =
(Σxi ) 2 − N Σxi 2
Σxi Σyi − N Σxi yi
a1 =
(Σxi ) 2 − N Σxi 2
Entering the data to the spreadsheet and performing the summations in the above gives:
y c 0.02 + 1.04 x
= (V)
• Dr. Akkus to demonstrate the regression analysis on Excel
• Next step is to determine whether the fit is good. The correlation coefficient r can help
us to reach that decision.
N Σxi yi − Σxi Σyi
r=
( N Σxi
2
− (Σxi ) 2 )( nΣyi 2 − (Σyi ) 2 )
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• The bounds of the correlation coefficient is defined as -1<r<1. Negative value implies a
negative slope for the regression line defining the relationship between the variables
• For calibration purposes r > 0.9.
• r2, the regression coefficient is also reported as an alternative. It explains how much of
the variance in the dependent variable is accounted by the dependent variable. r2 value
for the regression example is 0.99, indicating that 99% of the variation in the voltage
that is measured is explained by displacement ‘x’.
3.2 – Propagation of Uncertainty
We want to estimate the uncertainty in a result R that is computed using measurements or other values (u,
v, …z) that have uncertainty.
(1)
For example, the result, R, could be the stress in a bar that is loaded in tension
(2)
In this case, there is uncertainty in measured values for force and dimensions used to compute the area,
and each contributes to the uncertainty in the stress.
We will assume that the most probable value of R is its mean value, computed from a large number of
measurements
(3)
and the variance of R is given by
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(4)
Expanding Ri about its mean value
(5)
Using the expression for the variance, Equation (4), the second of equations (5) can be rewritten as
(6)
(7)
Contained within the last equation is the variance for individual variables, such as,
(8)
and covariance
(9)
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Therefore, the uncertainty in a result R is
(10)
Often, the terms that include the covariance are small and may be neglected, so that the uncertainty in R is
given by
2 2 2
 ∂R  2  ∂R  2  ∂R 
σ R2 = σ u2   + σ v  ∂v  + σ w  ∂w  + ... (11)
 ∂u     
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Example
Estimate the uncertainty in the maximum
bending stress at the center of a beam that is in
three-point bending. The length of the beam is L
and its cross sectional dimensions are w. A force
P is applied at the center of the beam.
For this example we’ll use the values in the table below
P 1000 Newtons
L 1 meter
w 0.05 meter
5 Newton Assuming 5 kN load cell with 0.1%
full scale uncertainty
0.001 meter Assuming 1 part in 1000 uncertainty
0.000015 meter About 0.5 division on typical

micrometer
The stress in the beam, s, is
where M is the bending moment, c is the half height of the beam and I is the second moment of the
cross-section:
Using these relationships, the maximum stress in the beam is
19
In this expression, P, L and w are variables with uncertainty.
Using the numerical values in the table, the estimated value of the stress, without uncertainty is
The uncertainty in the stress (Equation 11) is given by
2 2 2
 3 1m  
2 3 1000 N
 2 9 1000 N ⋅1m 
=σ s2 (5N )
2
 
 2 ( 0.05m )3 
+ ( 0.001m )  
 2 ( 0.05m )3 
+ (15 × 10 −6
m )  −
 2 ( 0.05m )4 

     
20
For the values used, the largest contribution to the uncertainty in the stress comes from the uncertainty in
the force. If the uncertainty in the load was 1 N, instead of 5 N, the first term would be 25 times smaller,
and comparable in magnitude to the other contributions to the total uncertainty in the stress. If a realistic
estimate of the uncertainty in the length were 0.003 m rather than 0.001 m, then the second term would be
9 times greater. These what-if scenarios illustrate a valuable use of propagation of uncertainty. When
designing an experimental system, propagation of uncertainty can be used to identify the greatest
contributions to the overall uncertainty. Efforts can then be focused on reducing the uncertainty on
particular measurements.
Terminology (variable, error, accuracy, precision etc.)

Variable:
• The phenomenon (physical, chemical, thermal etc.) that is to be measured

• A variable that can be changed independently from other variables is called ‘independent
variable’. Time can be an independent variable
• A variable that changes when other variables change is ‘dependent variable’. The length
of a metal wire may change with changing temperature for example.
• Outside variables that cannot be controlled are called as extraneous variables (or when
not controlled, would affect the outcome). For instance the driving style may change the
fuel consumption rate; therefore, if not controlled the experimental outcome will be
affected.
Noise
• It is a form of extraneous variable

• Random variation of value of the
measured signal
• Can stem from incomplete control of
the variable
• Can exist naturally, such as thermal
noise.
Interference
• Another source of extraneous

variable
• It is deterministic in nature
• Such as the local AC power line at
60 Hz overlapping with the
recording
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Calibration
• The act of applying a known value to a measurement system for the purpose of
observing the system output.
• The known value is called as the ‘standard’.
• The relationship between the standard and the output is plotted and a curve is fit to
obtain a relationship.
• The relationship is then used to measure the variable in the units of the standard.
• Calibration can be linear or non-linear
Accuracy, Precision and Bias
• Accuracy of a measurement system is its ability to indicate the true value.

• Accuracy is represented by absolute error, ∈= true value – indicated value. Percent
accuracy A is:
|𝜖𝜖|
𝐴𝐴 = �1 − � 𝑥𝑥100
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
• Precision is the ability of the system to indicate a particular value upon repeated but
independent applications of a specific value of input.
• Precision error is a variation of the random variation found during repeated
measurements.
• Measurements can be precise but inaccurate.
• Average value of the deviation from the observed value is defined as the bias
22
23
Other types of instrument errors
• Such errors are listed in the below figure. They can be summed up as follows to find the
overall instrument error:
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3.3 – Strain Gauges
Strain Gauges
1) Brief history
2) Desirable properties
3) Circuitry
4) Shunt calibration
5) Temperature compensation
6) Transverse sensitivity
7) Rosettes and principal strains
8) Transducers and separating forces
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1) Brief History
• 1856 Kelvin shows electrical resistance of a wire is a function of tension
• 1923 Bridgeman shows electrical resistance of a wire is a function of pressure
• 1938 Simmons (Cal Tech), Ruge (MIT) independently invent the strain gauge
– Showed that strain is proportional to change in resistance
(1)
-Where
• ε is the strain
• R is the resistance of the gauge before it is strained
• ΔR is the change in resistance of the gauge due to strain
• F is the gauge factor, supplied by the manufacturer and presumably a constant for the
gauge
Equation (1) is the fundamental relationship between strain and a

measurable electrical variable, ΔR, and will be used extensively below.
Images of strain gauges (Vishay Micromeasurements)
Theory of Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges
Consider a wire strain gauge, as illustrated above. The wire is composed of a uniform conductor of
electric resistivity ρ with length l and cross-section area A. Its resistance R is a function of the geometry
given by
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The resistance change rate is a combination effect of changes in length, cross-section area and resistivity
that can be represented as follows:
(1’)
When the strain gauge is attached and bonded well to the surface of an object, the two are considered to
deform together. The strain of the strain gauge wire along the longitudinal direction is the same as the
strain on the surface in the same direction.
However, its cross-sectional area will also change due to the Poisson's ratio ν. Suppose that the wire is
cylindrical with initial radius r. The normal strain along the radial direction is
For small strains it can be shown that the change rate of cross-section area is twice as the radial strain:
The resistance change rate represented in eqn 1’ becomes:
For a given material, the sensitivity of resistance versus strain can be calibrated in terms of ρ by the
following equation.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝜌𝜌
𝐹𝐹 ≅ = 1 + 2𝜐𝜐 +
𝜀𝜀𝑙𝑙 𝜀𝜀𝑙𝑙
27
When the sensitivity factor F is given, (usually provided by strain gauge vendors) the average strain at the
point of attachment of the strain gauge can be obtained by measuring the change in electric resistance of
the strain gauge.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑⁄𝑅𝑅 1 ∆𝑅𝑅
𝜀𝜀𝑙𝑙 = ≈
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑅𝑅
2) Desirable Properties of a Strain Gauge

• High gauge factor (F)
• High yield strength
• Constant mechanical and electrical properties
• Gauge should not reinforce the structure
• Gauge should be small enough to minimize averaging strain
28
3) Circuitry
It will be useful to estimate the change in resistance of a strain gauge for a defined loading. Imagine a
gauge is placed on a steel bar that is loaded in uniaxial tension or compression. We’ll compute the strain
for a 1000 psi increment in stress, and then find the corresponding change in resistance.
(C.1)
The change in resistance for this loading is small, about 8 milliohms, which can be difficult to measure. If
we use a simple voltage divider circuit, the change in the voltage drop cross the strain gauge will be a
small increment superimposed on the larger
voltage drop across the
unstrained gauge.
Ideally we would like to
see only the change in
voltage corresponding to
the change in resistance.
This can be
accomplished using a
Wheatstone bridge
circuit.
A Wheatstone bridge Figure 2 Wheatstone bridge schematic showing

allows us to balance or current flows (I), excitation voltage, E, and an Figure 1 Alternative schematic for
zero the output from the output device with resistance. Wheatstone bridge with the
gauge before it is variable resistor outside of the
circuit shown in Figure 1.
strained. We then see only the increment in voltage due to strain. We’ll
use the schematic representation of the bridge circuit in Fig 1a. An
alternative is the configuration shown in Fig 1b. The key element in either case is the variable resistor,
which allows us to balance (zero) the bridge’s output.
In these circuits:
• Ri are either strain gauges or passive resistors.

• In the configuration on the left, R4 is a variable resistor.
• RO is the resistance of the output device, which could be a voltmeter and EO is the output
voltage. E is the excitation voltage.
• The Ii are the currents flowing through each arm of the bridge.
29
We will first investigate the conditions for a balanced bridge, and then develop the output for an
unbalanced bridge
Balanced bridge
When the bridge is balanced, there is no current flow through the output device (IO = 0, i.e EO = 0),
Under these conditions, points A and C must be at the same potential, and the voltage drop from B to A
must equal that from B to C.
Similarly,
Figure 3 Same as Figure 1, but repeated here

for reference with the derivation of the
conditions for a balanced bridge.
Dividing one equation by the other
(C.2)
which is the condition for a balanced bridge. We use the variable

resistor to meet this condition.
Variable resistor
Now imagine one of the resistors in the bridge, not R4, is a strain gauge. We balance the bridge and then
strain the part to which the gauge is attached. The change in resistance associated with the change in
strain causes the bridge to be unbalanced and the voltage output is no longer zero.
30
Unbalanced bridge
To find the output voltage for an unbalanced bridge, EO, we’ll first sum the voltage drops around three
loops and solve for the output current.
Voltage drops around the loop including E, R1 and R4
Voltage drops around the loop including R1, R2, and RO
Voltage drops around the loop including RO, R3, and R4
Figure 4 Same as Figure 1, but repeated here for

reference with the derivation of the equation for
the bridge output voltage
Solving these equations for IO
Note that when the bridge is balanced, IO is zero. This is a general result for a Wheatstone bridge. It can
be simplified further by setting all resistors (gauges) to have the same value .
Second, for this development, R1 will be a strain gauge and R2, R3 and R4 will be passive resistors. Before
being strained, the resistance of R1 is R. After being strained, R1 changes to . Under these
conditions, the output current is,
Simplifying this expression we get
(C.3)
31
Since we have seen that is much smaller than R, we will neglect products of and R or RO, and
ignore the minus sign, which leads to
(C.4)
Since , the output current can be written in terms of the strain
(C.5)
Using Ohm’s law, we find the voltage across the output
(C.6)
This shows several important features of the bridge circuit.
• The output voltage is proportional to the strain.

• The higher the gauge factor, F, the higher the output voltage
• The higher the excitation voltage, E, the higher the output
For commonly used foil resistance strain gauges, the gauge factor is generally between 2 and 3. The
gauge factor of solid-state gauges is much higher, typically in the range of 30 to 200. Excitation voltage is
usually between 3 and 10 volts, and is limited by heat (power loss) generated in the gauge.
The impedance of the output device, commonly multiple megaohms, is much greater than that of a strain
gauge, 120 or 350 ohms. In the limit, as the RO approaches infinity, the output voltage, , is
(C.7)
32
What is the magnitude of the output voltage? Using the strain for a 1000 psi increment in stress on
steel (example above) the output voltage is
(C.8)
This is still a small output, but it is relative to a zero output balance bridge. Therefore, this small output
can be amplified and easily recorded.
WEB-BASED INTERACTIVE LEARNING: You can go to http://www.falstad.com/circuit/e-

wheatstone.html for an animated Wheatstone bridge. Note that you can change values, visualize current
flow and voltage values. You can also modify the circuit by adding resistors. For instance, R0 is missing
in the existing circuit. As is, the circuit is balanced, try changing the values of one of the resistors to tilt
the equilibrium of the product of resistances given in C.2.
33
Strain Gauge System
A typical strain gauge system might look like:
Figure 5 Schematic of a complete strain gauge system including an output device
The elements enclosed in the dashed box comprise a “Signal Conditioner.” As described above, the
amplifier increases the level of the output signal. Filters are used to remove noise, and as will see later,
they are important for preventing distortion of a signal when using a digital data acquisition system. It’s
important to be aware of the electrical characteristics of the amplifier and filter. An amplifier will not
amplify all frequencies equally. They also have a maximum output, beyond which increasing the input
will not increase the output. Some strain gauge signal conditioners have low pass filters with cutoffs as
low as 3 or 4 Hertz. Clearly, you would not want this if you were making higher frequency dynamic
measurements.
The strain gauge system diagram and the equations for output voltage suggest that we must know the
excitation voltage, amplifier gain, gauge factor to determine the strain. However, there is a simpler and
more accurate way of directly relating the final output voltage to strain (section 4 Shunt Calibration).
34
Multi-Arm Bridge
Multi-arm bridges are used in transducer designs (for example, force or pressure) and in temperature
compensation. These applications are discussed in following pages.
If R1 though R4 are strain gauges, we have a “full bridge” and its output voltage is
(M.1)
A half bridge has two arms that are strain gauges, e.g., R1 and R2, and R3 and R4 are passive resistors.
4) Shunt Calibration
The output of the strain gauge system (Figure 5) depends on the change in resistance of any arm of the
bridge, whether it is caused by strain or any other means. We can calibrate the output voltage by causing
a known change in resistance of an arm of the bridge. Equation (1) is then used to get a relationship
between change in resistance, apparent strain and output voltage. The term apparent strain is used since
there is no physical strain applied to a gauge in the calibration process. We simply simulated strain by
changing the resistance of an arm of the bridge.
In the bridge in Figure 6, R1 is a strain gauge, and R2 through R4 are passive resistors. We use a precision
calibration resistor with known resistance, Rcal that is in parallel with R1 when the switch is closed. When
the switch is closed, the resistance of this arm of the bridge is
(SC.1)
and the change in resistance of this arm is
(SC.2)
Figure 6 Wheatstone bridge with shunt
calibration resistor
35
Using Equations (1) and (SC.2), we get a relationship between change in resistance and apparent strain,
(SC.3)
To calibrate the system:
1. Balance the bridge,

2. Close the switch to place the calibration resistor in parallel with the gauge
3. Record the corresponding output voltage (EOapp)
4. Compute the apparent strain using the last of Equations (SC.3). We now have a system
calibration factor
By multiplying this calibration factor with the voltage output corresponding to real strain, we get the
actual strain:
36
5) Temperature Compensation
Changes in temperature can introduce large errors in strain gauge measurements. Imagine a gauge
adhered to a piece of metal. A change in temperature will result in thermal strain that is independent but
indiscernible from the mechanical strain. Temperature changes also cause the resistance of lead wires to
change, which appears erroneously at the output as strain. Fortunately, there are ways to minimize such
errors. Three of these are based on using:
1. Self-temperature compensated gauges

2. An unstrained gauge on the same material
3. A 3-wire connection
The output of most foil resistance gauges is insensitive to temperature change over a wide range of
temperature. These are called self-temperature compensated (STC) gauges. STC gauges are specific to a
material. A gauge that is compensated for use on aluminum is not thermally compensated for use on
metals that have a coefficient of thermal expansion that is different from that for aluminum. The
manufacturer provides data on thermal gauge performance.
Another approach to temperature compensation uses two gauges in a half bridge configuration, such as R1
and R2 in a bridge. One gauge is mounted on the material that is being strained, and the other is on a piece
of the same material that is positioned close to the part that is strained, but is not subjected to any
mechanical strain. The closeness is to approximate equal temperature in both pieces. Under these
conditions, the output voltage, from Equation (M.1), is
With gauge 1 on the strained part, and gauge 2 on the unstrained part, and both parts at the same
temperature, the thermal strains will cancel and the strain difference in the equation above is
37
A change in temperature also causes the resistance of lead wires that connect a gauge to a signal
conditioner to change. For example, if a gauge is connected with 26 gauge copper lead wires that are each
20 feet long, the added resistance to an arm of the bridge is
An increase in temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit causes a 22% increase in resistance
Using a gauge factor, F = 2, the temperature change results in an erroneous strain output
This is considerably larger than the strain is a piece

of steel for a 1000 psi increment of stress that we
showed was 33με.
Using a “3-wire connection” we can remove this

unwanted contribution to the strain (Figure 7). Let
R1 be a strain gauge that is connected to the bridge
with lead wires. Comparing the general Wheatstone
schematic to that for the gauge with lead wires, it’s
clear that the gauge is connected at nodes A and B, Figure 7: 3 wire connection. Resistor 1 is an active strain
and that node A has connections to the output gauge. Resistors 2, 3, and 4 are dummy resistors
device and gauge 4. Using a 3-wire connection
with equal length lead wires (black, red and gray wires in Figure 7) changes in resistance of the lead
wires will not unbalance the bridge. In a balanced bridge
Resistance R1 is between nodes A and B. Resistance R4 is between A and D. Therefore, the condition for a
balanced bridge is
38
To the extent that the lead wires have equal resistance and change in resistance, the bridge will remain
balanced when a 3-wire connection is used.
Note that increasing the resistance of an arm of the bridge due to lead wires, or any other factor, also
decreases the gauge factor
where R is the resistance of the gauge plus lead wires.
6) Transverse sensitivity
Have been using , which is a good approximation, but not entirely accurate.
The true relationship under axial ( ) and transverse strains ( ) is,
(TS.1)
In the equation above, kt is called the transverse sensitivity. How is determined? Transverse and axial
strains are related by Poisson’s ratio
39
Here is the value of Poisson’s ratio that the manufacturer uses when calibrating the strain gauge,
typically 0.285. Therefore, Equation (TS.1) can be rewritten as
(TS.2)
The gauge factor given by the manufacturer is the term
(TS.3)
Now, using equations (TS.1) and TS.3) we can compute the apparent strain (different meaning from that
used in shunt calibration) that includes the influence of transverse strain
If the transverse strain on the material we are using is , then the apparent strain is equal to the
axial strain
If the gauge is placed on a material with Poisson’s ratio (i.e. –εt/εa) that is not equal to , numerator
and denominator are not equal, and there is an error due to transverse sensitivity
40
Example: For the gauges we use in class, the transverse sensitivity is 0.006. If one of these gauges is
placed on a material with Poisson’s ratio equal to 0.3, the error is
which is small.
7) Rosettes and principal strains
Rosette gages are used to measure the magnitude and direction of

principal strains.
Strain gauge rosettes, which are three gauges with known angles
between them, can be used to answer this question.
Using Mohr’s circle (Figure 8) the strain at any angle θ on an object is

related to the principal strains by,
41
(R.1)
The last equation above relates the principal strains to the strain
measured in the direction θ.
However, we don’t know the principal strains or θ: we have one
equation but 3 unknowns.
Using a three gauge rosette with known angles between them,
we can create a system of three equations that are used to solve
for the three unknowns. This development is based on a rosette
with 45 degrees between the gauges. Denoting the strain in each Figure 8 Mohr's Circle
gauge by εi for i = 1, 2, 3, and using the last of the equations
above
(R.2)
Applying trigonometric identities
The strain in each gauge of the rosette is
(R.3)
42
Note that ε1 > ε2 > ε3. We can now solve these equations for the two principal strains and θ. Adding the
first and third of the Equations (R.3) we get
Substituting this expression for εP1 into the equations for ε2 and ε3 (R.3) we get
Dividing Equation (R.4) by (R.5) we get an expression for θ in

terms of the measured strains:
(R.6)
We can now solve for the principal strains using measured strains
and the calculated value for teta. Construction of Mohr’s circle
(Figure 9) requires the following steps:
1) Find the center of the circle. The center is defined as

the mid-point between ε1 and ε3. Remember that ε1 >
ε2 > ε3.
2) Draw a line that is passing from the center and
Figure 9 Mohr's circle showing the strains measure by
oriented at an angle 2θ. Note that an angle of θ in the each gauge in a rosette. This development is for a
physical realm translates as 2θ in the Mohr’s realm. rosette with 45 degrees between gauges.
43
3) Referring to Figure 9, the radius of the Mohr’s Circle will need to be calculated in terms
of measured stains:
and using the relationship for tan2θ (Equation R.6) and Figure 10
Figure 10 Trigonometric relationships

based on Equation R.6
and the radius of the circle, r, is calculated as:
By expanding the terms in the numerator and regrouping, the radius is
4) and the principal strains are now easily given in terms of the measured strains as the
center of the circle plus or minus the radius
44
8) Transducers
We can use the positive and negative contributions of individual gauges to the output voltage (Equation
M.1) to increase output or create transducers that are sensitive to one component of force and insensitive
to other components. This will be illustrated by a few examples. Equation (M.1) is repeated here for
convenience.
Ring force transducer
With the gauges positioned as shown above, the strains at R1 and R3 are opposite in sign to those at R2 and
R4. From equation (M.1) it can be seen that each of these strains adds to the output voltage.
45
Sensitivity to particular components of force
Cantilever beam with horizontal (H) and vertical (V) forces acting on one end. Up to four strain
gauges (Ri) may be mounted on the beam in a Wheatstone bridge configuration.
46
References
Perry, CC, Lissner, HR, The Strain Gauge Primer, 2nd edition. McGraw Hill Book Company, NY 1962.
47
3.4 – Temperature Measurement Techniques
1) Brief history
2) Temperature standards
3) Liquid-in-glass thermometers
4) Thermocouples
5) Resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
6) Thermistors
7) Radiative temperature measurements
8) Optical techniques
References
• RS Figliola and DE Beasley, 2011, Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements, 5th Edition,
Wiley, New York
48
1) Brief History
• Guillaume Amontons (1663 – 1705), a French Scientist, explored the thermodynamic nature of
temperature: the behavior of a constant volume of air that was subject to temperature changes.
• Galileo (1565-1642), attempted to use the volumetric expansion of liquids in tubes as a relative
measure of temperature, but this open tube device was actually sensitive to both barometric
pressure and temperature changes.
• In 1630, the technology to manufacture capillary glass tubes was developed and then used with
water and alcohol in a thermometric device resembling the bulb thermometer, and these devices
eventually led to the development of a practical temperature-measuring instrument.
• In 1715, Gabriel D. Fahrenheit, a German physicist (1686-1736), attempted to incorporate body
temperature as the median point on a scale having 180 divisions between the freezing point and the
boiling point of water. Fahrenheit also successfully used mercury as the liquid in a bulb
thermometer.
• In 1742, the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius 1 (1701-1744) described a temperature scale that
divided the interval between the boiling and freezing points of water at 1 atm pressure into 100
equal parts (the boiling point of water was fixed as 0, and the freezing point of water as 100).
Shortly after Celsius's death, Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) reversed the scale.
2) Temperature standards
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third
system are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
• A temperature scale provides for three essential aspects of temperature measurement:
(1) the definition of the size of the degree,
(2) fixed reference points for establishing known temperatures. and
(3) a means for interpolating between these fixed temperature points.
• Fixed Point Temperatures: To begin, consider the definition of the triple point of water as
having a value of 0.01 temperature for our scale, as is done for the Celsius scale (0.01°C). Fixed
points are typically defined by phase-transition temperatures or the triple point of a pure substance.
Assign the point at which pure water boils at one standard atmosphere pressure a numerical value
of 100.
• The next problem is to define the size of the degree. Since we have two fixed points on our
temperature scale, we can see that the degree is 1/100th of the temperature difference between the
ice point and the boiling point of water at atmospheric pressure.
49
• Interpolation: To measure temperatures other than these two fixed points, the process called
interpolation is performed. The simplest option would be to divide the distance on the
thermometer between the marks representing 0 and 100 into equally spaced degree divisions.
Figure 8.1 Calibration and interpolation for a liquid-in-glass thermometer.
• Temperature standards: The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) establishes fixed
points for temperature and provides standard procedures and devices for interpolating between
fixed points. It establishes the Kelvin (K) as the unit for the fundamental increment in temperature.
The unit of degrees Celsius (°C) is a practical scale related to the Kelvin as
°C = K - 273.15.
50
3) Liquid-in-glass thermometers
• A Liquid-in-glass thermometer measures temperature by virtue of the thermal expansion of a
liquid. The construction of a liquid-in-glass thermometer is shown in Figure 8.2. The liquid is
contained in a glass structure that consists of a bulb and a stem.
Figure 8.2 Liquid-in-glass thermometers.

• During calibration, such a thermometer is subject to one of three measuring environments:
1. For a complete immersion thermometer, the entire thermometer is immersed in the calibrating
temperature environment or fluid.
2. For a total immersion thermometer, the thermometer is immersed in the calibrating temperature
environment up to the liquid level in the capillary.
3. For a partial immersion thermometer, the thermometer is immersed to a predetermined level in
the calibrating environment.
• For the most accurate temperature measurements, the thermometer should be immersed in the
same manner in use as it was during calibration.
51
Ranges and Divisions for Precision Thermometers*
* Source:https://www.omega.com/temperature/pdf/GT-PRECISIONTHERM.pdf
†The Deutsche Akkreditierungsstelle GmbH (DAkkS) is the national accreditation body for the Federal Republic of Germany,
with headquarters in Berlin.
52
4) Thermocouples
• A thermocouple consists of two electrical conductors that are made of dissimilar metals and have
at least one electrical connection, i.e., junction.
Figure 8.13 Basic thermocouple circuit.

• Seebeck effect: named after Thomas J. Seebeck (1770 – 1831), refers to the generation of a
voltage potential, or electromotive force (emf) in an open thermocouple circuit due to a difference
in temperature between junctions in the circuit. The Seebeck effect refers to the case when there is
no current flow in the circuit, as for an open circuit.
• There is a fixed, reproducible relationship between the emf and the junction temperatures T1 and
T2, as is expressed by the Seebeck coefficient, αAB, defined as
𝜕𝜕(emf)
𝛼𝛼𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = � �
𝜕𝜕T open circuit
• Fundamental Thermocouple Laws provide the basis necessary for temperature measurement
with thermocouples:
1. Law of homogeneous materials: A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a
single homogeneous material by the application of heat alone, regardless of how it might vary
in cross-section. This law requires that at least two materials be used to construct a
thermocouple for measuring temperature.
2. Law of intermediate materials: The algebraic sum of the thermoelectric forces in a circuit
composed of any number of dissimilar materials is zero if all of the circuit is at the same
temperature. For example, Junctions 3 and 4 are cupper, material B is an alloy, and T3 = T4.
3. Law of successive or intermediate temperatures: If two dissimilar homogeneous materials
that form a thermocouple circuit produce emf1 when the junctions are at T1 and T2 and
produce emf2 when the junctions are at T2 and T3, the emf generated when the junctions are at
T1 and T3 will be emf1 + emf2. A thermocouple calibrated for T2 can be used at another
reference temperature T3 to determine temperature T1.
Figure 8.16 Typical thermocouple measuring circuit.
53
• A reference junction provides a temperature that is accurately known, stable, and reproducible.
A common reference temperature is the ice point, 0 °C.
• Basic thermocouple circuits to measure temperature using a chromel-constantan thermocouple
and an ice bath to create a reference temperature.
(a) (b)
Figure 8.17 Thermocouple temperature measurement circuits. (a) Thermocouple wires connected
directly to a potentiometer and (b) copper extension wires creating two reference junctions.
• The law of intermediate materials ensures that neither the potentiometer nor the extension wires
will change the emf of the circuit, as long as the two connecting junctions at the potentiometer and
the two in the ice bath experience not temperature difference.
• Thermocouple standards: The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) provides
specifications for the materials and construction of standard thermocouple circuits for temperature
measurement.
Table 8.4 Thermocouple Designations
54
Figure 8.16 Emf temperature relations for thermocouple materials, positive electrode listed first.
(From Holman)
Table 8.5 Standard Thermocouple Compositions
55
• Thermocouple reference tables: ITS-90 Tables and coefficients of polynomial equations for
standard thermocouples are available online at the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) website (https://srdata.nist.gov/its90/download/download.html).
Table 8.6 Thermocouple Reference Table for Type-J Thermocouple (Partial)
56
(Source: https://www.omega.com/techref/pdf/z207.pdf)
57
(Source: https://www.omega.com/techref/pdf/z204-206.pdf)
58
(Source: https://www.omega.com/techref/pdf/z204-206.pdf)
59
• Polynomial equations: To design software to calculate temperature from thermocouple voltages,
a ninth-order polynomial can be used in the form
T = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + . . . + a9x9
where T = temperature, °C
x = thermocouple voltage, V, reference junction at 0 °C
a = polynomial coefficients given in Table below for various thermocouple combinations
Table 8.5 Polynomial Coefficients for several Standard Thermocouple Combinations (From Holman)
• Voltage measurement devices: A large number of electronic voltmeters are suitable for
thermocouple measurements. These instruments typically have very high input impedance and
therefore do not draw an appreciable current in the thermocouple circuit.
• Electronic reference junctions provide a convenient means of the temperature measurement
without an ice bath. Numerous commercial temperature measuring devices and digital data
acquisition cards for personal computers include built-in reference junction compensation. The
electronics generally rely on a thermistor, a temperature-sensitive circuit, or an RTD to determine
the reference junction temperature.
• Example: A thermistor is placed in thermal contact with the terminal strip to which the
thermocouple wires are attached. The voltage vb and temperature coefficient of the thermistor must
be adjusted so that Vc will match the thermocouple temperature coefficient in millivolts/degree.
The value of Rx is adjusted so that the voltage output ΔV is zero at 0 °C. A convenient value for RA
is about 1 kΩ.
Figure 8.18 Reference junction compensation using thermistor. (From Holman)
60
5) Resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
• Principle: Electrical resistance of a conductor or semiconductor varies with temperature. This
behavior leads to two resistance thermometers: resistance temperature detectors (conductors) and
thermistors (semiconductors).
• Construction: The classical strain-free element-type resistance temperature detector (RTD) is
constructed by mounting a metal wire on an insulating support structure to eliminate mechanical
strains, and by encasing the wire to prevent changes in resistance due to influences from the
sensor's environment.
Figure 8.5 Construction of a platinum RTD. (From Benedict, R. P., Fundamentals of Temperature,
Pressure, and Flow Measurements, 3rd ed. Copyright© 1984 by John Wiley and Sons, New York.)
• Element types: The three main categories of RTD sensors, most widely used in industry, are thin-
film, wire-wound, and coiled elements.
Film type (~600 °C)
Wire-wound type (~660 °C)
Coiled type (~850 °C)
61
Thin film platinum RTD elements (α = 0.00385 Ω/°C, -50 to 500 °C).
(Source: https://www.omega.com/temperature/pdf/F3105_3100_W2100_2200.pdf)
Ultra precise immersion RTD sensors (α = 0.00385 Ω/°C, -100 to 400 °C).
(Source: https://www.omega.com/temperature/pdf/P-ULTRA_RTD.pdf)
62
• Resistivity: The resistance of a conductor of a length l and cross-sectional area Ac may be
expressed in terms of the resistivity ρe as
𝜌𝜌𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐
• Temperature dependency: The relationship between the resistance of a conductor and its
temperature may also be expressed as the polynomial expression:
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼𝛼(𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇0 ) + 𝛽𝛽(𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇0 )2 + ⋅⋅⋅]
where R0 is a reference resistance measured temperature T0. The coefficients α, β, . . . are material
constants.
Figure 8.6 Relative resistance of three pure metals (R6 at 0.C).

For small temperature ranges, the approximation can be expressed as
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼𝛼(𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇0 )]
α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
Table 8.2 Resistance-temperature coefficients and resistivity at 20 °C†.

(From Homan)
63
• Platinum resistance temperature detector (RTD): Platinum is the most common material
chosen for the construction of RTDs. The principle of operation is quite simple: platinum exhibits
a predictable and reproducible change in electrical resistance with temperature, which can be
calibrated and interpolated to a high degree of accuracy.
By properly constructing an RTD, and correctly measuring its resistance, an uncertainty in
temperature measurement as low as ±0.005°C is possible.
• A Wheatstone bridge provides a means for accurately measuring resistance, and for detecting
very small changes in resistance.
Figure 6.13 Basic current-sensitive Wheatstone bridge circuit (G, galvanometer).

R1 is a sensor that experiences a change in resistance associated with a change in some physical
variable (i.e., temperature). A DC voltage is applied as an input across nodes A to D. Under the
condition that the current flow through the galvanometer, Ig, is zero, the bridge is in a balanced
condition. Then, there is no voltage drop from B to C and
I1R1 – I3R3 = 0
I2R2 – I4R4 = 0
and the currents through the arms of the bridge are equal:
I1 = I2 and I3 = I4
Solving the equations yields the relationship among the resistance for a balanced bridge:
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅4
=
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3
• RTD resistance measurement: Conventional ohmmeters cause a small current to flow during
resistance measurements, creating self-heating in the RTD. An appreciable temperature change of
the sensor may be caused by this current, in effect causing a loading error.
Wheatstone bridge circuits are commonly used for these measurements. However, it does not
compensate for the resistance of the leads in measuring the resistance of RTD, which is a major
source of error. When greater accuracies are required, three-wire and four-wire bridge circuits are
use.
64
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 8.7 Bridge circuits. (a) Callender-Griffiths 3-wire bridge; (b) and (c) Mueller 4-wire
bridge. An average of the readings in (b) and (c) eliminates the effect of lead wire resistances.
In the figure, (a) shows a three-wire Callender-Griffiths bridge circuit. At balanced conditions
neglecting lead wire effects.
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3
=
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅RTD
but with the lead wire resistances included in the circuit analysis,
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑟𝑟1
=
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅RTD + 𝑟𝑟3
and with R1 = R2,
RRTD = R3 + r1 – r3
If r1 = r3, the effect of these lead wires is eliminated.
Figures (b) and (c) show 4-wire Mueller bridge, which provides increased compensation for lead-
wire resistances. A circuit analysis yields
RRTD + r3= R3 + r1
and in the second measurement configuration, Figure (c), yields
RRTD + r1= R’3 + r3
Thus,
𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅′3
𝑅𝑅RTD =
2
With this approach, the effect of variations in lead wire resistance is essentially eliminated.
• Practical considerations: The advantages of platinum RTDs include: high accuracy, low drift,
wide operating range, and suitability for precision applications. The transient response of typical
commercial RTDs is generally slow compared to other temperature sensors. A notable exception is
thin film RTDs.
65
6) Thermistors
• A thermistor (thermal resistor) is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with
temperature. Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) in that the material
used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. RTDs are
useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a greater precision
within a limited temperature range, typically −90 °C to 130 °C. Thermistors are manufactured
from oxides of nickel, manganese, iron, cobalt, magnesium, titanium and other metals.
Precision thermistor elements.
66
• Resistance Vs. Temperature Characteristics: The Steinhart-Hart Equation has become the
generally accepted method for specifying the resistance vs. temperature characteristics for
thermistors. The Steinhart-Hart equation for temperature as a function of resistance is as follows:
1/T = A + B [ln(R)] + C [ln(R)]3
where: A, B and C are constants derived from 3 temperature test points, R is the thermistor's
resistance (Ω), and T is the temperature (K).
To determine the thermistor resistance at a specific temperature point, the following equation is
used:
R = exp (β-(α/2))1/3- ((β+(α /2))1/3
where α = ((A-(1/T))/C), β= SQRT(((B/(3C))3)+(α2/4)).
The A, B and C constants for each of thermistor selections are listed in Table 1.
(Source: https://www.omega.com/temperature/pdf/44000_THERMIS_ELEMENTS.pdf)
Typical R-T relationship
67
• Resistance measurement:
A thermistor in one leg of a Wheatstone bridge will provide accurate temperature information.
Large resistance change of a thermistor element eliminates any significant error from lead wires
and switches.
The thermistor output can be linearized electronically to make the resistance change which is
linear with temperature change.
• Thermocouple vs. RTD and thermistor:
1. RTD and thermistor are only useful over a certain temperature range. Thermocouples, in
comparison, can be used over a range of temperatures and optimized for various
atmospheres.
2. Thermocouples are more rugged than thermistors.
3. Thermocouples can be manufactured on the spot, either by soldering or welding.
4. A complete measuring system for thermocouples is readily available.
68
7) Radiative temperature measurements
• Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body as a result of temperature. The
total thermal radiation emitted by a blackbody (ideal radiation) is given as
Eb = σT4
where Eb is the emissive power (W/m2), σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.669 × 10-8
W/m2K4)
Figure 8.26 The electromagnetic spectrum. (From Incropera F. P., and D. P. DeWitt, Fundamentals
of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2nd ed. Copyright © 1985 by John Wiley & Sons, New York.)
• Plank distribution equation: the emissive power of the blackbody varies with wavelength
𝐶𝐶1 𝜆𝜆−5
𝐸𝐸𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝐶𝐶 /𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝑒𝑒 2 −1
where Ebλ is the monochromatic blackbody emissive power (W/m2µm), λ is the wavelength (µm),
T is the temperature (K), C1 is a constant (3.743 × 108 Wµm4/m2), and C2 is a constant (1.4387 ×
104 µmK).
Figure 8.27 Planck distribution of blackbody emissive power as a function of wavelength. (From
lncropera F. P., and D. P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2nd ed. Copyright © I 985
by John Wiley & Sons, New York.)
69
• A radiometeter measures a source temperature by measuring the voltage output from a
thermopile detector. Infrared (IR) thermopile sensors that are manufactured using
micromachining and advanced semiconductor processing methods. The hot junction of the
thermopile is placed under the IR filter and the cold junctions under the IR mask. Manufacturing
methods allow hundreds of junctions to be created in a micro-device.
Figure 8.30 Industrial infrared (IR) thermopile sensor.
• An optical pyrometer identifies the temperature of a surface by its color, or more precisely the
color of the radiation it emits. A standard lamp is calibrated so that the current flow through its
filament is controlled and calibrated in terms of the filament temperature. Comparison is made
optically between the color of this filament and the surface of the object whose temperature is
being measured. The comparator can be the human eye.
Figure 8.31 Schematic diagram of a disappearing filament optical pyrometer.
70
• Infrared thermometer: The emitted radiation energy from a unit area = εσT4 (T =
absolute temperature, ε = emissivity, σ = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 5.669 × 10-8
W/m2K4)
Radiation energy distribution for blackbody (ε = 1)
Handheld infrared thermometer

Temperature Ranges:
OS523E: -18 to 1370°C (0 to 2500°F)
OS524E: 538 to 2482°C (1000 to 4500°F)
Accuracy: ±1% rdg or 2°C (3.6°F), whichever is greater
Repeatability: ±(1% rdg + 1 digit)
Resolution: 1°C or 1°F
Response Time: 100 ms
Spectral Response:
OS523E: 8 to 14 microns
OS524E: 2 to 2.5 microns
Emissivity adjustable: 0.10 to 1.00 in 0.01 increments
Laser Sighting : Dot/Circle Switchable
(Source: https://www.omega.com/temperature/pdf/OS523E_OS524E.pdf)
71
• Infrared camera: Infrared image of a surface (thermogram)  2D temperature
distribution
Forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera
FLIR image
IR Resolution (Model T540): 464x348 (161,472 pixels)
Temperature Ranges:
T540: -20 to 120°C (-4 to 248°F), 0 to 650°C (32 to 1202°F), 300 to 1500°C (572 to 2732°F)
Accuracy: 2°C (3.6°F) or ±2% reading
Spectral Range: 7.5 to 14 microns
(Source: https://www.flir.com/products/t540/)
72
8) Optical Techniques
 Speed of light depends upon the medium through
which it passes. Variation of speed of light v is a
function of medium index of refraction n.
n = v / v0
Vacuum: n = 1 (v = v0)
Air: n = n(λ, ρ); n = 1.0002926 at STP and 589 nm
Zinc crown glass: n = 1.517 relative to air at 589 nm
Water: n = 1.33 at 589 nm
 Snell’s Law
n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2
• The Gladstone-Dale equation

n−1
=C [1]
ρ
where n ≈ 1: the index of refraction, ρ: density, and C: the Gladstone-Dale constant. By using n
and ρ at standard temperature and pressure, n0 and ρ 0,
ρ
n−1= (n −1) [2]
ρ0 0
When the first or second derivative is determined as in a schlieren or shadowgraph apparatus,
∂ρ 1∂n
= [3]
∂ x C∂ x
∂ 2ρ 1 ∂ 2n
= [4]
∂ x2 C ∂ x2
If the pressure is assumed constant, by using the ideal gas equation of state (ρ = P/RT),
∂n CP ∂ T n0 −1 ρ ∂ T
=− = − [5]
∂ x RT 2 ∂ x T ρ0 ∂ x
∂ 2n  ρ ∂ 2T 2ρ  ∂ T 2 
=C − +    [6]
∂ x 2  T ∂ x 2 T 2  ∂ x  
The index of refraction of a gas as measured in an interferometer can indicate the temperature
directly. From Eqs. [1] and [2] assuming constant p and the perfect gas equation of state,
C P  n0 −1  P
T= =  ×T0 [7]
n−1 R  n−1  P0
73
• Types of optical observations
Shadowgraphy contains information on the second derivative of the refractive index (or density).
Schlieren photography contains information on the gradient of the refractive index.
Interferometry contains information on the refractive index.
74
• Optical observations of Bunsen flames
75
76
3.5 – Pressure Measurement Techniques
1) Pressure concepts
2) Manometer
• U-tube manometer
• Micromanometer
• Inclined tube manometer
• Two-fluid U tube (double-well) manometer
3) Deadweight testers (force balance)
4) Mechanical displacement measurement
• Bourdon tube
• Bellows and capsule elements
• Diaphragms
5) Pressure transducers
• Diaphragm pressure transducer

• Piezoelectric pressure transducer
• Capacitance pressure transducer
References
Wiley, New York
77
1) Pressure concepts
• Pressure represents a contact force per unit area and acts inwardly, and normally to a surface. As
a gas molecule with some momentum collides with the solid boundary, it rebounds off in a
different direction. From Newton’s second law, this change in linear momentum produces an
equal but opposite (normal, inward) force on the boundary.
• Pressure scale A pure vacuum, which contains no molecule provides the limit for a primary
standard for absolute zero pressure. The pressure under standard atmospheric conditions is defined
as 1.01320 x 105 Pa absolute (where 1 Pa = 1 N/m2), which is equivalent to
101.32 kPa absolute
1 atm absolute
14.696 lb/in.2 absolute (written as psia)
1.013 bar absolute (where 1 bar = 100 kPa)
• Gage pressure pgauge is measured relative to some absolute reference pressure p0 (commonly the
local absolute atmospheric pressure) as
pgauge = pabs – p0
Figure 9.1 Relative pressure scales.
78
• Pressure can also be described in terms of the pressure exerted on a surface that is submerged in a
column of fluid at depth h. From hydrostatics, the pressure at any depth within a fluid of specific
weight γ can be written as
pabs (h) = p(ho) +γh = po +γh
where p0 is the pressure at an arbitrary datum line at ho, and h is measured relative to ho. The fluid
specific weight is given by γ = ρg where ρ is the density.
• The equivalent head of fluid at depth h becomes
h = [pabs (h) – p(h)]/γ = pabs – p o
The equivalent pressure head at one standard atmosphere (p = 0 absolute) is
760 mm Hg abs = 760 torr abs = 1 atm abs
= 10,350.8 mm H20 abs = 29.92 in Hg abs
= 407.513 in H20 abs
The standard is based on mercury (Hg) with a density of 0.0135951 kg/cm3 at 0 °C and water at
0.000998207 kg/cm3 at 20 °C.
Figure 9.2 Hydrostatic-equivalent pressure head and pressure.
79
2) Manometer
• A manometer is an instrument used to measure differential pressure based on the relationship
between pressure and the hydrostatic equivalent head of fluid. The U-tube manometer consists of
a transparent tube filled with an indicating liquid of specific weight γm = ρm g.The difference in
pressures p1 and p2 applied on two free surfaces results in the difference in the head of the
manometer liquid H. For a measured fluid of specific weight γ, the hydrostatic equation can be
applied to the manometer as
p1 = p2 + γx + γmH – γ(H + x)
p1 – p2 = (γm – γ)H
The static sensitivity of the U-tube manometer is given by K = 1/(γm – γ).
Figure 9.5 U-tube manometer.
80
• The micromanometer is used to measure very small differential pressures, down to 0.005 mm
H2O (0.0002 in. H2O). (Example: The Pitot-tube to measure the air velocity: 1 m/s corresponds to
0.061 mm H2O [0.0024 in. H2O])
• The manometer reservoir is moved up or down until the level of the manometer fluid within the
reservoir is at the same level as a set mark within a magnifying sight glass. The position of the
reservoir is controlled by a micrometer or other calibrated displacement measuring device so that
relative changes in pressure can be measured with high resolution.
Figure 9.6 Micromanometer.
81
• The inclined tube manometer is also used to measure small changes in pressure. It is essentially a
U-tube manometer with one leg inclined at an angle θ, typically from 10 to 30 degrees relative to
the horizontal. The height H in a U-tube manometer would bring about a change in position of the
meniscus in the inclined leg of L = H/sin θ. This provides an increased sensitivity over the
conventional U-tube by the factor l/sin θ.
Figure 9.7 Inclined tube manometer.
• Two-fluid U tube (double-well) manometer is a sensitive device for measuring small pressure
differences.
Two-fluid manometer with reservoirs.
Δp = (ρ2 – ρ1)gh + (ρ2 + ρ1)(d/D)2gh
Compared to Δp = (γm – γ)H ≈ γmH = ρm gH, for simple U-tube manometer, the displacement
amplification is
𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑀 =
(𝑑𝑑/𝐷𝐷)2 (𝜌𝜌2 + 𝜌𝜌1 ) + (𝜌𝜌2 − 𝜌𝜌1 )
82
3) Deadweight testers (force balance)
• The deadweight tester makes direct use of the fundamental definition of pressure as a force per
unit area to create and to determine the pressure within a sealed chamber. These devices are a
common laboratory standard for the calibration of pressure-measuring devices over the ressure
range from 70 to 7 x 107 N/m2 (0.01 tp 10,000 psi).
Figure 6.6 Schematic of a dead-weight tester. (From Holman)
4) Mechanical displacement measurement

• A primary mechanical pressure sensor is usually an elastic element that deforms or deflects
under the measured pressure relative to a reference pressure. Several common elastic elements
used include the Bourdon tube, bellows, capsule, and diaphragm. A secondary transducer element
converts the elastic element deflection into a readily measurable signal such as an electrical
voltage or mechanical rotation of a pointer.
Figure 9.9 Elastic elements used as pressure sensors.
83
• The Bourdon tube is a curved metal tube having an elliptical cross section that mechanically
deforms under pressure. One end of the tube is held fixed and the input pressure applied internally.
A pressure difference between the outside of the tube and the inside of the tube brings about tube
deformation and a deflection of the tube free end. This action of the tube under pressure can be
likened to the action of a deflated balloon that is subsequently inflated. The magnitude of the
deflection of the tube end is proportional to the magnitude of the pressure difference.
Figure 9.10 Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
• A bellows sensing element is a thin-walled, flexible metal tube formed into deep convolutions an
sealed at one end. One end is held fixed and pressure is applied internally. A difference between
the internal and external pressures causes the bellows to change in length. The bellows is housed
within a chamber that can be sealed and evacuated for absolute measurements, vent through a
reference pressure port for differential measurements, or opened to atmosphere for gauge pressure
measurements.
• A similar design, the capsule sensing element, is also a thin-walled, flexible metal tube whose
length changes with pressure, but its shape tends to be wider in diameter and shorter in length.
• A mechanical linkage is used to convert the translational displacement of the bellows or capsule
sensors into a measurable form.
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝐸𝐸0 = 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 = 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿
Figure 9.11 Potentiometer pressure transducer.
84
• A diaphragm (Figure 9.9) is a thin elastic circular plate supported about its circumference. A
pressure differential on the top and bottom diaphragm faces acts to deform it. The magnitude of
the deformation is proportional to the pressure difference. Both membrane and corrugated designs
are used. Membranes are made of metal or nonmetallic material, such as plastic or neoprene.
• Deflection of flat metal diaphragms is limited either by stress requirements or by deviation from
linearity. The maximum deflection that can be tolerated maintaining a linear pressure-
displacement is about 30 % of the diaphragm thickness. In certain cases, secondary transducers
require physical connection with the diaphragm at the center.
• Corrugated diaphragms are normally used in larger diameters than the flat type. Corrugations
permit increased linear deflections and reduced stresses. Since the larger size and deflection reduce
the dynamic response of the corrugated diaphragms as compared with the flat type, they are
commonly used in static applications.
(a) (b)
(a) Flat diaphragm (b) Corrugated diaphragm
85
• A common method for converting diaphragm displacement into a measurable signal is to sense the
strain induced on the diaphragm surface as it is displaced. Strain gauges, devices whose
measurable resistance is proportional to their sensed strain, can be bonded directly onto the
diaphragm, integrated within the diaphragm material or onto a deforming element (such as a thin
beam) attached to the diaphragm so as to deform with the diaphragm and to sense strain.
• The maximum elastic deflection ymax of a uniformly loaded, circular diaphragm supported about its
circumference occurs at its center and can be estimated by
3(𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 )(1 − ν2𝑝𝑝 )𝑟𝑟 4

𝑦𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
16𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡 3
where Em is the bulk modulus (psi or N/m2), t the thickness (in. or m), R the radius (in. or m), and
νp the Poisson’s ratio for the diaphragm material, provided that the deflection does not exceed one-
third the diaphragm thickness.
Locations of strain gauges on a flat diaphragm.
86
5) Pressure transducers
• A diaphragm pressure transducer using strain gauge detection is depicted in Figure 9.12.
(a) (b)
Figure 9.12 Diaphragm pressure transducer. (a) Sensing scheme and (b) bridge-strain gauge
circuit for pressure diaphragms.
• A capacitance sensor uses a thin metallic diaphragm as one plate of a capacitor pair with a fixed
plate to complete the capacitor. A pressure difference deflects the diaphragm, the gap between the
plates changes, and causes a change in capacitance. The capacitance C, developed between two
parallel plates separated by average gap t is
C = cεA/t
where the product cε is the permittivity of the material between the plates relative to a vacuum (ε
= 8.85 x 10-12 F/m; c = dielectric constant, c = 1 for air, 80 for water), and A is the overlapping
area of the two plates.
Capacitance pressure transducer.
Displacement of the diaphragm changes the average gap separation. The measured voltage is
𝐶𝐶1
𝐸𝐸0 = 𝐸𝐸
𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖
87
• Under the action of compression, tension, or shear, a piezoelectric crystal deforms and develops
a surface charge q, which is proportional to the force acting. Pressure acts normal to the crystal
axis and changes the crystal thickness by a small amount Δt.
This sets up a charge, q = Kq pA, where p is the pressure over the electrode area A and Kq is the
crystal charge sensitivity. A charge amplifier is used to convert charge to voltage so that the
voltage developed across the electrodes is
E0 = q/C
where C is the capacitance of the crystal-electrode combination. The operating equation becomes
E0 = Kq tp/cε = Kp
where K is the overall transducer gain. The crystal sensitivity for quartz, the most common
material used, is Kq = 2.2 x 10-9 coulombs/N.
Figure 9.14 Piezoelectric pressure transducer.
• The operating equation becomes

E0 = Kq tp/cε = Kp
where K is the overall transducer gain. The crystal sensitivity for quartz, the most
common materia: used, is Kq = 2.2 x 10-9 coulombs/N.
88
3.6 – Velocity Measurement Techniques
Incursive techniques
1) Cup anemometers and vane anemometer
2) Pitot-tube static anemometer
3) Hot-wire Anemometer (HWA)
Non-incursive techniques
4) Laser-Doppler Velocimetry (LDV)
5) Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
6) Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimetry (UDV)
References
Wiley, New York
89
1) Cup anemometers and vane anemometer
• Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) is said to have invented the
first mechanical anemometer around 1450.
• In 1846, John Thomas Romney Robinson (1792–1882)
improved upon the design by using four hemispherical cups and
mechanical wheels.
• In 1926, Canadian meteorologist John Patterson (1872–1956)
developed a three-cup anemometer, which was improved by
Brevoort and Joiner in 1935.
• A cup anemometer consists of four hemispherical cups mounted A hemispherical cup anemometer
on horizontal arms, which were mounted on a vertical shaft. The of the type invented in 1846 by
John Thomas Romney Robinson.
air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the shaft
at a rate that was roughly proportional to the wind speed.
Therefore, counting the turns of the shaft over a set time interval
produced a value proportional to the average wind speed.
• Since a hollow hemisphere has a drag coefficient of .38 on the
spherical side and 1.42 on the hollow side, more force is
generated on the cup that is presenting its hollow side to the wind.
Because of this asymmetrical force, torque is generated on the A three-cup anemometer.
axis of the anemometer, causing it to spin.
• The three-cup anemometer led to a cup wheel design with a nearly linear response and had an error
of less than 3% up to 60 mph (97 km/h).
• A vane anemometer combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and
precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument. The speed of the fan is
measured by a rev counter and converted to a wind speed by an electronic chip. Hence, volumetric
flow rate may be calculated if the cross-sectional area is known.
Vane style of anemometer Hand-held digital weather meter

(Source: https://kestrelmeters.com/)
90
2) Pitot-tube static anemometer
• A pitot-static tube which is a pitot tube with two ports, pitot and static, that is normally used in
measuring the airspeed of aircraft. The pitot port measures the total (or stagnation) pressure of the
open mouth of a tube with pointed head facing wind, and the static port measures the static
pressure from small holes along the side on that tube.
Figure 9.24 Pitot-static pressure probe.

• Bernoulli equation for a steady, incompressible, isentropic flow can be written at any arbitrary
point x in the flow field as
or
where pv, the difference between the total (pt) and static (px) pressures at any point x in the flow,
is the dynamic pressure. Hence, measuring the dynamic pressure of a moving fluid at a point
provides a method for estimating the local velocity,
91
• Measurement of the dynamic pressure by U-tube manometer
A pressure balance of the two columns is
pt – px = ρmgh = ½ ρUx2
Therefore, Ux = [2(ρm/ρ)gh]1/2
• Example
Airflow at 1 atm and 20 °C (ρ = 1.2 kg/m3)
Manometer fluid = water (ρm = 998 kg/m3)
Gravitational acceleration (g = 9.8 m/s2)
H = 0.21 in (of water column) = 0.00533 m U-tube manometer
Then Ux = [2(998/1.2)(9.8)(0.00533)]1/2 = 9.32 m/s
• Error due to alignment: The dependence of the static and stagnation pressures on yaw
angle for a conventional Pitot tube indicates that this device is quite sensitive to flow
direction.
Figure 7.42 Variation of static, stagnation, and dynamic pressure with yaw angle for Pilot tube.
(From Holman; Courtesy of Airflo Instrument Corp., Glastonbury, CT.)
Practical consideration: Pitot-static probe does not require calibration. Other velocity
measurement techniques are often calibrated against Pitot tube measurement. The response time
of Pitot-static probe is relatively slow, so it is used only in steady flows.
92
3) Hot-wire Anemometer (HWA)
• A hot wire anemometer (HWA) uses a fine wire electrically heated to some temperature above
the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As the electrical resistance of most metals is
dependent upon the temperature, a relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire
and the flow speed.
Figure 9.27 Schematic of a hot-wire probe.
• Wire: platinum or tungsten, diameter ≈ 0.01 mm or less, length/diameter ≈ 50 or greater, heated

electrically (Joule heating), maintained at a constant temperature (or resistance) by a bridge.
Figure 7.23 Schematic of hot-wire flow-measurement circuit. (From Holman)
93
• Basic equations: A HWA utilizes a sensor, a metallic resistance temperature detector (RTD
element, that makes up one active leg of a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
Heat generated by Joule heating:
Qin = I2R
Heat removed by convection heat transfer:
Qout = hS(Tw - T0)
where h = heat transfer coefficient, S = wire surface area.
For a heated cylinder in a uniform stream
h = a + bUn
where a and b are constants for a given wire and n ≈ 0.5.
Then, from Qin = Qout,
I2R = (a + bUn) S(Tw - T0).
For a given wire, Tw, T0, and R,
I = A + BUn
Constants A, B, and n are determined by calibration.
Typical calibration curve.
• Time response: Hot-wire probes have been used extensively for measurement of transient flows,
especially measurements of turbulent fluctuations. Time constants of the order of 1 ms may be
obtained with 0.0001-in-diameter (2.5 µm) platinum or tungsten wires operating in air.
Measurements of turbulent fluctuations of air speed.
94
4) Laser-Doppler Velocimetry (LDV)
• Laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV), also known as laser Doppler anemometry (LDA), is the
technique of using the Doppler shift in a laser beam to measure the velocity in transparent or semi-
transparent fluid flows. The measurement with LDA is absolute, linear with velocity and requires
no pre-calibration.
Figure 9.28 Laser Doppler anemometer, shown here in the dual-beam mode of operation.
• Doppler shift: A laser beam is monochromatic and remains coherent over long distances. As a
moving particle suspended in the fluid passes through the laser beam, it scatters light in all
directions. An observer viewing this encounter between the particle and the beam perceives the
scattered light at a frequency fs:
fs = fi ± fD
where fi is the frequency of the incident laser beam (on the order of 1014 Hz) and fD is the Doppler
shift frequency (on the order of 103 to 107 Hz). The two beams cross and the incident information
from the two beams mix, a process known as optical heterodyne. which separates the incident
frequency from the Doppler frequency.
• Velocity: A useful way to interpret the signal recorded by the photodetector is in terms of the
interference fringe pattern generated at the beam crossing. The fringe pattern, shown in Figure 3,
consists of alternating zones of brightness and darkness. The fringe spacing, df, is the distance
between sequential bright (or dark) zones.
The amplitude of the signal burst varies with timescale dF/V, where V is the velocity component
perpendicular to the fringe pattern, i.e. perpendicular to the bisector of the two incoming beams.
A fringe pattern and a signal burst.

(Source: http://web.mit.edu/fluids-modules/www/exper_techniques/LDA.text.pdf)
95
5) Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
• Particle image velocimetry (PIV) measures the full-field instantaneous velocities in a planar
cross section of a flow by tracking the time displacement of particles, which are assumed to follow
the flow. The image of particles suspended in the flow are illuminated and recorded during very-
short-duration repetitive flashes of a laser sheet.
Figure 9.30 Basic layout of a digital particle image velocimeter.
• Data processing: The acquired digital image is stored and processed by interrogation software,
resulting in full-field instantaneous velocity mapping of the flow. The operating principle is based
on particle displacement with time.
where U is the instantaneous velocity vector based on its spatial position x(x, y, z, t). The
corresponding interrogation areas between two images are cross-correlated with each other, on a
pixel-by-pixel basis. A particular particle movement from position x1 to x2 shows up as a signal
peak in the correlation R12(Δx), where
96
6) Acoustic Doppler Velocimetry (ADV) or Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimetry (UDV)
• Acoustic Doppler Velocimetry (ADV) or Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimetry (UDV) measures
instantaneous velocity components at a single-point in a remote sampling volume based upon the
Doppler shift effect with a relatively high frequency.
• Velocity distribution measurement in liquid flow (usually through pipes)

Frequency range of ultrasound = 500 kHz – 50 MHz (usually 4 MHz is used for UDV)
2p = cTd
where p = distance between the transceiver and target, c = speed of sound, Td = time delay.
p2 – p1 = c(Td,2 - Td,1)/2
= V Tprf cosθ
where Tprf = separation time between two emissions. Thus,
V = c(Td,2 - Td,1)/(2Tprf cosθ)

Or by measuring the phase shift
δ = 2π fe (Td,2 - Td,1)
where fe = emitting frequency,
V = cδ /(4π fe Tprf cosθ)
97
98
3.7 – Fourier Transform
• Fourier analysis: The method of expressing a complex signal, even that is

nondeterministic in nature, as an infinite series of sines and cosine functions.
• Periodic signals: As an example, consider an analysis of periodic motions is a
mechanical vibration of a mass attached to a linear spring. For a linear spring, the spring
force F and displacement y are related by F = ky, where k is the constant of
proportionality, called the spring constant. Application of Newton's second law to this
system yields a governing equation for the displacement y as a function of time t as
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
𝑚𝑚 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
The general form of the solution is
𝑦𝑦 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
where 𝜔𝜔 = �𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚 , called the circular frequency. The relationship between ω, the frequency f
(Hz), and the period T (s), is
2𝜋𝜋 1
𝑇𝑇 = =
𝜔𝜔 𝑓𝑓
Figure 2.9 Spring-mass system.
99
• The sine and cosine terms in the equation can be combined if a phase angle is
introduced such that
y = C cos(ωt - φ)
or
y = C sin(ωt - φ*)
The values of C, φ, and φ* are found from the following trigonometric identities:
𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = �𝐴𝐴2 + 𝐵𝐵2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − φ)
𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝐵𝐵 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = �𝐴𝐴2 + 𝐵𝐵2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − φ ∗)

𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴 𝜋𝜋
∅ = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 ∅∗ = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 ∅∗ = −∅
𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 2
Figure 2.10 Relationship between cycles on the unit circle and circular frequency.
100
Fourier Series and Coefficients
• Fourier series: Any complex signal can be approximated as an infinite trigonometric
series of sine and cosine functions of differing periods and amplitudes.
• Fourier transform enables us to investigate time domain signals in the frequency
domain.
• As a physical (instead of mathematical) example, consider a string that is plucked at mid
length. The impulse force will initiate a set of vibrations at different frequencies. The
sound will be dominated by the fundamental frequency as shown in the figure.
Harmonics of the fundamental frequency will also emerge; however, at a fraction of the
amplitude of the fundamental frequency.
• A time domain signal of y(t) can be expressed as a summation of key frequency
components which are making up the signal.
Figure 2.11 Modes of vibration for a string plucked at its center.
101
∞
Ao + ∑ ( An cos nωt + Bn sin nωt )
y (t ) = (1)
n =1
T /2
1
T −T∫/2
Ao = y (t ) dt
T /2
2
T −T∫/2
An = y (t ) cos nωt dt
T /2
2
T −T∫/2
Bn = y (t ) sin nωt dt
n :1, 2,3...
T = 2π / ω
where T is the period that is corresponding to the fundamental

frequency at n =1, n>1 are the harmonics.
Equation 1 can be written in terms of phase angle:

∞
Ao + ∑ Cn cos(nωt − φn )
y (t ) =
n =1
Cn
= An + Bn 2
2
Bn
tan φn =
An
Fourier transformation can be simplified for even

and odd functions:
g(-t)=g(t) (even)
h(-t)=-h(t) (odd)
∞
g(t ) = ∑ ( An cos nωt )
n =1
∞
h(t ) = ∑ ( Bn sin nωt )
n =1
102
• Fourier Transform Example: Determine the Fourier series for the function shown in the figure.
T=10. Ao=0
Figure 2.14 Function represented by a Fourier series.
The function is odd; therefore Fourier sine series can be used

∞
 2nπ t 
h(t ) = ∑  Bn sin 
n =1  T 
where
2  2nπ t 
5 5
2nπ t
Bn = ∫ ( − 1) sin( ) dt + ∫0 (1) sin( ) dt 
10  0 10 10 
2   10 2nπ t    −10 2nπ t   
5 5
=Bn  cos( ) + cos( ) 

10   2nπ 10  0   2nπ 10  0  
4
Bn =
nπ
The resulting Fourier series is:
4 2π 4 6π 4 10π
h(t ) = sin t+ sin t+ sin t + ......
π 10 3π 10 5π 10
• Above example shows that time domain functions can be expressed as summations of sine and
cosine functions. The mathematical solution can be expressed graphically in the figure below.
103
Figure 2.15 First four partial sums of the Fourier series (20/π)(sin t + 1/3 sin 3t + 1/5 sin 5t + • • •) in
comparison with the exact waveform.
3.8 - Digital Data Sampling
• Generally, the signal emerging from a sensor is continuous analog form.

• The signal passes through an analog to digital (A/D) converter and it is recorded as a collection
of discrete data points.
• It is critically important to have knowledge on the frequency content of the signal and collect
the signal at a sampling rate that is sufficient for collection of the signal of interest.
104
• The below illustrates an analog signal that is digitized at 11 sampling points. The signal has a
period of 10 seconds which correspond to 0.1 Hz. One data points is sampled at every 1 second;
therefore, the sampling rate is 1 Hz.
Figure 7.1 Analog and discrete representations of a time-varying signal.
• A key question in choosing a sampling rate is how fast should the sampling rate be? There are
repercussions to choosing low sampling rates as illustrated in the below:
Figure 7.2 The effect of sample rate on signal frequency and amplitude interpretation.
105
• A 10 Hz sine wave in the figure with a period of tf can be sampled at time increments of δt. This
corresponds to a sampling frequency of:
fs = 1/δt (1)
In ‘b’, the sampling frequency is 100 Hz corresponding to a time increment of 0.01s.
In ‘c’ these values, respectively, are 27 Hz and 0.037s.
In ‘d’ these values are 12 Hz and 0.083 s.
• Note that the data that we see is different at different frequencies! This fact underlines the
importance of setting an appropriate sampling rate otherwise what we see will be an illusion of
some sort…
• The rates at ‘b’ and ‘c’ allows us to appreciate the 10 Hz nature of the data; however, peak
intensities captured at these rates differ from the actual data itself.
• Interestingly, ‘d’ leads us to believe that the frequency is much lower than the actual data ( a
period of 0.1 s in actual data vs. a period of 0.5 seconds in sampled data).
• The sampling theorem states that the minimum sampling rate must be more than twice the
maximum frequency in the analog signal to be able capture the frequency content of a signal
accurately.
fs > 2fm (2)
δt < (1/(2fm)) (3)
• The situation observed in ‘d’ is termed as ‘aliasing’. When fs < 2 fm, the frequency appears lower
than it is in reality. Therefore, we should employ at least 20 Hz in acquiring the signal in ‘a’.
• Nyquist frequency fN can be used to understand the aliasing problem and to avoid it.
• fN = fs/2. For instance, 10 Hz data is
being sampled at a sampling rate of 12
Hz (case ‘d’ in the figure). The Nyquist
frequency will be 6 Hz. fm/fN = 10/6 =
1.67. According to the fold diagram,
1.67 projects to 0.33 as shown by the
dashed line. Therefore, the alias
frequency fa will be 0.33 x fN = 2 Hz.
Indeed, ‘d’ shows us that the sampled
data appears to be at 2 Hz and that it is
out of phase with ‘a’. Therefore,
sampling a 10 Hz data at 12 Hz will
result in an aliased signal that will
appear at 2 Hz.
Figure 7.3 The folding diagram for alias frequencies.
106
4.0 – Labs
107
4.1 - Experimental Determination of Moment of Inertia
In this lab you will determine the moment of inertia of a complex, axially symmetric object using a
pendulum.
Moment of inertia represents the resistance of an object to angular acceleration, akin to mass in linear
acceleration.
T=Iα
Where T, I and α are torque, moment of inertia and angular acceleration respectively. Refer to the
following link for a demonstration of the physical effects of moment of inertia to rotational motion:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/25._%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8
6%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BB.ogg
The object that is the subject matter of this lab is a bicycle wheel that is suspended in the horizontal
plane by three strings (Figure 1). Rotating the wheel causes it to move upward, but the upward
translation is not shown in the figure. When released from a rotated position, it will oscillate at a
frequency that is a function of its moment of inertia, mass and geometry of the testing configuration.
L
𝜃𝜃
R 𝜑𝜑
Natural Frequency Using Energy Methods
We will use ϕ as the coordinate to describe the position of the wheel. For small oscillations, it
is related to θ by,
108
Note that, for simple harmonic motion, 𝜑𝜑 can be expressed as
𝜑𝜑 = 𝜑𝜑𝑜𝑜 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔,
where, 𝜔𝜔 is the natural (radian) frequency of the oscillating wheel.
The initial condition is specified as
𝜑𝜑(𝑡𝑡 = 0) = 𝜑𝜑𝑜𝑜 and 𝜑𝜑�𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓 � = −𝜑𝜑𝑜𝑜 .
Differentiating 𝜑𝜑 wrt time, gives

𝜑𝜑̇ = −𝜑𝜑𝑜𝑜 𝜔𝜔 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔,
The wheel has a maximum angular velocity when its angular acceleration is zero, i.e. when 𝜑𝜑 =
0, and can be expressed as
𝜑𝜑̇ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝜑𝜑𝑜𝑜 𝜔𝜔.
Note that during a typical oscillation of the wheel, when the strings are vertical (θ = 0) the
wheel has minimum potential energy and maximum kinetic energy. Also, at this point, the
vertical velocity of the center of mass of the wheel is zero. At the maximum value of ϕ (or θ)
the potential energy is maximum and the kinetic energy of the wheel is zero. This allows us to
express the maximum kinetic energy and potential energy as
1 2
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 2 𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝜑𝜑̇ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ,
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (1 − cos 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ).
Assuming a conservative system and equating the maximum values of potential and kinetic
energies, i.e. 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 , gives
1
𝐼𝐼 𝜑𝜑̇ 2
2 𝐺𝐺 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 )
1 𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼 𝜔𝜔2 𝜑𝜑𝑜𝑜2 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 �1 − cos 𝐿𝐿 𝜑𝜑𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 �.
2 𝐺𝐺
109
For small oscillations, we can approximate the cosine by the first two terms in its Taylor series
expansion
2
1 1 𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝜔𝜔2 𝜑𝜑𝑜𝑜2 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 �1 − �1 − � 𝜑𝜑𝑜𝑜 � ��
2 2 𝐿𝐿
2
1 2 2
1 𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼 𝜔𝜔 𝜑𝜑𝑜𝑜 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � 𝜑𝜑𝑜𝑜 �
2 𝐺𝐺 2 𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅 2
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝜔𝜔2 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � �
𝐿𝐿
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑅𝑅 2
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 =
𝜔𝜔 2 𝐿𝐿
In these expressions 𝜔𝜔 is the natural (radian) frequency of the oscillating wheel. It’s related to
the cyclic frequency f (cycles per second) and the period of oscillation T, by
̇ 2𝜋𝜋
𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 =
𝑇𝑇
Since we will be measuring the period T, the moment of inertia 𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 can be expressed as
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑅𝑅 2 𝑇𝑇 2
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 = (2𝜋𝜋)2 𝐿𝐿
.
110
Natural Frequency Using Relationship between Torque and Angular Acceleration
Let T be the tension in any one of the three strings in the un-rotated state of the wheel. When
the wheel is rotated, a sideways (tangential) resultant force 𝐹𝐹 = −𝑇𝑇 sin 𝜃𝜃. The resultant
torque through the center of the wheel is
𝜏𝜏 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = −𝑇𝑇 R sin 𝜃𝜃.
Considering 𝜃𝜃 to be small, sin 𝜃𝜃 ~𝜃𝜃 and cos 𝜃𝜃~1, the total torque on the wheel can be written
as
� 𝜏𝜏 ~ − 3𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
Note that, the vertical component of the tension in the three strings, i.e. 3𝑇𝑇 cos 𝜃𝜃 ~3𝑇𝑇 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚,
where mg is the total weight of the wheel.
In general, ∑ 𝜏𝜏 = 𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝜑𝜑̈ , where 𝜑𝜑̈ is the angular acceleration of the wheel.
Summation of the applied torque can be written as
−3𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝜑𝜑̈

𝜑𝜑̈ + 𝜑𝜑 = 0
𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 𝐿𝐿
This is a second order ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients. For simple
harmonic motion, the natural frequency can be expressed as
̇
𝜑𝜑 = �
and the time period of the wheel oscillations can be expressed as
𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋�
The above expression can be used to obtain the moment of inertia of the wheel 𝐼𝐼𝐺𝐺 .
111
In Lab Instructions
Laboratory Set up
o When you arrive in the lab you will find a wheel suspended on three pieces of light
fishing line. You will adjust the length L (Figure 1) of each piece of fishing line using an
aluminum rod that has been cut to the specified length of the string. The mass and
radius of each wheel is written on its rim.
o The natural period of the oscillation will be measured using a photogate. A small piece
of stiff paper extending from the wheel’s rim breaks a light beam in the photogate as
the wheel oscillates. You can choose the way you want to configure the photogate
system to measure the period. Instructions for using the data acquisition software
(Capstone) can be found in 5.1 – PASCO Capstone Software Quick Start.
o Oscillation of the wheel is entirely dependent on the initial conditions, that is, how you
release it. Ideally, the center of the wheel should just move up and down in a straight
line as the wheel oscillates about its center. It takes some care to get the wheel to move
this way. It is likely that its center will also move in a small circle. Before taking data for
your report make a few trial runs to develop the technique to get the oscillation started
without unwanted rotation of the hub.
o While perfecting the initial condition, start the data acquisition software (Capstone),
and make a few trial measurements of the period of oscillation. If the period is displayed
with less than three decimal places (milliseconds), use the icon on the tool bar to
increase the output so it reads in milliseconds.
o Oscillations should be limited to ten to fifteen degrees to satisfy the small angle
approximation in the equation used to compute moment of inertia.
o Save your data after each trial. The simplest, and recommended method is to copy the
time and period data from the “Capstone” table and paste it directly into an Excel file. It
is also possible to export your data as a .txt or .csv file, but this may drop some of
significant figures in the period data.
Table 1 Measured values and uncertainty
Radius (R) Value on rim ± 0.000127 m
Length (L) You will set L using a rod 0.457 ± 0.000127 m

Do not a use this as an estimate of the uncertainty in L
Weight of one steel 0.25 in. 1.051± 0.0005 gm (Convert to Newtons)
diameter ball
Weight of one steel 0.50 in. 8.354± 0.0005 gm (Convert to Newtons)
diameter ball
Weight of one steel 0.75 in. 28.663 ± 0.0005 gm (Convert to Newtons)
diameter ball
Weight of wheel Value on rim ±2 gm (Convert to Newtons)
112
Measurements
1. Once you have mastered the initial conditions, complete five independent measurements of the
period. Record at least five values of the period per trial. Do these without the axle in the wheel’s hub.
2. Complete another five trials of the period with the axle inserted in the wheel. Hold the axle against
the table, displace the wheel, and release the axle after the oscillation starts, but leave the axle in the
wheel for the entire measurement. Record at least five values of the period per trial.
3. Attach three 0.25 inch diameter steel ball bearings to the rim using double stick tape. Place them
symmetrically around the wheel, close to each string. Support the underside of the rim when applying a
ball since we do not want the string to slide through its support on either end. Determine the distance
that each ball is from the center of the wheel. It’s probably most accurate to use the given radius of the
rim (R), and the distance from the rim to the center of each ball. Make five measurements of the period
with the axle in place.
4. Remove the 0.25 inch balls and attach three 0.50 inch diameter steel ball bearings to the rim using
double stick tape. Place them symmetrically around the wheel, close to each string as described in step
3. Make five measurements of the period with the axle in place.
5. Remove the 0.50 inch balls and attach three 0.75 inch diameter steel ball bearings to the rim using
double stick tape. Place them symmetrically around the wheel, close to each string as described in step
3. Make five measurements of the period with the axle in place.
113
Report and Calculations – All results must be in SI units – 12 font size, minimum 1.5 lines spacing,
minimum of 1 inch margins on all sides. Precede your answer with the question number and
prompt. Failure to meet these requests will result with loss of up to points.
Using data from the lab

Write a paragraph long introduction which explains the purpose of the lab. (less than 0.5 pages, 5
points)
Write a paragraph long summary of the method/approach via which the data were collected. (less than
0.5 pages, 5 points)
1a. List, in a table, the wheel’s weight in grams that is written on its rim, its weight in Newtons, and its
mass in kilograms. Be sure to include labels and units. (2 points)
1b. List, in well-labeled tables, the values of the period for each of the trials in steps 1 through 5, and in
the same tables, the mean and standard deviation for each trial. Use the standard deviation for a
sample, not a population. (4 points)
1c. Show the literal form of the equation used to compute standard deviation. A sample calculation is
not needed. (3 points)
2a. Compute the moment of inertia of the wheel for each trial in steps 1 and 2, using the mean value of
the period for each trial. Show a sample calculation with units. (10 points)
2b. In well-labeled tables, summarize the values of moment of inertia for each trial. (4 points)
3a. Radius of gyration represents the distance a concentrated mass would be positioned from the
𝐼𝐼
rotational axis. It is defined as 𝑟𝑟𝑔𝑔 = � . Compute the radius of gyration of the wheel for one trial
𝑚𝑚
from either step 1 or 2. Show the literal form of the equation used to compute radius of gyration
and a sample calculation with units. (4 points)
3b. Is the radius of gyration greater or less than the radius of the rim R? Does the magnitude of radius of
gyration relative to R make sense physically? Briefly explain your answer. (5 points)
4. Using the analysis of propagation of uncertainty as developed in class, estimate the uncertainty in
the moment of inertia using data from either step 1 or 2. Show the literal form of the equations,
including derivatives, and numerical calculations with units. Explain how you are estimating the
uncertainty for variables other than those given in Table 1. As noted, the standard deviation given
for the length of the rod used to set L is not a good estimate of the uncertainty in L. It is not
necessary to treat the mass and acceleration of gravity as separate variables, mg is just the weight
of wheel, which is one variable with some uncertainty. (23 points)
114
5a. Calculate the moment of inertia of the three steel balls attached to the rim about an axis through the
center of the wheel. Show the literal form of the equations you are using, and one numerical
calculation with units. Do this for the 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75 inch diameter balls (10 points)
5b. Subtracting the moment of inertia of the ball bearings calculated in 5a from the measured values of
moment of inertia in steps 3, 4 and 5, should give the values found in step 2. Does it? Explain
differences between the measured and calculated values of moment of inertia. (10 points)
6. Given the value you calculated for the uncertainty in the moment of inertia, calculate the minimum
amount of mass that can be added to the rim that would result in a measurable change in the value
for moment of inertia. (10 points)
7. Plot a graph of the masses of the balls vs their radii. Add the variety of trendline that you deem most
appropriate. What is the relationship between the weights’ radii and masses? Does this relationship
make sense? (5 points)
115
4.2 - Using a Three-point bending test to determine Young’s modulus of a 6061-T6
aluminum bar
INTRODUCTION - Any two of the material properties, Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, shear modulus or
bulk modulus, can be used to characterize the behavior of an isotropic, linearly elastic material. Young’s
modulus is the slope of stress as a function of strain under uniaxial stress. It’s often determined from a
tension or bending test.
OVERVIEW - In this lab you will determine Young’s modulus using three-point bending (Figure 1), and
measured strain, force and displacement data. Young’s modulus (E) will be determined using two
approaches: 1) For one determination of E, you will use the strain measured by the strain gauge, and
computed values of stress. Young’s modulus will then be determined from the slope of the stress-strain
relationship. 2) A second approach to determining Young’s modulus will be based on the relationship
between deflection of the beam, load, and dimensions.
The beam will be loaded in three-point bending using a screw-driven materials testing machine (Instron
model 4411 equipped with a 5 kN load cell). You will be instructed on how to connect your gauge to the
signal conditioner in a quarter bridge configuration. Be sure to balance the bridge before starting your
measurements. Shunt calibration will be used to get the strain per volt for the system. Values of the
calibration resistors, that are hard wired in the signal conditioner, will be given in the lab.
YOU WILL BE SHOWN HOW TO OPERATE THE TESTING MACHINE. BE SURE YOU UNDERSTAND THE
FUNCTION OF ALL CONTROLS, AND THE LOCATION OF THE EMERGENCY “KILL SWITCH” BEFORE
OPERATING THE MACHINE.
SAFETY GLASSES MUST BE WORN DURING THE LAB
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IN-LAB INSTRUCTIONS
Position the beam in the testing machine with the strain gauge on the bottom, and the line scribed at
the center of the beam aligned with the upper cylindrical loading head.
Strain gauge connections
Connect the single and double lead wires to the signal conditioner as shown.
Shunt calibration before loading the beam
• Check that the Calibration switch is in the OFF position.

• Zero the bridge using the variable resistor on the signal conditioner. The red lights on the signal
conditioner and the output of the DMM can be used to identify that the bridge is zeroed.
• Flip the calibration switch to resistor “A”.
• Record voltage on the DMM.
• Be sure to get the value of the calibration resistor (Ohms) written on the top of the signal
conditioner and the gauge factor.
Three point bending
When the beam is loaded in three point bending you will read data from the “LOAD” and “EXTENSION”
displays on the front of the testing machine. LOAD is the force on the beam in kNewtons and EXTENSION
is the displacement of the crosshead in millimeters. You will use EXTENSION to estimate the beam’s
deflection. Voltage that is proportional to strain will be read from the DMM.
With the beam centered in the testing machine
• Balance the bridge (Signal conditioner)

• On the testing machine, zero the LOAD output (LOAD, BAL, ENTER)
Procedure for loading the beam
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• Use the “Jog” switch to move the loading head to about a millimeter from the beam.
• Hit the run switch and the crosshead will move towards the beam at 15mm/minute
• Watch the LOAD output
• Stop the crosshead when the LOAD reaches the desired values (Table 1).
Preload beam to ≈ 0.090 kN

• Rebalance bridge
• On the testing machine zero the EXTENSION output (GL RESET)
• On the testing machine zero the LOAD output (LOAD, BAL, ENTER)
 THIS IS YOUR STARTING POINT - DO NOT REBALANCE ANY OUTPUTS
Load to ≈ 0.445 kN, and record

• EXTENSION (mm)
• LOAD (kN)
• Strain gauge output voltage
 DO NOT REBALANCE ANY OUTPUTS
Repeat the previous step at loads ≈ 0.890, 1.335, 1.780, 1.335, 0.890, 0.445 kN (Table 1)
Table 1 Incremental loads applied to the beam. It is not possible or necessary to apply the exact values of force as in the
table. You only need to stop the testing machine at values close to those in the table.
Pounds Kilo-Newtons
20 0.090
preload
100 0.445
200 0.890
300 1.335
400 1.780
• The testing machine is programmed to stop when the load on the beam reaches 2.2 kN.
However, one member of the group should be ready to hit the “STOP” button if the load
exceeds 2.5 kN.
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DETERMINING YOUNG’S MODULUS
o The length of the beam is 8.5 inches. Its cross-sectional dimensions are 0.5 by 1.0 inches.
o All results must be given in SI units
o The preloaded condition ( ≈ 0.090 kN ) is the “zero” for all measurements and calculations.
METHOD 1 - COMPUTED STRESS, MEASURED STRAIN
Compute the stress on the beam’s surface at its center using
Mc
σ mx =
I
where I is the moment of inertia of the cross section. These values of stress at each load are paired with
the corresponding strain obtained from the gauge, and are points on the stress-strain diagram for
aluminum. You will estimate the modulus from these data using linear regression.
METHOD 2 – DEFLECTION
The maximum deflection of a beam in three point bending is
PL3
y mx = (Sometimes, this is written with a negative sign.)
48EI
Compute Young’s modulus at each load increment using the displacement of the crosshead
(EXTENSION) for the deflection ymx, the beam’s length, and computed moment of inertia. Use the point
where the beam is preloaded (0.090 N) as the zero point for its deflection and force. Be sure to check
the units of all data recorded in the lab.
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Calculations
Show all calculations including units.
Use SI units. All calculations must include units.
The entire report must be created using a Word Processor.
Write a paragraph long introduction which explains the purpose of the lab. (less than 0.5 pages, 5
points)
Write a paragraph long summary of the method/approach via which the data were collected. (less than
1. System calibration (Shunt Calibration) (5 points)
Use the equation developed in class to determine the calibration for your strain gauge measurement
system.
a. Give the literal form of the equation used for shunt calibration
b. Show an explicit calculation of the strain/volt from shunt calibration of your beam
2. Young’s Modulus Determined From Computed Stress and Measured Strain (show units in all
calculations) (6 points)
a. Give the literal form of the equation used to compute the moment of inertia (area)
b. Show an explicit calculation of the moment of inertia
c. Show an explicit calculation of the stress at one load value
d. Show an explicit calculation of the strain at the same load value
e. In a table, show strain gauge output voltage, strain, and stress at each load. Only include data
for when the beam is loaded.
f. Plot stress versus strain. Be sure to use only data for when the beam is loaded. Label axes
including units.
g. Fit a straight-line to stress versus strain data; list the slope of the line and the value of R2 on the
plot. USE SOFTWARE. DO NOT SHOW OR USE LONGHAND CALCULATIONS.
3. Young’s Modulus Determined From Deflection (show units in all calculations) (6 points)
a. Give the literal form of the equation used to compute E from deflection
b. Show an explicit calculation of E from deflection at one load
c. In a table, show deflection, load, and E at each load increment
d. Plot E at each load (a bar graph might be a good choice)
Write brief answers for questions 4 – 8. Question 7 will require some thought.
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4. Do the stress-strain data pairs appear to lie on a straight line? Should they? (4 points)
5. Using the deflection method: (3 points)
a. Are all of the values of E computed from the deflection approximately the same?
b. Should they be the same?
c. Is there an increase or decrease in E with the applied force?
6. Does each method (“stress-strain” and “deflection”) give similar values of E? Comment on their
similarity and differences. (5 points)
7. It is likely that values of E computed from deflection will be lower than 70 GPa, the approximate value
of Young’s modulus for this aluminum alloy. What is the potential source of the error in the deflection
method? This is an important question. Don’t give vague answers such as the force or the speed of the
cross head may have been incorrect or inaccurate, or “human error.” Hint: look at the testing machine
and consider how these measurements are being made. (6 points)
8. In this lab, beam deflection was estimated from the displacement of the testing machine’s crosshead.
Suggest a method for measuring deflection directly on the beam during a test. Use figures (clear, hand
drawn sketches are acceptable) and a written explanation of your method including specific hardware
(manufacturer, model number, measurement range, measurement technology) that you would use to
make this measurement. (5 points)
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4.3 - Determining Pressure in a Sealed Container Using External Strain Measurements
Introduction
The goal of this lab is to measure the pressure in a sealed container. There is no practical
way of attaching a pressure gauge to a pressurized sealed container without first releasing the
pressure that we want to measure. Therefore, rather than trying to use a device that measures
pressure directly, we will measure the strain in the walls of the container due to the pressure.
Using simple equilibrium conditions, we will relate the change in strain to the pressure in the
sealed pressure vessel.
You will pressurize the container to a known value, zero the strain gauge output, release
the pressure and then compare the pressure
estimated from measured strain to the known
pressure.
Methods –Pressure vessel analysis

The pressure vessel is modeled as an
infinitely long cylinder, with thin walls, and
circular ends. Under these conditions we are Figure 11: Free body diagram of a section of the
safe in assuming that the stresses are purely pressure vessel perpendicular to its cylindrical axis.
Tension in the wall in the longitudinal direction is in
tensile. The internal pressure acting on the ends
equilibrium with force due to pressure acting on the
of the vessel produces a longitudinal stress in end of the cylinder.
the wall, σ xx . The same pressure also
produces a hoop (circumferential) stress, σ θθ . Therefore, the wall is in a state of biaxial stress.
The two types of stresses can be visualized and related to pressure by constructing two free body
diagrams. First free body diagram is cut perpendicular
to the cylindrical axis (Figure 1) and the second is cut
parallel to the cylindrical axis (Figure 2).
Equilibrium of a free body diagram of the
pressure vessel, cut perpendicular to its cylindrical axis
(Fig. 1) requires that
Figure 12: Free body diagram of a section of

The longitudinal stress in the wall of the pressure vessel the pressure vessel through its cylindrical axis.
is then Force due to pressure is in equilibrium with
the tension in the wall in hoop direction.
(1)
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where t is the thickness of the wall of the vessel and r is the inside radius of the pressure vessel.
Equilibrium of a free body diagram of the vessel cut longitudinally across a diameter (Fig. 2)
requires that
The hoop stress in the wall is then given by
σ θθ = rP (2)
t
Equations (1) and (2) relate the pressure in the pressure vessel to the stresses in the wall. In
general, we cannot measure stress. However, we can measure strain using a strain gauge. From
Hooke's law for a biaxial state of stress, stress and strain are related by
1
ε xx = (σ xx − νσ θθ )
E
(3)
1
ε θθ = (− νσ xx + σ θθ )
E
where E is Young's Modulus and ν is Poisson's Ratio.

Substituting expressions for the stresses, Equations (1) and (2), into (3), and solving each of the
equations in (3) for the pressure we obtain
(4)
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It is reasonable to expect that , however they will not be exactly the same.
Using the measured strain, inside diameter of the vessel, thickness of the vessel’s wall, and
known values for Young's Modulus and Poisson's ratio of the aluminum, pressure in the can be
determined from each of equations (4).
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Methods – Measurements
 For the aluminum pressure vessel

o Outside diameter = measured in the lab using calipers
o Wall thickness = measured in the lab using calipers
o Young’s modulus = 70 GPa
o Poisson’s ratio = 0.33
Hardware used in this lab (This hardware can support 120 Ohm or 350 Ohm circuits):
Honeywell Model GM National Instruments USB-6008 Multifunction DAQ
Signal conditioner and power supply Data Acquisition Card
Pressure Vessel Test Rig
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120 Ohm or 350 Ohm Resistors (Vishay 0.01%) Potentiometer (Pot)
Used in Wheatstone bridge, R2 and R3 Used to balance Wheatstone bridge, R4
Shunt Resistor Multimeter
Used to calibrate Wheatstone bridge Used to measure resistance
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Steps:
1. Ensure the Honeywell GM is powered on. Also, make sure the National Instruments
USB-6008 is connected to the PC via USB cable (Note: the USB-6008 is powered via
USB).
2. Verify Wheatstone Bridge Circuit: The wiring diagrams are provided for a two-wire and
a three-wire quarter-bridge circuit. While either of these circuits will work for this lab,
the three-wire quarter-bridge circuit is prefered. The three-wire circuit is shown in the
remainder of these instructions.
(Figures 2 and 3 Courtesy of Vishay Micro measurements, Document 11092, Rev. 14-July-2015)
The following table will help interpret the wiring diagram to the hardware at your station.
Wiring Diagram Hardware
RG Strain Gauge (On Pressure Vessel)
RLX Indicates Lead Wire Resistance
R2 , R 3 120 or 350 Ohm Resistors
R4 Potentiometer
E Honeywell GM, +EXC, -EXC
eo Honeywell GM, +SIGNAL, -SIGNAL
It is recommended that the potentiometer is set to 120 Ohm or 350 Ohm resistance prior to
connection to the Honeywell GM. The potentiometer resistance should initially match the resistance
of the other resistors in the bridge (i.e. a 350 Ohm bridge will contain two precision 350 Ohm
resistors, a 350 Ohm strain gauge, and a potentiometer capable of 350 Ohms). This can easily be
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accomplished by setting the multimeter to read DC voltage, touch the multimeter leads to the wires
connected to the potentiometer, and turning the potentiometer shaft until it is set to the desired
resistance.
Pictures have been included showing one possible construction of the three-wire quarter-bridge
circuit on the pressure vessel test rig. Note that the only connection to the Honeywell GM during
this step is +EXC and –EXC, or the 10 Volt excitation voltage. The lead wire which will connect to
SIGNAL are free at this time.
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R2
R1 or RG
R3
R4
3. Balance the Wheatstone bridge using the potentiometer: At this point the bridge
would be balanced if every resistor (resistors, pot, strain gauge) had the exact same
resistance. Additionally, the contact resistance at each connection, and lead wire
resistance, would need to be identical along the arms of the bridge for the bridge to be
balanced. Since this scenario is not likely to occur, we need to use the potentiometer to
balance the entire bridge. With the multimeter set to measure DC Voltage, touch the
multimeter leads to the wires which will connect to SIGNAL, and adjust the
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potentiometer shaft until the voltage is zero (or very small). You should not need to
rebalance the bridge (i.e. adjust the potentiometer) until you rebuild the bridge with a
new strain gauge.
4. Set the zero point and calibrate the bridge by using the shunt resistor: Note that
setting the zero point is not the same thing as balancing the bridge. In order to set the
zero point and calibrate the bridge, you will need to connect the bridge to the
Honeywell GM. The positive wire will be connected to +SIGNAL, and the negative wire
will be connected to –SIGNAL. The Honeywell GM will display a value related to the
voltage output from the bridge, but it is very unlikely that you will read zero microstrain
when the bridge is first connected. Use the coarse and fine zero adjustment screws
located on the front panel of Honeywell GM to zero the bridge. Keep in mind that it is
not uncommon for the reading to shift by a few microstrain after the bridge has been
zeroed.
Scaling Pot (Gain)
Next, you will use a shunt resistor to calibrate the bridge. You will need to use the multimeter to
measure the resistance of the shunt resistor, Rcal. Then use equation SC.3 from the course notes to
determine the apparent strain you should read on the Honeywell GM.
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Place the shunt resistor into the circuit so that the strain gauge (R1 in Figure 6) and the shunt resistor are
in parallel. Observe the display on the Honeywell GM. Use the scaling pot (gain) on the Honeywell GM to
display your calculated apparent strain. You will also need the shunt resistor to adjust the gain in
LabVIEW in future steps.
Rcal
5. Connect Honeywell GM to NI USB-6008 at AI1, or analog input 1. The +OUTPUT should

be connected to AI1 +, and the –OUTPUT should be connected to AI1 -.
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6. Open LabVIEW, and choose “pressure vessel – breadboard bridge.vi” virtual instrument.
7. Connect the pump to the pressure vessel test rig. Run the virtual instrument.
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You will need to create your data file before LabVIEW starts recording. Typically, this will be your
group number. In this example I created “new test”.
After you click “OK”, you will typically receive the following error. Click “Continue” to clear the error.
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Once more, run the virtual instrument. When the “Select a file to save” window appears this time,
choose your file. In this case “new test” is selected.
8. Adjust the gain in LabVIEW: You will need to adjust the gain setting in LabVIEW so the
Honeywell GM and LabVIEW are reading the same strain value. Typical gain for this
system is between 190 and 500. Remove the shunt resistor once the adjustment is
complete.
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9. Pressurize the vessel to 40-60 psi using the bicycle pump. Note that you will need to
wait a few seconds for the pressure to stabilize. Record the pressure from the gauge on
the pressure vessel test rig. Release the pressure.
10. Repeat step 8 five times. It is not necessary to apply the same pressure for each trial.
11. Repeat the previous steps for the other strain gauge. You will need to record the
orientation (i.e. hoop or axial) of the strain gauge.
Checklist
Before leaving the lab, be sure you have:
o Your data files
o Pressure vessel diameter and wall thickness
o Pressure applied in each trial
o Specifications for the strain gauge you used including its model number that begins with
EA…
o Model numbers and manufacturers of all of the equipment used
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Report
• Include a separate cover page for the pressure vessel lab report (i.e. please do not
merge with the beam bending lab report).
• Use SI units. All calculations must include units.
• The entire report must be created using a Word Processor.
• Write a paragraph long introduction which explains the purpose of the lab. (less than
• Write a paragraph long summary of the method/approach via which the data were
collected. (less than 0.5 pages, 5 points)
o For each trial use the average of 50 values of the strain at pressure for all calculations of
pressure. Check that the strain at zero pressure is in fact zero. Most likely it is not.
Therefore compute the strain as the measured value at pressure minus the strain at zero
pressure.
1. Compute pressure from the longitudinal and hoop strains using the average strain values.
Show the literal form of the equations used to compute pressure, and the same
expressions with numerical values and units for one of the five trials. (5 points)
2. In a table, list the applied pressure, the pressure computed from the longitudinal strain,
the pressure computed from the hoop strain, and the difference between the two values
of the pressure (computed and applied) for all five trials. Also compute the difference
. Note that Pxx andPθθ are paired observations. Suggest and run a statistical test
to identify if there a significant difference between Pxx andPθθ ? Report a p-value and
determine the significance at p < 0.05 (10 points). Table(s) should have an appropriate
title (-1 pt when missing), every data column should explicitly list the variable that is
represented by the data (-1 pt when missing) along with the unit for the variable (-1 pt
when missing). The number of significant digits for the values in the table should be
chosen sensibly (-1 pt for notably more or less digits than normal).
3. Several assumptions were made in formulating the method to measure pressure. There
were also assumptions regarding the values of some input variables. Discuss the validity
of these assumptions with respect to the measurements that you made. (5 points)
4. If the pressure vessel were made from a polymeric material its Poisson’s ratio, ν, would
approach 0.5. As Poisson’s ratio approaches 0.5, would small uncertainty in ν lead to
greater uncertainty in Pxx or Pθθ or would it have the same effect on both estimates of the
pressure (Equations 4)? Carefully explain your answer. (10 points)
5. Using the method developed in class for the propagation of uncertainty, estimate the
uncertainty in the pressure estimate Pxx. You may assume that the strain has negligible
uncertainty. Explain how you are estimating the uncertainty in the other measured
variables used to determine the pressure. Which variable contributes the most to the
uncertainty in the pressure? (10 points)
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4.4 - Measurement of convective heat transfer coefficients for a heated cylinder placed in
airflow
1. Introduction
Heat transfer from heated objects is an important subject in many engineering applications.
Examples include heat exchangers and hot-wire anemometers. In this experiment we will investigate
heat transfer characteristics of a heated cylinder in airflow. Specifically, we measure heat transfer
coefficients due to convection in a wind tunnel.
2. Description of experiment
A heated circular cylinder is subjected to convective cooling in a wind tunnel. The power input to
the heater is fixed during the experiment. Its surface temperature is measured by three
thermocouples. For each air speed, we measure the cylinder surface temperature. Based on this
information heat transfer coefficients are calculated. The results will be cast into dimensionless form
and compared with a known expression.
3. Background
Consider a long circular cylinder placed in a uniform stream.
heated cylinder
U, T (length = L)
Tw
fluid flow
The cylinder is heated by Joule heating (Q = V·I in watts, where V = electrical voltage applied to
the heater and I = electrical current) and cooled convectively. Under steady conditions the
heat input and output are balanced, so we have
Q = h π D L (Tw - T∞)
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where D = diameter of the wire, L = length of the wire, Tw = wire temperature, T∞ =
temperature of surrounding fluid, and h = heat transfer coefficient. From the above equation
we can compute h as
h = Q/( π D L (Tw - T∞))

The unit of h is W/(m2·ºC).
Heat transfer results are often presented in dimensionless forms. h is then non-
dimensionalized as
Nu = h D/k
where Nu is called Nusselt number and k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.
It is known (consult any heat transfer books or textbook for ENGR 225) that h is a function
of the velocity and properties of the fluid. This can be expressed in dimensionless form as
Nu = f (Re, Pr)
where Re (Reynolds number) = UD/ν and Pr (Prandtl number) = ν/α (U = flow velocity, ν = fluid
kinematic viscosity, α = fluid thermal diffusivity).
In this experiment we measure U, Tw and T∞. Q, D, and L are known. Then in order to
compute Nu, Re, and Pr, we need to know the fluid (air in this case) properties (k, ν, and α).
The properties are generally functions of temperature, so they are evaluated at the average
temperature of Tw and T∞, namely at ½(Tw + T∞). For your convenience a property table for air
is attached to this document.
Since Pr is nearly fixed in this experiment (about 0.73), Nu is a function of Re only.

Therefore, you plot your results as Nu vs. Re. One known empirical relation for heated
cylinders is
5/8 4/5
0.62𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 1/2 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 1/3 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 0.3 + 1/4
�1 + � � �
0.4 2/3 282,000
�1 + � 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 � �
This empirical relation is plotted in the figure below in the range of Re of the present experiment.
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250
200
Nusselt number 150 Pr = 0.73
100
50
0
103 2x103 5x103 104 2x104 5x104 105
Reynolds number
You compare your results against this relation.
4. Heater
An aluminum cylinder, 1.905 cm (3/4 in.) in diameter and 12.7 cm (5 in.) long, is heated
by an electrical heating rod placed inside. It is supported by plexiglass rods at both ends.
plexiglass support plexiglass support
heater
4 in 5 in 4 in
(101.6 mm) (127 mm) (101.6 mm)
The cylinder is placed normal to airflow. The heater surface temperature is measured by three T-type
thermocouples. Their locations are shown below.
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1.25 in 1.25 in 1.25 in 1.25 in
(31.75 mm) (31.75 mm) (31.75 mm) (31.75 mm)
thermocouples
aluminum heater
The heater is placed horizontally in the wind tunnel test section as shown below.
Heater and Pitot-static tune in wind tunnel
5. Wind tunnel
This experiment will be performed in an open-loop type wind tunnel (FLOTEK 1440 Wind
Tunnel manufactured by GDJ Inc.). The wind tunnel uses a ½ hp DC motor to drive a 12” fan.
Air is drawn through the wind tunnel and then exhausted to the room after passing through the
fan. A contraction cone of a 12-to-1 ratio is used to gradually increase the air velocity from the
room to the test section. The test section size is 12” x 12” (30.5 cm x 30.5 cm). A honeycomb
flow straightener is used at the entrance of the contraction section to ensure that the flow in
the test section is laminar. After the test section the air passes through the return (diffuser
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section). The air in the return is expanded at a very small angle to prevent airflow separation
from the walls.
Wind tunnel in G422 lab
The air speed is measured by a Pitot-static tube inserted from a wind tunnel wall into
the test section. The outputs from the Pitot-static tube are connected to a digital manometer.
The manometer reads in inches of water column. The procedure to compute the velocity from
the manometer reading has been discussed in class.
6. Data to be collected and experimental procedure
We will measure air velocity, power input to heater (voltage and current), cylinder temperature,
and air temperature. For the cylinder surface temperature we will use the average of three
thermocouple readings. The data will be taken at three or four different air velocities.
7. Data analysis
Your report is a Calculation Report showing the details of data analysis. In addition, your report
should address the following specific questions.
(a) Estimate the errors involved in Nu, Re, and Pr. To assist you in this estimate use the
following numbers: the error in U is estimated to be 2%, the error in Tw is 10% (due to
installation error), the error in T∞ is 2%, and the error in Q is 3% (due to heat loss to the
sides).
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(b) Discuss the sources of error if your results are appreciably different from the empirical
result.
(c) Radiation heat transfer from the wire can be calculated from the equation
Qrad = εσ (Tw4 - T∞4) π D L
where ε is the emissivity of the wire surface, σ is the Stefan-Bolzmann constant (=

5.67x10-8 W/(m2 K4)), and Tw and T∞ are absolute temperatures (measured in Kelvin).
Assuming ε = 0.1, calculate the radiation heat transfer rates and compare with the
convection heat transfer rates. Is Qrad negligible?
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4.5 – Wind Tunnel
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146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
4.6 – Air Properties
156
157
158
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160
161
162
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4.7 - Digital data sampling report
For this “lab” you will be analyzing data, not acquiring it. On Canvas, under the Assignments tab
you will find a data file (Sampled data for lab assignment.xlsx). Although these data could have
been acquired using an analog to digital converter, they were created in Excel. This data file
contains the amplitude of the same analog signal (columns B, D, F, H, J) sampled at different
sampling rates (columns A, C, E, G, I).
Lab Assignment
1. In separate graphs, plot each of the acquisitions with amplitude on the y-axis
and time on the x-axis. For the data sampled at 100 and 50 samples per second
plot one second of data, for the data sampled at 20 and 10 samples per second
plot two seconds of data, and for the last set plot five seconds of data. (3 points)
2. Compute and plot the frequency spectrum for each sampling rate. Plot
amplitude of the spectrum (y-axis) vs. frequency (x-axis) where the values on
the x-axis range from zero to half the sampling rate. You may use the FFT
function in MATLAB or similar functions in other software packages. Within
MATLAB you will find a very good description of the FFT function and a sample
program. (16 points)
3. In a table, summarize the value of the predominant frequencies for each

sampling rate. (4 points)
4. All amplitudes in the Excel file are samples of the same signal. Why does the
spectrum give different frequency content for some or all of acquisitions? (10
points)
5. Based on your analysis, what are the actual frequencies of the sampled data?
(10 points)
6. What is the minimum sampling rate that must be used to avoid aliasing? (7
points)
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5.0 – Software Quick Start Instructions and FAQ
5.1 – PASCO Capstone Software Quick Start
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168
169
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5.2 - How to Connect a Strain Gauge to a NI 9237
Required Equipment:
• 120 Ohm strain gauge installed per manufacturer’s instructions

• NI 9237 bridge analog input card installed in chassis (chassis provides power to the card
and communications to the PC, LabVIEW)
• NI 9944 quarter-bridge completion module
• RJ50 Cable (this cable looks like an Ethernet patch cable, and connects the NI 9944 to
the NI 9237)
Connect Strain Gauge to NI 9944
Figures 1 through 3 show the NI 9944 quarter-bridge completion module. Figure 4 shows the
wiring diagram to connect your strain gauge to the NI 9944. Recall that EMAE 285 uses a three-wire
connection to the strain gauge. Therefore, one solder tab on your gauge will be connected to two wires
while the other solder tab will be connected to one wire. The single wire (one wire on a solder tab)
needs to be connected to point 0 on the terminal block. Finally, use the RJ50 cable to connect the NI
9944 to the NI 9237.
Figure 1 – NI 9944 Quarter-Bridge Completion Module (120 Ohm)
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Figure 2 – NI 9944 Terminal Block for Connection to Strain Gauge
Figure 3 – NI 9944 RJ50 Connection
173
Terminal Block Pin Number
Note: Single wire goes to pin 0
Strain
Figure 4 – Wiring Diagram to Connect Strain Gauge to NI 9944
Reference:
http://www.ni.com/tutorial/52796/en/
174
5.3 - Calibrate Multiple Strain Gauges in LabVIEW
Step 1 – Ensure
LabVIEW is open
When you arrive at the test station the
LabVIEW interface “pressure vessel.vi” and
the “pressure vessel.vi Block Diagram”
should be opened.
Step 2 – Remove old

strain channels
Right-click on the “DAQ Assistant” block on the
block diagram and choose “Properties”.
The DAQ Assistant properties window will allow

you to configure and calibrate new channels. If a
“Strain” channel is configured, it will need to be
deleted. Select the strain channel. Then click the X
button to delete the strain channel. You will need
to confirm that you want to delete the strain
channel.
Note: All previously configured channels will also
need to be deleted.
175
Step 2 – Create new
strain channels
To add a new strain channel, click the +
button and select “Strain” from the list.
You will need to specify which physical
analog input is connected to your strain gage.
Look at the front of the NI 9237 card to
determine which analog input you are using.
Typically, ai0 (top port) will be used. Click OK
to confirm your selection.
A new strain channel with default settings is
created.
You will need to create all of the channels
you intend to use before moving to Step 3.
Step 3 – Configure the

strain channels
The default settings for the new strain
channel are not likely correct for your strain
gauge. The strain gauges used in EMAE 285
will typically require the following changes:
Gage Factor = 2.1
Gage Resistance = 120
Vex Source = Internal
Vex Value = 5
Strain Configuration = Quarter Bridge I
All strain channels will need to be configured

for your specific gauges prior to calibration
(Step 4).
176
Step 4 - Calibrate
The new strain channel must be calibrated.
Click the “Device” tab, then click the “Strain
Calibration…” button.
Step 4 – Calibrate
(cont.)
The strain gage calibration window appears.
There should be no need to change the
default settings. Click “Next>>” to continue
with the calibration.
177
Step 4 – Calibrate
(cont.)
The software will take an initial
measurement of the strain channel. The
errors (offset and gain) may be very high at
this point. Click the “Calibrate” button.
Assuming the strain gage installation and
settings are correct, you should see a
calibration successful message, and low
errors for your offset adjustment and gain
adjustment.
Click the “Finish” button, and calibrate the
other strain channels.
Click “OK” on the DAQ Assistant window to
save the settings and calibration. The VI will
rebuild. You are ready to run your test.
178
5.4 - Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
1. No data recorded in LabVIEW
Possible Solution
Open NI MAX and observe “Devices and

Interfaces”. Devices which are not active
will show a red circle with a white X.
Your device will need to be active to record

data. Ensure your device has power, and is
communicating via USB.
Note: “Dev 1” is active
179
2. Receive error 201003, no data recorded in LabVIEW
Possible Solution
LabVIEW virtual instruments (VI) look for specific names. In this case, the VI is looking for data from an
inactive device named “Dev 2”. There is an active device named “Dev 1”. Open NI MAX and remove the
inactive “Dev 2” from the list. Change the name of “Dev 1” to “Dev 2”.
180
3. Receive error 201398, or large errors after calibration
Possible Solution
Verify that your strain gauge circuit is correctly wired. Verify that you have the correct resistance across
your strain gauge.
4. Receive error 1073807346
Possible Solution
Verify that the correct device is present and active in NI MAX. You may need to choose the correct
device within your LabVIEW VI.
181

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EMAE 285

Updated August 24, 2020

Instructors: Profs. Fumiaki Takahashi (fxt13@case.edu) and Kenneth Moses (kcm7@case.edu)

Lab Manager: Michael Butler (mxb672@case.edu)

Teaching Assistants: Yumi Matsuyama (yxm128@case.edu), Brian Gu (yxg499@case.edu), Yu Wang

Yumi Matsuyama: TBD

Brian Gu: 2:00 – 3:00 pm on Wednesdays; no in-person

Yu Wang: 10:00 – 11:00 am on Thursdays; no in-person

Web Page: Canvas

Lectures: MW 8:25 am – 9:15 am

Following netiquette guidelines are recommended:

Labs (when scheduled, at Glennan 412):

Lab # Description Score

Moment of inertia of an axially symmetric object

Strain gauges measurements – bending and pressure vessel

Final Project (team) 150

Attendance in Lab Sessions

Working in Groups and Grading

Group members Grade assigned to other lab Signature

The educational goals of the program are to produce graduates who:

1. Have a strong technical foundation in the fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering.

3. Can communicate engineering and technical concepts.

Detailed Content Objectives

Data Analysis I: Uncertainty, Error, and Simple Statistics

1. Define (loosely) error, uncertainty, accuracy and precision

2. Describe the types and origins of errors that arise in experiments.

3. Calculate the propagation of uncertainties from raw data to results.

5. Describe what level of precision is reportable.

8. Define statistical significance and compute Student’s t statistic as a measure of significance.

1. Define linear regression and describe what it provides

2. Define nonlinear regression

5. Describe and compute a goodness-of-fit metric for a particular data set

Computerized Data Acquisition

1. Describe the key components and processes of computerized data acquisition

2. Define the key parameters of data acquisition

3. Describe why it is (usually) essential to use a computer

5. Determine the frequency content of an analog signal

6. Determine the computer sampling rate needed to acquire an analog signal

Aug 31 Probability and Statistical Methods Moses

Sep 2 Error & Uncertainty; Error Propagation Moses

Sep 7 Moment of Inertia Experiment: Lab 1 Background Moses

Sep 9 Strain gages Moses

Sep 14 Strain gages Moses

Sep 16 Strain gages Moses

Sep 28 Temperature measurements (part 1) Takahashi

Sep 30 Temperature measurements (part 2) Takahashi

Oct 5 Thermal/fluid experiment: Lab 5 Background Takahashi

Oct 7 Velocity measurements (parts 1 and 2) Takahashi

Oct 19 Air property measurement: Lab 6 Background Takahashi

Oct 21 Wind-tunnel experiment: Lab 7 Background Takahashi

• Regression analysis is needed when

Combine equations 1 and 2:

Reduce D to a minimum by taking derivatives:

Find an equation of the first order 0

Setting derivatives to zero:

3.2 – Propagation of Uncertainty

and the variance of R is given by

Expanding Ri about its mean value

0.000015 meter About 0.5 division on typical

The stress in the beam, s, is

Using these relationships, the maximum stress in the beam is

The uncertainty in the stress (Equation 11) is given by

Terminology (variable, error, accuracy, precision etc.)