PHILOSOPHY
good or bad)
LESSON 1 – WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
PHILOSOPHY
o The knowledge of the eternal and essential nature of things
o Highest branch of knowledge to harmonize and systemize all
truths and arrive at a rational understanding of reality as a whole,
both in its eternal and temporal aspects.
o Discovery of new things/emphasizing of knowledge/nature of
things
o Came from 2 Greek words: philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom),
“Love of wisdom”
o 2000 BCE: Asian communities had thriving schools of beliefs
and thoughts
HUMAN PHILOSOPHY
o Examines fundamental characteristics that identify life as a
properly human life, asks about its ultimate meaning or purpose,
and raises questions about what counts as a good life.
o It also covers Existentialism (inquires about the nature of
existence)
PHILOSOPHY AS SCIENCE OR A ART?
o Philosophy before science
 Philosophy – deals with questions for which there’s no
currently agreed upon systematic way of answering those
questions.
 Science – deals with questions for which there is an agreed-
upon systematic way of answering those questions.
o Philosophical thought reflects its subject-matter in concepts, in
categories. Every perception is different from t other. There is no
right or wrong answer.
 Art in Philosophy – it’s in the idea of a person and how he
conceptualizes it in abstract or realistic forms.
 Science in Philosophy – the study of the principles of
scientific inquiry, from a metaphysical perspective, all
comes from an idea.
IDEA = FRAMEWORK = VALIDATION =SCIENCE
Curiosity drives a man to philosophize.
IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY:
o It enhances our sense of wonder – curiosity
o We doubt.
o Of our experience.
o Of the love for wisdom – we want to learn something new.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILOSOPHY:
o Opens a way of analyzing framework.
 Internal questions
 External questions
o Examination of a particular area of a knowledge.
o Its own area of knowledge has its own goals, concerns and way
of doing things.
o A method of mental exercise.
o A reflective and meditative activity.
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY:
o Aesthetics – deals with beauty
o Logic – deals with correct reasoning
o Epistemology – study of knowledge
o Political philosophy –deals with government, justice,
power, rights
o Ethics – deals with moral questions/dilemmas (what is
o Metaphysics – deals with questions of reality beyond and
space. (we witness and experience)
WESTERN PHILOSOPHY:
o Primarily concerned with uncovering the truth through
systematic argumentation and theory.
o Philosophers wants everything to be explained by valid
reasons.
o From western continent; 6th century: first philosophical
schools emerged in Greece.
o Pre-socratics (Physiologoi) – first philosophers; beliefs are
based on natural principle rather than the actions of
supernatural God; primarily preoccupied with the study of
nature and the universe.
o Sophists – taught a way of argumentation called Eristic
which aimed to win arguments rather than arrive at the
truth; they were excellent public speakers and traveled
throughout Greece to teach young people a wide array of
subjects; their central belief is that man doesn’t need to
know all the things in the world, but one must continue to
inquire and seek to understand about the human condition.
3 GREATEST PHILOSOPHERS OF ALL TIME:
o Socrates (470 BCE – 399 BC)
 Foremost philosopher of ancient time and made a
great contributions to the field of ethics.
 Did not claim himself a “wise” but instead, a
“midwife”
 Believed that philosophy could enable man to live a
life of virtue.
 Known for his method of delivery: Socratic method
(means of examining a topic by devising a series of
questions)
 “One thing only I know, and that is I know nothing.”
o Plato (427 BCE – 347 BCE)
 A student of Socrates
 Formulated Theory of forms: the visible world is
made of senses; the intelligible world gives its
meaning; everything that exists is based on an idea
that can only be perceived in the mind, these
nonphysical ideas are eternal and unchanging.
 His teaching and writings are considered as the
foundation of Western philosophy
 Wrote “Republic” that discussed what he proposed as
the ideal society and ideal form of government ruled
by wisdom and reason (Idealisn)
 Dialectic: a method of inquiry where two opposing
ideas are discussed in an attempt to arrive at a new
knowledge.
 Founded Academy: an institution of higher learning
which was the first of its kind in the west.
 “As vessels make the loudest sound, so that they have
least with are the greatest babblers.”
o Aristotle (384 BCE – 322 BCE)
 Attended the Academy, a student of Plato
 Believed that all ideas and views are based on
perception and our reality is based on what we can
sense and perceive.
 Involved in variety of disciplines such as zoology,
psychology, ethics and politics.
  Deductive reasoning: the process by which specific  Second largest religion in the world
statements are analyzed to reach a conclusion or  Name of God: Allah – the only creator of the universe
generalization. and is equivalent to God.
 Founded his own school called Lyceum.
 Founder: Muhammad from Saudi Arabia
 Sacred place: the Kaaba (holiest site); Mecca and
OTHER FAMOUS WESTERN PHILOSOPHERS: Medina (2 holiest city in Islam)
 Holy book: Qur’an
o Pythagoras (570 BCE – 495 BCE)  Sacred word of God
 First to call himself a “Philosopho”  Intended to correct any errors in previous holy
 Credited with the formulation of Pythagorean books such as Old & New Testament
Theorem  Believed to be revealed by God through
 He wanted to calculate everything by Math various prophets throughout human’s history.
 Established a community of learners who were  Final revelation of God to mankind;
devoted to the study of religion and philosophy completion and confirmation of previous
scriptures
o Heraclitus (535 BCE – 475 BCE)  Some information are found in Hebrew bible
 Proposed that everything that exists is based on  Types of religion:
higher order or what he called “logos”  Sunni – they believe that Muhammad chose
 Change is a permanent aspect of human condition. Abu Bakr as his successor;
 “You cannot step twice into the same river, for fresh - believes that Muhammad has no right to
waters are ever flowing upon you.” choose a religious leader, they should vote;
- largest denomination of Islam (87-90% of
o Democritus (460 BCE – 370 BCE) the world’s muslims);
 He studied the natural causes of phenomena - “Sunnah” – behaviour of the Islamic prophet
 Was among the first to propose that matter is - Southeast Asia. China, South asia, Africa,
composed of tiny particles called “Atoms” part of Arab world
 Shia – believes that a prophet can only be
o Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE – 323 BCE) appointed by God
 An advocate of simple and virtuous life - they believe God chose Ali to be
Muhammad’s successor.
 For him, one should show his good moral attitude not
 5 pillars: (Ritual Obligations)
only through words but actions.
 Also known as a vocal critic of well-known  Shahada (Profession of faith)
philosophers like Plato and Aristotle  Salat (Salat)
 Development of Cyanicism and Stoicism.  Zakat (Alms)
 Sawm (fasting)
 Hajj (Pilgrimage)

o Shintoism
o Archimedes (287 BCE – 212 BCE)  Originated in Japan
 Earlier mathematician  No founder; only collective action
 Greatest contributions on physical science and  Polytheist type
mathematics  Believe in Amaterasu: Goddess of Sun
 Was considered a leading scientist in ancient times  Practices “Naturalism”
 His inquiries in mathematics gave rise to modern  More likely a cult
calculus  The material and spiritual world are closely
 Use of mathematics to analyze natural phenomena connected
 Discovered Archimedes screw: a device for raising  Rituals and traditions are a way to connect with the
water and a method for determining volume using spiritual world
displacement.  Harmony and balance are essential in maintaining
purity
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY:
o Consists of schools of thoughts which are often closely tied LESSON 2 – DOING PHILOSOPHY
with religious beliefs. o Reality Question
o Their ideas are as a whole  What is real and not based on our perception;
o Believes the events are caused by a being existence of things within and beyond our
perception
RELIGIONS:  Associated with Ontology: study of existence to
o Islam establish coherent knowledge
 (How to determine if things are really existing or
not)
 Concrete reality – exists physically –
empirical
 Abstract reality –does not physically
exist; within our mind – introspection
o Certainty Questions
 Belief in absolute and certain truth; highest form
of knowledge
 Perfect knowledge that is free from error or doubt
 Whether the knowledge is true or not
 Since it is impossible to have a knowledge that is
free from doubt, Skepticism is associated with it.
We doubt to search for the truth. We carefully
examine each concept before accepting things.
 Epistemology – study of knowledge;
EPISTEMOLOGY BY NATURE OR
EPISTEMOLOGY BY EXTENT
 Immanuel Kant – he said that knowledge has 2
types:
 Priori – reasoning-based – rationalism
 Posteriori – experience – based –
empiricism
o Casuality Questions
 Questions of cause and effect
 Occurrence of events has a reason – cause and
effect relationship
 Events must have explanation
 Question of purpose
 Could be about Origin (Destiny), Human Agency
(Determinism; man controls his actions), Purpose
(Teleology; ultimate cause)
 Etiology: studies casuality
 Teleology: deals with the question of purpose
o Ethical Question
 Moral standards in human behaviour
 Battle between good and evil
 Moral subjectivism – morality is determined
by you alone as an individual
 Cultural relativism – morality can be
determined by t he society; they determine the
good and bad for you, you follow
 Ethical Egoism – althruism (helping others;
selfless)
- man is inherently selfish
- help other people so all of you could get on
top altogether
 Divine Command Theory – morality can be
determined by religion – there’s a prize in the
end
 Traditional virtues – by Aristotle; if you’re
happy with what you’re doing, then you are
doing right.
 Utilitarianism – happiness by many;
happiness on the population
- most imperfect
- subjective
- there’s no uniformity here
 Moral Philosophy: study or morality; morality
questions are best answered with it
 Absolute morality – established; it is what it is
 Personalized Morality – established by someone
who wants to redirect the morality
PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS
 Finding the appropriate tool to answer the inquiry
o Systematic Doubt (Rene Descartes)
 Setting aside ideas through doubt to formulate an
absolute truth/concept
 To assume s little as possible and understand the
concept as much as possible
 Skepticism – each concept is carefully analyzed
to determine its validity
 3 fundamental steps:
 Classification – objective or subjective;
categorize the type of knowledge
acquired by the senses
 Conceptual vs. Abstract reality
- knowledge must be hidden from
dreams
- truth is generated through our minds
- reality vs. illusion
- if it is really true or not
 Hyperbolic doubt – the malicious
deceiver; unexplainable events caused
by mystical figures
o Argument
 Deductive – fact wise, provable
 Inductive – unlikely to happen/to be true (occurs
in abstract ideas); weak argument
o Dialectic (Plato)
 Prima Facie (Primary facts)
 Proposition (Socrates) – supports
affirmative, positive side
 Opposition (Hegel) – contradicts the
issue
 Limitations: deals with means, not an end.
- they can’t answer the idea
- focused on skills if the people can answer the
idea.
o Socratic method
 Other questions that are being asked are not
relevant
 Limitations: Some questions are posing without
purpose
o Axioms
 Presumed true without truth; general assumptions
 Limitations: Unprovable assumptions
o Occam’s razor
  simplifies complex assumptions
 Limitation: curb on detailed ideas
o Formal Logic
 Systemized and validated structure of elements
 Limitation: ideas on abstract and God cannot be
proven
o Allegory
 Rhetorical description of an idea through
scenarios and stories
 Fantasy; we don’t know if it is still true
 Limitation: disguises natural meaning
LESSON 3 – DETERMINING TRUTH
Truth
 The body of real things, events and facts
 Essential to form validity and acceptance
 Truth is intermediate
 Can be validated; real
 Free from doubt
o Correspondence theory
 Truth based on reality; relies on what we observe;
observable by the sense or beyond
 The true beliefs display the right kind of
similarity to what is believed is a reflection of the
older concept.
 Metaphysics: explains the nature of truth
 Relies on common sense
 Objection: too narrow, no moral facts
o Coherence theory
 Truth based on perspective
 Truth of any (true) proposition is its compatibility
with some specific set of proposals
 Uses relativism
 Objection: Have no grounds for saying that (1) is
false and (2) true
 Limitations: If opinionated
o Constructivist theory
 Truth based on culture and history
 Reality is constructed by human being
 Human established it
 Could be based on a tradition or history
 Contingent on convention, human perception and
social experience
 Objection: Can be applied in multiple disciplines
 Limitation: When brought on other disciplines, it
may not be true
o Consensus theory
 Truth based on agreement; could also be shaped
by cultures or facts
 What the majority of the public agrees upon, is
true
 Objection: Minority is left out; blinded by actual
facts
 The number of people matters; if many agrees
o Pragmatic theory
 Truth based on practice/experience
 Ideas need to be tested first to consider it as truth
 Uses verificationism
 Objection: can be applied in multiple disciplines
FALLACIES
o Ad hominem
 Attacking the person making the argument
instead of the argument itself; personal
 “Girl, you’re just with a pretty face, just stick
with being an influencer and don’t meddle with
intellectual issues.”
o Appeal to force
 Using the threat of force or an undesirable event
to advance an argument
 “Say ‘sorry master’ o magbe-break tayo!”
o Appeal to emotion
 Using emotions such as pity or sympathy
 “Academic freeze now! It’s hurting my mental
well-being!”
o Appeal to the popular
 The ideas is presented as acceptable because a lot
of people accept it
 “Age doesn’t matter, as long as you love each
other.”
o Appeal to tradition
 The idea is acceptable because it has been true for
a long time
 “We’re men. It’s in our nature to cheat.”
o Circular argument/Begging the Question
 Assuming the things or idea to be proven is true
 “Revilla is not lying, because he is an honest
person.”
o Cause-and-effect
 Assuming a “cause-and-effect” relationship
between unrelated events
 “I got poor sales today. Ghost month eh.”
o Fallacy of composition
 Assuming that what is true for a part is true for
the whole
 “Most of the scholars are taking Accountancy
course. So, Accountancy is the best course to
take.”
o Fallacy of division
 Assuming that what is true for the whole is true
for its parts
 “Stay away, ching chong! You Chinese people
are the reason why we have pandemic now!”
BIASES
- one sided argument
- when used, it could lead to: Discrimination, Exclusion and
Distortion of facts
-personal views of the person
  Productivity
o Attribution effect  Self-interest for satisfaction
 Bias based on a strong perception of person  John Stuart Mill
 Judging a person based on behaviour o Theological perspective
 Internal (Personality)  Man has a special relationship with its creator,
Ex: She’s wearing skimpy clothes God
today. What a sl*t.  Man is created good, all created things properly
 External (Situational) end in giving glory to God
Ex: She’s wearing skimpy clothes.  Man’s existence is a part of divine plan.
She’s going to a bar and flirt.
o Confirmation bias THE PERSON AND SELF
 Closed-minded type of bias o Self – the inner point of view
 Interpret facts to justify existing beliefs, rejecting  Innate – essential; soul; we experience feelings
other facts.  Emergent – Socialization; Ubuntu
 Example: Chivalry is obviously dead, No guy  Integrated and developing – homogenous and
gave up his seat for me?! I’m a girl, I deserve a heterogenous)
seat! o Personhood – holistic attribute of a human consisting body
o Framing and soul
 Accepting one absolute reason without looking at  Autonomous being – freewill
the other aspects  Unified individual – functional
 Interpret facts based on how the information was  Relation to others – interactions with co-humans
presented, and focusing on just one possible fact. *Person and self is reserved for humans
 Example: ABS-CBN did not get a franchise *Recognition of mental capacities, freewill, granting rights should be
renewal because they hurt Duterte’s feelings. given to any human, regardless of social standing and condition.
 Example: P199 + Shipping Fee (worth P80) P279
Free shipping!!!
o Hindsight
 Predictability (prediction on the beginning is the
basis)
 Enables people to be persuaded after an
occurrence that they predicted it correctly before LESSON 5 – PHILOSOPHY AND SPIRITUALITY
it happened.
 Memory distortion (prediction or foresight) – Spirit – the seat of emotions and character; the unity of the soul and
Inevitability (process) – Predictability (where conciousness
bias arises)
o Conflict of Interest GENERAL PERSPECTIVES ON SPIRITUALITY
 Favors those who can’t benefit - Secular religion places the emphasis on the spiritual with the
 Example: Marcos vs. ABS-CBN presence of God. Spirituality is linked with God
o Cultural biases - Spiritual philosophy is focused on human concepts. There’s
something bigger than just humans.
 Any changes in the cultural belief will make
o Religious
biases
 Spirit is embodied within us. Spirit is created by God
 Interpret facts based on cultural standards
o Philosophical
 Example: Women entering male-dominant jobs
 Plato: believed that the human spirit or soul is
 Example: Divorce
composed of three parts: logos (the mind or reason),
 Example: Abortion
thymos (spirit), epithymia (appetite); man can only
fully function when these three parts are working
LESSON 4 – THE HUMAN PERSON
together
o Biological perspective
 Aristotle: believed that the soul is not independent of
 Evolution of physical features
the body but it is integrated into the human being
 Early skills
 Establishment of culture CHARACTERISTICS OF A SPIRIT
o Psychological perspective o Finite
 Human behaviour, cognitive skills o Immaterial
 Mental side o Essential element for the salvation
 Mental faculties o Embodied on human body
o Economic perspective
 Capable of doing activities to meet his wants and MIND-BODY ARGUMENTS AND PROPONENTS:
needs
 o Monism  Depicts God as existing outside the material
 Body and soul are united world and whose presence is beyond physical
 When the body dies, the soul also dies laws and human knowledge and understanding
 Aristotle: anima  Immanuel Kant: Human transcendence is based
 St. Aquinas: the whole is the total sum of its parts on rationality.

o Dualism
 Body and soul are distinct with each other
 When the body dies, the soul lives.
 Plato: Theory of forms
BELIEFS:
 Descartes: doubt
o Panentheistic view – God is both beyond and within the
 Avicenna: self-awareness
universe
o Pantheistic view – God is an all-encompassing presence in
THEOLOGICAL VIEWS ON MIND-BODY PROBLEM
the universe and has no distinct presence as an entity
o Trichotomic view – body, soul, spirit
o Pandeistic view – where God was a distinct entity but lost
o Dichotomic view – body and spirit
this state when he transformed himself into the universe.
o Psychosomatic view – unitary construction of the three

6 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOD
o Omniscience – all – knowing LESSON 6 – MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT
o Omnipotence – all powerful
o Omnipresence – ever – present ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY
o Benevolence – all – loving  Creates habitats
o Divine Simplicity – Goodness himself  Sustains our survival
o Eternal – timeless and has no end
ENVIRONMENT
4 ARGUMENTS OF GOD’S EXISTENCE  An erratic place/thing that needs to be transformed by
o Ontological argument tools of science and technology to be serviceable by
 Establishing the real (as opposed to abstract) humans.
existence of some entity.  Just a commodity to sustain man’s survival
o Teleological argument  Subject for disposal
 The world exhibits an intelligent purpose based
on experience from nature 2 GENERAL PERSPECTIVE
 There must be an intelligent designer to account o Stewardship Spirit
for the observed purpose and order  Man is a steward of environment
o Cosmological argument  Man’s choice in action influences the unfolding
 A personal being (God) exists that cause and/or phenomena in the environment
sustains the universe  Spirit of coexistence (man recognize that environment
 In cause (casuality); is essential for him. Man & environment is
 In esse (essentiality) interdependent on each other) vs. noncoexistence (man
 Infieri (becoming) doesn’t acknowledge the importance of environment.
o Moral argument Instead of protecting, man will overpower the
 Moral values exist because God exists environment
 God wills something because he is good.
o Man as a summit of creation
GOD’S ROLE IN OUR LIVES  Man is gifted rational will; bears image of creator – St.
o Redemptive salvation – it is through him that saving faith is Augustine
effected.  Man has moral obligation nature
o Divine providence – he is by our side as he gives us  Man’s action is good for the other (environment) –
blessings, miracles, divine inspiration and revealation. Emmanuel Levinas
 Man must take care if the nature
GOD’S PRESENCE IS EITHER:
o Immanent PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS
 Regards God as manifesting himself in the world o Instrumentalism
as a unique entity; God has image  Man sees value in the environment
o Transcendence  Man takes care of the environment because it is a
medium in establishing society and civilization
 Environment is the instrument towards man’s progress
  If you see the beauty in it, protect it.
o Axiology  Natural beauty = preserving order and balance of
 Man values nature by beauty which demands him to environment
protect it.
 Reflection and imagination
o Anthropological approach
 Centered on the benefits of human
 The value of the environment comes from the
authority; unveils man’s best interest

o Utilitarianism
 Focused on how man people would be happy
 Man’s treatment on environment is right if
majority of the people are happy

o Natural Law Ethics

 Man should be good because he is the closest
image of God.
 Man’s goodness is manifested from God’s
goodness
 Environment is created for human’s well-being

o Virtue Ethics perspective

 Man will take care of what should be taken care
of
 The act of caring and respecting becomes our
second nature
 Extends on environment; extends on non-physical
things

OTHER PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS:

o Environmental Philosophy – moral relationship of man and
non-human forms
o Anthropocentrism – human-centered approach
o Gaia hypothesis – organic & non-organic matters are
integrated; earth can live on its own w/out humans ,
humans can’t live without earth
o Theological view – man is tasked by God to subdue the
earth
o Deep Ecology – giving importance on all living things;
protect and preserve everything

PHILOSOPICAL MOVEMENTS
o Environmental ethics
 We provide value by imposing policies
 Provide moral grounds for policies aimed at
protecting the earth’s environment and remedying
environmental degradation
o Social Ecology
 Larger scale
 Society must structure policies at pair with
environmental problems

o Climate Justice
 Policies on climate change
o Environmental Justice
 Equitable distribution of benefits
o Environmental Aesthetics