Building Construction Notes

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES
Course Outline
1. Site Visits.
2. Setting Out of Buildings Using Tapes Only.
3. Setting Out of Drainage.
4. Foundations.
5. Exclusion and Removal of Water.
6. Temporary Works.
7. Floors. Walls and Piers.
8. Multi-storey Structures.
9. Roof Structures and Roof Coverings.
10. Doors, Windows and Other Openings.
11. Services.
12. Internal Finishes and External Finishes.
13. Stairs, Ramps and Ladders.
(Details of Sketches shall be Emphasised in this Course.)
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 FOUNDATIONS
Every building consists of two basic components: the superstructure and the substructure of
foundations. The superstructure is usually that part of the building which is above the ground,
and which serves the purpose of its intended use. The substructure or foundations is the lower
portion of the building, usually located below below ground level, which transmits the load of
the super-structure to the sub-soil. The foundation is therefore that part of the structure (walls,
piers and columns) which is in direct contact with and transmitting loads to the ground. The
foundations of structures bear on and transmit loads to the ground. The concrete base of walls,
piers and columns is what is called the foundation. The soil which is locatd immediately below
the base of the foundation is called the sub-soil or foundation soil, while the lowermost portion
of the foundation which is in direct contact the sub-soil is called the footing.
The basic function of a foundation is to transmit the dead loads, super-imposed loads (live
loads) and wind loads from a building to the soil on which the building rests, in such a way
that:
 Settlements are within permissible limits, without causing cracks in the super-structure
 Soil does not fail. When loads are transmitted to the sub-soil, it settles. If this settlement is
slight and uniform through out, no damage will be caused to the structure. If the settlement
is excessive and unequal, serious damage may result in the form of cracked walls, distorted
doors and window openings, cracked lintels, walls thrown out of plumb etc and sometimes
complete collapse of the building.
The foundation is thus the most important part of a building. The principal foundation types
are: strip, pad, raft and pile foundations as shown below in figure 1. (R.Barry, 1984)
The size and shape of a building has an effect on the type of foundation used; though this is
also dependent on soil and site conditions (R. L. Fullerton, 1977)
1.1 Functional Requirements
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Foundations of buildings are designed to transmit the loads of the building to the ground so that
there is at most only a limited settlement of the building into the ground. A building with
foundation on a sound rock will suffer no measurable settlement into the ground by the
compression of the soil under the foundation loads. Foundation should be designed so that
settlement into the ground is limited and uniform under the whole of the building.
The foundation of large buildings imposes considerable loads on subsoils so that consolidation
of the subsoil may be appreciable either during the erection or for some years after the
completion of the building. Owing to variations in the subsoil or to different intensities of
pressures in the subsoil at various points below buildings or to both, unequal settlement of the
foundation could occur which may damage the structure. The intensity of pressure in the
subsoil below the foundation of a large building may be considerable some depth below the
foundation so that a stratum of weak subsoil in this region may give way. If the intensity of
pressure below a foundation is sufficiently great it may cause the sub-soil to collapse by shear
failure, either forcing a column of subsoil down, or by the displacement of soil each side of the
foundation. To anticipate the likely behaviour of subsoil under the foundation of a large
building the engineer must know the nature of the sub soil for some depth below the surface
and have knowledge of its behaviour under load.
Soil is defined as sediments and deposits of solid particles produced by the disintegration of
rock and it is the size of the particles of a particular soil and the degree to which the particles
bind together which is of interest
Soils can be defined as;
 Non-cohesive or coarse grained soils (sand and gravel)
 Cohesive or fine grained soils (clay and silt)
 Organic soils (peat)
The characteristics of a soil that affect its behaviour as a foundation are:

Compressibility
Cohesion of particles
Internal friction and
Permeability
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Compressibility: Under load sand is only slightly compressed due to expulsion of water and
some rearrangement of the particles. Because of its high permeability sand is rapidly
compressed due to quick expulsion of water, and compression of sand subsoils keeps pace with
the erection of buildings so that once the building is completed no further compression can take
place.
Clay is very compressible, but due to its impermeability compression takes place slowly
because of the very gradual expulsion of water through the narrow capillary channels in the
clay. The compression of clay subsoil under the foundations of a building may continue for
some years after the building is completed, with consequential gradual settlement.
Cohesion of particles (plasticity): There is negligible cohesion between the particles of sand
and in consequence it is not plastic. There is marked cohesion between the particles of clay
which is plastic and can be moulded, particularly when wet.
Internal friction: There is considerable friction between the coarse particles of sand which
strongly resists displacement of the particles. When the internal friction is overcome, the soil
shears and suddenly gives way causing sudden collapse of the building.
There is very little friction between the fine particles of clay due to its plastic nature and as a
result, shear failure, under the loads of the building may take place along several strata
simultaneously with consequent heaving of the soil.
Figure showing heaving of the soil

Permeability: when water can pass rapidly through the pores of a soil the soil is said to be
permeable. Coarse grained soils such as sand and gravel are permeable, and because water can
drain rapidly through them, they can consolidate rapidly under load.
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Fine grained soils such as clay have low permeability and because water passes very slowly
through the pores, they consolidate slowly.
Bearing Pressure
The intensity of pressure on subsoil is not uniform across the width or length of a foundation
and decreases with depth below the foundation. To determine the probable behaviour of a soil
under foundations, the engineer has to know the intensity of pressure on the subsoil at various
depths. If points of equal stresses are joined the result is a bulb of unit pressure extending down
wards. Thus the bulb of the pressure gives an indication of stress in subsoils at various points
below a foundation. If there are separate foundations close together as for example where there
is a group of columns then the bulbs of pressure can be combined to form one large pressure
bulb diagram as shown in figure. Where bulbs of pressure of adjacent foundations intersect an
increased intensity of pressure occurs.
Site investigation: Before foundation design can begin there are a number of preliminary
stages. These, separate stages, are generally referred to as Site Investigation. Site Investigation
normally involves three basic stages:
• A desk study which takes into account existing information about the site. This
information will come from a variety of sources and will include such diverse matters as the
history of the site, its topography, geology, vegetation etc.
• A walk-over survey which is a direct inspection of the site giving the
engineer/designer the opportunity to identify the nature of the ground and the nature of any
hazardous features.
• A physical exploration and inspection, of the ground by means of boreholes or trial pits. This
third stage is sometimes called the ground investigation.
Foundations
The desk study is the first stage in the site investigation. Essentially, it comprises the collection
and analysis of existing information about the site. The information will come from a variety
of sources and, and, once analysed, will form the basis for the second stage, the walk-over
survey. The desk study has two main objectives:
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• To determine the nature, past use, and condition of the site.

• To determine whether this has any implications for the proposed building and its foundations.
A sensible starting point is to consult large scale maps of the proposed site and check
site boundaries, building lines, existing buildings and other man-made, or natural,
features which will affect the future buildings. A comparison with older maps may give some
clues to determine former use and, therefore, potential hazards. Geological maps, other written
records, and local knowledge will help identify the likely nature of the subsoil and determine
the extent of difficult ground conditions.
Most subsoils, including firm and stiff clays, compact sands, gravels and rocks will easily
support the relatively low loads of two and three storey housing using simple strip
foundations. However, soft cohesive soils, peaty soils, and of course, fill, pose problems. A site
that has been mined also needs treating with caution - foundation solutions can be costly. Large
scale historical maps, often held at city and county libraries, show the extent of former mining.
Thousands of old shafts and tunnels still exist. Other items which should come to light during
the desk study include the likelihood of:
• Filled or contaminated ground
• Quarrying or mining
• Rights of way
• Ponds, watercourses, ground water levels and the risk of flooding
• Utility services (drains, electricity, gas, telephone, optical cables etc - see left-hand plan)
• Previous vegetation (ie large felled trees)
• Landslip
• Naturally occurring aggressive chemicals (eg sulphates), harmful gases (radon) and landfill
gases
(Methane and CO2).
A walk-over survey is the second stage in the site investigation. It's a detailed site inspection
which:
• enables much of the material discovered in the desk study to be confirmed or further
investigated
• identifies other potential hazards
• enables the surveyor to collect photographic records
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• gives the surveyor/engineer the opportunity to make detailed drawings of all those items
(trees, existing buildings, watercourses, etc) which will have implications for the building
design
A direct ground investigation is the third stage in the site investigation. As far as low rise
housing is concerned its main objective is to determine whether strip foundations will be
suitable and, assuming they are, whether they can be designed in accordance with the
simple 'rule of thumb' approach contained in the Building Regulations. The ground
investigation will provide detailed information on:
• Nature and thickness of made up ground/top soil above the subsoil
• Nature, thickness and stratum depth of subsoil
• An assessment of allowable bearing pressure
• Groundwater levels, chemicals in the ground etc.
• Existing structures or hazards in the ground
The natural vegetation at a site gives guide to the nature of the soil, and the conformation of the
natural surface will be a guide to the nature of the subsoil. Any adjacent earth work such as
quarries and railway or road cuttings will give some indication of subsoil. Geological maps of
the area and information from the Local Authority Surveyors will supply further information.
This preliminary inspection will be a guide to the preferred siting of buildings on open land and
will provide background information in built up areas. Once the preliminary designs of the
buildings are completed and the position of the buildings on the site established the Engineer
will require a precise knowledge of the subsoils under the proposed buildings for some depth
below the surface.
The depth to which exploration of the subsoil should be carried depends on the nature of the
subsoil strata, the size of the structure and the type of foundation. As a general rule exploration
should be carried down to a depth of at least one and half times the width of the assumed
foundation, where isolated foundations are used, or the width of the building where closely
spaced foundation or a raft are used.
The usual method of obtaining samples of subsoil strata for field or laboratory test is by means
of trial pits or boreholes.
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Since the foundations have to transfer the load to the sub-soil, surface conditions at any given
site must be adequately explored to obtain information required for the design and construction
of foundations.
Sub-soil exploration is done for the following purposes;
(a) For New Structures
1. The selection of type and depth of foundation.
2. The determination of bearing capacity of the selected foundation.
3. The predication of settlement of the selected foundation.
4. The determination of the ground water level.
5. The evaluation of the earth pressure against walls, basements, abutments etc.
6. The provision against constructional difficulties.
7. The suitability of soil and degree of compaction of soil.
(b) For Existing Structures
1. The investigation of the safety of the structure.
2. The prediction of settlement.
4. The determination of remedial measures if the structure is unsafe or will suffer
detrimental settlement.
Site Reconnaissance
An inspection of the site and study of topographical features is often helpful in settling useful
information about the soil on ground water conditions and in deciding the future programme of
exploration. On going over the site, a study of the following features may be useful: local
topography, excavations, cuttings, quarries, escarpments evidence of erosion or land slides,
fills, water level in wells and drainage pattern for the building site. If there has been an earlier
use of the site, information should be gathered, in particular about the underground workings, if
any, and about the location of fills and excavations.
Site Exploration
The object of the site exploration is to provide reliable, specific and detailed information about
the soil and ground water conditions of the site which may be required for a safe and economic
design of foundations. For this purpose and exploration of the region likely to be affected by
the proposed works should yield precise information about the following:
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(i) The order of occurrence and extent of soil and rock strata.
(ii) the nature and engineering properties of the soil and rock formation, and
(iii) the location of ground water and its variations
Depth of Exploration
Exploration in general, should be carried out to a depth up to which the increase in pressure due
to structural loading is likely to cause perceptible settlements or shear failure of foundations.
Such a depth, known as significant depth, depends upon the type of structure, its weight, size,
shape and disposition of the loaded areas, and the soil profile and its properties. The significant
depth may be assumed to be equal to one-and-a-half two times the width (smaller of the lateral
dimension) of the loaded area.
The depth of exploration at the start of the work may be decided according to the following
guide rules, which may need modification as exploration exceeds:
1. Isolated spread footing or raft: On and a half times the width.
2. Adjacent footings with clear spacing less than twice the width: One and a half times the
length.
3. Pile foundation: 10 to 30 metres, or more, or at least one a half times the width of the
structure.
4. Base of the retaining wall: One and a half times the base width or one and a half times
the exposed height of face of wall, whichever is greater.
5. Floating basement: Depth of construction.
6. Weathering considerations: 1.5 m in general and 3.5 m in black cotton soils.
National Building Codes suggests that normally the depth of exploration should be one and half
times the estimated width (lower dimension) of the footing, single or combined, from the base
level of he foundation; but in weak soils, the exploration should be continued to a depth at
which the loads can be carried by the stratum in question without undesirable settlement or
shear failure. In any case, the depth to which weathering processes affect the soil should be
regarded as a minimum depth for the exploration of sites and this should be taken as 1.5 metres.
But where industrial processes affect the soil characteristics, this depth may be more.
Methods of Site Exploration
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The various methods of site exploration may be grouped as follow:

1. Open excavations
2. Borings
3. Sub-surface soundings
4. Geo-physical methods.
1. Open Excavation (Open Trial Pits)

Trial pits are the cheapest method of exploration in shallow deposits, since these can be
used in all types of soils. In this method, pits are excavated at the site, exposing the
sub-soil surface thoroughly. Soil samples are collected at various levels. The biggest
advantage of this method is that soil strata can be inspected in their natural condition
and samples (distributed or undistributed) can be conveniently taken. A typical trial is
shown in Fig.
Sketch
The method is generally considered suitable for shallow depths, say up to 3 m. The cost of
open excavation increases rapidly with depth. For greater depths and for excavation below
ground water table, especially in pervious soils, measures for lateral support and ground water
lowering becomes necessary.
2. Boring Methods
The following are the various boring methods commonly used;
(i) Auger boring
(ii) Auger and shell boring
(iii) Wash boring
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(iv) Percussion boring

(v) Rotary boring
(i) Auger boring

Augers are used in cohesive and other soft soils above water table. They may either be
operated manually or mechanically. Hand augers are used up to a depth up to 6 m.
Mechanically operated augers are used for greater depths and they can also be used in gravelly
soils. Augers are of two types; (a) spiral auger and (b) post-hole auger
Sketch
Samples recovered from the soil brought up by the augers are badly distributed and are useful
for identification purposes only. Auger boring is fairly satisfactory for explorations at shallow
depths and for exploratory borrow pits.
(ii) Auger and shell boring
Cylindrical augers and shells with cutting edge or teeth at lower end can be used for making
deep borings. Hand operated rigs are sued for depths up to 25 m and mechanized rigs up to 50
m. Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clays, shells for very stiff and hard clays, and shells or
sand pumps for sandy soils. Small boulders, thin soft strata or rock or cemented gravel can be
broken by chisel bits attached to drill rods. The role usually requires a casing. Fig. shows a
typical sand pump.
Sketch
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(iii) Wash boring

Wash boring is a fast and simple method for advancing holes in all types of soils. Boulders and
rock cannot be penetrated by this method.
The method consists of first driving a casing through which a hollow drilled rod with a sharp
chisel or chopping bit at the lower end is inserted. Water is forced under pressure through the
drill rod which is alternatively raised and dropped, and also rotated. The resulting chopping
and jetting action of the bit and water disintegrates the soil. The cuttings are forced up to the
ground surface in the form of soil-water slurry through the annular space between the drill rod
and the casing. The change in soil stratification could be guessed from the rate of progress and
colour of wash water. The samples recovered from the wash water are almost valueless for
interpreting the correct geo-technical properties of soil.
(iv) Percussion boring
In this method, soil and rock formations are broken by repeated blows of heavy chisel or bit
suspended by a cable or drill rod. Water is added to the hole during boring, if not already
present and the slurry of pulverished material is bailed out at intervals. The method is suitable
for advancing a hole in all types of soils, boulders and rock. The formations, however, get
disturbed by the impact.
(v) Rotary boring
Rotary boring or rotary drilling is a very fast method of advancing hole in both rocks and soils.
A drill bit, fixed to the lower end of the drill rods, is rotated by a suitable chuck, and is always
kept in firm contact with the bottom of the hole. A drilling mud, usually a water solution of
bentonite, with or without other admixtures is continuously forced down to the hollow drill
rods. The mud returning upwards brings the cuttings to the surface. The method is also known
as mud rotary drilling and the hole usually requires no casing.
Rotary core barrels, provided with commercial diamond-studied bits or a steel bit with shots,
are also used for rotary drilling and simultaneously obtaining the rock cores or samples. The
method is then known as core boring or core drilling. Water circulated down the drill rods
during boring.
Sketch
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Record of borings
In all exploration work it is very important to maintain an accurate and explicit record of
borings. Soil/rock samples are collected at various depths, during boring. These samples are
tested in the laboratory for identification and classification. The samples are suitably preserved
and arranged serially according to the depth at which they are found. A boring chat is prepared
for each bore hold. A site plan should be prepared; showing the disposition of various bore
holes on it.
Number and disposition of trial pits and borings
The number and disposition of the test pits and borings should be such as to reveal any major
changes in the thickness, depth or properties of the strata affected by the works, and the
immediate surroundings. The National Building Code of India: (SP:7-1983) gives the
following recommendations for this:
(a) For a compact building site covering an area of about 0.4 hectares, one bore hole or trial
pit in each corner and one in he centre should be adequate.
(b) For small and less important buildings, even one bore hole or trial pit in the centre will
suffice.
(c) For very large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the geological nature
of the terrain will help in deciding the number of bore holes or trial pits. Dynamic or
static cone penetration tests may be performed at every 100 metres by dividing the area
into grid patterns and number of bore holes or trial pits decided by examining the
variation in the penetration curves.
3. Sub-Surface Soundings
The sounding methods consist of measuring the resistance of the soil with depth by
means of penetrometer under static or dynamic loading. The penetrometer may consist
of a sampling spoon, a cone or other shaped tool. The resistance to penetration is
empirically correlated with some of the engineering properties of soil, such as density
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index, consistency bearing capacity etc. The values of these tests lie in the amount of
experience behind them. These tests are useful for general exploration of erratic soil
profiles, for dinging depth to bed rock or stratum, and to have an approximate induction
of the strength and other properties of soils, particularly for cohesionless soils, from
which it is difficult to obtain undisturbed samples. The two commonly used tests are
standard penetration test and the cone penetration test.
4. Geo-Physical Methods
Geo-physical methods are used when the depth of exploration is very large, and also
when the speed of investigation is of primary importance. Geo-physical investigations
involve the detection of significant differences in the physical properties of geological
formations. These methods were developed in connection with prospecting of useful
minerals and oils. The major method of geo-physical investigations are; gravitational
methods, magnetic methods, seismic refraction method and electrical resistivity
methods are the most commonly used for Civil Engineering purposes.
Seismic refraction method
In this method, shock waves are created into the soil at their ground level or a certain
depth below it by exploding small charge in the soil or by striking a plate on the soil
with a hammer. The radiating shock waves are picked up by the vibration detector (also
called geophone or seismometer) where the time of travel of the shock waves gets
recorded. A number of geophones are arranged along a line (Fig…..). Some of the
waves, known as direct or primary waves travel directly from the shock point along the
ground surface and are picked first by the geophone. The other waves which travel
through the soil get refracted at the interface of two soil strata. The refracted rays are
also picked up by the geophone. If the underlying layer is denser, the refracted waves
travel much faster. As the distance between the shock point and the geophone
increases, the refracted waves are able to reach the geophone earlier then the direct
waves. By knowing the time of travel primary and refracted waves at various
geophones, the depth of various strata can be evaluated by preparing distance-time
graphs and using analytical methods.
Seismic refraction method is fast and reliable in establishing profiles and different strata
provided the deeper layer have increasingly greater density and thus higher velocities
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and also increasingly greater thickness. Different kinds of materials such as gravel,
clay, hardpan, or rock have characteristics seismic velocities and hence they may be
identified by the distance-time graphs. The exact type of material cannot, however be
recognized and the exploration should be supplemented by boring or soundings and
sampling.
Sketch
Electrical Resistivity Method

The electrical resistivity method is based on the measurement and recording of changes in the
main resistivity of various soils. Each soil has its own resistivity depending upon its water
content, compaction and composition; for example, it is low for saturated silt and high for loose
dry gravel or solid rock.
The test is conducted by driving four meal spikes to serve as electrodes into the ground along a
straight line at equal distance. A direct voltage is imposed between the two outer electrodes,
and the potential drop is measured between the inner electrodes. The mean resistivity *****
(ohm-cm) is computed from the expression
Sketch
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The depth of exploration is roughly proportional to the electrode spacing. For studying vertical
changes in the strata, the electrode system is expanded, about a fixed central point, by
increasing the spacing gradually from an initial small value to a distance roughly equal to the
depth of exploration required. The method is known as resistivity sounding.
To correctly interpret he resistivity date for knowing the nature and distribution of soil
formation, it is necessary to make preliminary trial or calibration tests on known formations.
Choice of Exploration Method
The choice of a particular exploration method depends on the following factors (a) nature of
ground (b) topography (c) cost
1. Nature of ground
In clayey soils, borings are suitable for deep exploration and pits for shallow exploration. In
sandy soils, boring is easy but special equipments should be used for taking representative
samples below the water table. Such samples can however, be readily taken in trial pits
provided that, where necessary, some form of ground water lowering is used.
Borings are suitable in hard rocks while pits are preferred in soft rocks. Core borings are
suitable for the identification of types of rock but they cannot supply data on joints and fissures
which can only be examined in pits and large diameter borings.
When the depth of exploration is large, and where the area of construction site is large,
geophysical methods (specially the electrical resistivity method) can be used with advantage.
However, borings at one or two locations should be carried out, for calibration purposes. In
soft soil, sounding method may also be used to cover large area in relatively shorter duration.
2. Topography
In hilly country, the choice between vertical openings (for example, boring sand trial pits) and
horizontal openings (for example, headings) may depend on the geological structure, since
steeply inclined by strata are most effectively explored by headings and horizontal strata best
explored by borings which may have to be put down from a floating craft.
3. Cost
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For deep exploration, borings are usual, as deep shafts are costly. However, if the area is vast,
geophysical methods or sounding methods may be used in conjunction with borings. For
shallow exploration in soil, the choice between pi and borings will depend on the nature of the
ground and the information required for shallow exploration in rock; the cost of boring a core
drill to the site will only be justified if several holes are required; otherwise trial pits will be
more economical.
Soil Samples and Samplers

Soil samples can be of two types;
(i) Distributed samples
(ii) Undistributed samples
A distributed sample is that in which the natural structure of soil gets partly or full modified
and destroyed although with suitable precautions the natural water content may be preserved.
Such a soil sample should, however, be representative of the natural soil by maintaining the
original proportion of the various particles intact. An undistributed sample is that in which the
natural structure and properties remain preserved.
The sample disturbance depends upon the design of the samplers and the method of sampling.
To take undistributed samples from bore holes properly designed sampling tools are required.
The sampling tube when forced into the ground should cause as little remoulding and
disturbance as possible. The design features of the sampler that govern the degree of
disturbance are (i) cutting edge (ii) inside wall friction and (iii) no-return value.
Sketch
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The area ratio should be as low as possible. It should not be greater than 25 percent; for soft
sensitive soil, it should preferably not exceed 10 percent. The inside clearance should lie
between 1 to 3 percent and the outside clearance should not be much greater than the inside
clearance. The walls of the sampler should be smooth and should be kept properly oiled so that
wall frication is minimum.
Lower value of inside clearance allows the elastic expansion of soil provided in samplers,
should permit easy and quick escape of water and air when driving the sampler.
Types of Samplers
The samplers are classified as thick wall or thin wall samplers depending upon the area ratio.
Thick wall samplers are those having the area ratio greater than 10 percent. Depending upon
the mode of operation, samplers may be classified in the following three common types: (i)
open drive sampler (including split spoon samplers), (ii) stationary piston sampler and (iii)
rotary sampler.
The open drive sampler is a tube open at its lower end. The sampler head is provided with
vents (valve) to permit water and air to escape during driving. The check valve helps to retain
sample when the sampler is lifted up. The tube may be seamless or it may be split in two parts;
in the latter case it is known as slit spoon.
The stationary piston sampler consists of a sampler cylinder and the piston system. During
lowering of the sampler through the hole, the lower end of the sampler is kept closed with the
piston. When the desired sampling elevation is reached, the piston rod is clamped, thereby
keeping the piston stationary, and the sampler tube is advanced down into the soil. The
sampler is then lifted up, with piston rod clamped in position. The sampler is more suitable for
sampling soft soils saturated sands.
Rotary samplers are core barrel type having an outer tube provided with cutting teeth and a
removable thin wall liner inside. It is used for firm to hard cohesive soils and cemented soils.
Foundation failure
Foundation of a structure fails either due to collapse of the soil by failure in shear or due to
unequal settlement of the different parts of the foundation or a combination of both.
Contact pressure: A perfectly flexible foundation uniformly loaded will cause uniform contact
pressure with all types of soil. A perfectly flexible foundation supposes a perfectly flexible
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structure supporting flexible floors, roofs and claddings. Most large buildings however have
rigid foundations designed to support a rigid or semi-rigid frame.
In practice the contact pressure on a cohesive soil such as clay is reduced at the edges of the
foundation by yielding of the clay and as the load on the foundation increases more yielding of
the clay takes place so that stresses at the edges decrease and those at the centre of the
foundation increases as in the figure below. The contact pressure on a cohesionless soil such as
dry sand remains parabolic and the maximum intensity of pressure increases with increased
load.
An understanding of the distribution of contact pressure between foundation and soil will guide
the choice for the foundation type to use. The foundation of a building on a cohesionless soil
for example would be designed so that the more heavily loaded columns would be towards the
centre to allow uniformity of settlement over the whole building. Conversely a foundation on a
cohesive soil such as clay would be arranged with the major loads towards the centre of the
foundation where pressure intensity is least.
Relative settlement (differential settlement):
Parts of the foundation of a building may suffer different magnitude of settlement due to
variations in the load on the foundation or variation in the subsoil. These variations may cause
distortion of a rigid or semi-rigid frame and consequent damage to rigid in-fill panels and
cracking of load bearing walls, rigid floors and finishes. Some degree of relative settlement is
inevitable in the foundation of most buildings but so long as this is not pronounced or can be
accommodated in the design of the building, the performance of the building will not suffer.
Cracks which are not visible do not weaken the building or encourage the penetration of rain.
More pronounced relative settlement such as is common between the main wall of a house and
the less heavily loaded bay window bonded to it may cause visible cracks in the brickwork at
the junction of the bay window and the wall. Such cracks will allow rain to penetrate the
thickness of the wall. To avoid this either the foundation should be strengthened or some form
of slip joint be formed at the junction of he bay and the main wall. Unequal settlement or
differential settlement is usually caused by:
 Weak sub-soils, such as made up grounds
 Shrinkable and expansive soils (such as clay)
 Frost action
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 Movement of ground water and uplift pressure

 Excessive vibrations due to traffic, machinery etc
 Slow consolidation of saturated clays and
 Slipping of strata on sloping sites.
When designing the foundation therefore, the above factors must be taken into account.
Function of Foundations:
Foundations serve the following purposes;
 Reduction of load intensity: foundations distribute the non uniform load of the super-
structure evenly to the sub-soil. For example, two columns carrying unequal loads can
have a combined footing which may transmit the load to the sub-soil evenly with
uniform pressure. Due to this, unequal settlements are minimised.
 Even distribution of load: foundations distribute the non uniform load of the super-
structure evenly to the sub-soil. For example, two columns carrying unequal loads can have a
combined footing which may transmit the load to the sub-soil evenly with uniform soil
pressure. Due to this, unequal or differential settlements are minimised.
 Provision of level surface: fondsations provide levelled and hard surface over which the
super-structure can be built.
 Lateral stability. It anchors the super-structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral
stability to the super-structure. The stability of the building against sliding, overturning, due to
horizontal forces (such as wind, earth quake etc) is increased due to foundations.
 Safety against undermining. It provides the structural safety against undermining or
scouring due to burrowing animals and flood water
 Protection against soil movements: special foundation measures prevent or minimises
the distress (or cracks) in the super-structure, due to expansion or contraction of the sub-soil
because of moisture movement in some problematic soils.
Essential Requirements of a Good Foundation
Foundations should be constructed to satisfy the following requirements:
a) The foundation shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads to transmit
these to the subsoil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause settlement which
would impair the stability of the building or adjoining structures
20
b) Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlement are minimised, especially
for the case when super-imposed loads are not evenly distributed.
c) Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep tp guard the building against dmage or
distress caused by swelling or shrinkage of the sub-soil.
d) Foundations should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to any
unexpected future influene
Types of Foundation
Foundations may broadly be classified under two heads:

1. shallow foundations
2. deep foundations
a shallow foundation according to Terzaghi is if its depth is equal to or less than its width, and a
deep foundation is when its depth is equal to or grater than its width. Examples of shallow
foundations are i) spread footings (Cover a wide area uder the wall or column), ii) combined
footing (supports two or more columns), iii) Strap footing (independent columns joined by a
beam) and iv) Mat footing (Raft foundation)
Deep Foundations
Deep foundations may be of the following types:
 Deep strip, regular or square footing
 Pile foundation
 Pier foundation or drilled caisson foundation
 Well foundation or caisson
As earlier mentioned, foundations may be classified as:

Strip foundations
Pad foundations
Raft foundations and
Pile foundations
Strip foundations:
Strip concrete foundation consists of a continuous strip of concrete designed to spread the load
from uniformly loaded walls of brick, masonry or concrete to a sufficient area of subsoil. The
21
spread of the strip depends on foundation loads and the bearing capacity and shear strength of
the subsoil. The thickness of the foundations depends on the foundation material. Strip
foundations with a wide spread are commonly of reinforced concrete
brick or
masonry pier or column
supported
on the strip
fdn
strip foundation pad foundation raft foundation
Pile foundation
Pad foundations: The foundation to piers of brick, masonry and reinforced concrete and steel
columns is often in the form of a square or rectangular pad concrete. The area of this type of
foundation depends on the load on the foundation and the bearing and shear strength of the
subsoil and its thickness on the strength of the foundation material. The simplest pad
foundation consists of a block of mass concrete as shown below. Heavily loaded pad
foundations supporting columns of framed buildings are generally reinforced with a steel
grillage.
Where the spread of pad foundations to a framed building is such that the edge of adjacent
separate foundations would be close together it is usual to form one continuous column
foundation as shown below.
22
pier or column
reinforced conc fdn
reinforced conc
pad fdn
combined conc pad
foundation 40mm conc
cover
Combined foundation: The foundation of adjacent columns are combined; i) when a column
is so close to the boundary of the site that a separate foundation would be eccentrically loaded
and ii) where foundations of adjacent columns are linked to resists uplift, overturning or
opposing forces. Where a framed building is to be erected alongside an existing building it is
often necessary to use a cantilever or asymmetrical combined base foundation for columns next
to the existing building so that pressure on the subsoil due to the base may not so heavily
surcharge the subsoil under the foundation of the existing building as to cause it to settle
appreciably.
Pile Foundations
Pile foundation is that type of deep foundation in which the loads are taken to a low level by
means of vertical members which may be timber, concrete or steel. Pile foundations may be
adopted instead of raft foundation where
i) No firm bearing strata exists at any reasonable depth and the loading is uneven
ii) When a firm bearing strata doe not exist but at a depth such as to make strip or
spread footing uneconomical, and
iii) When pumping of sub-soil water would be too costly or timbering to excavations is
too difficult to permit the construction of normal foundation. Pile are of four types:
 End bearing piles
 Friction piles
 Combined end bearing and friction pile and
23
 Compaction pile
Pier Foundations
A pier foundation consist of a cylindrical column of large diameter to support and transfer large
super-imposed loads to firm strata below. The difference between pile foundation and pier
foundation lies in the method of construction. Though pile foundations transfer the load
through friction and or bearing, pier foundations transfer the load only through bearing.
Generally, pier foundation is shallower in depth than the pile foundation. Pier foundation is
preferred in a location where the top strata consist of decomposed rock overlying a strata of
sound rock. In such a condition, it becomes difficult to drive the bearing piles through
decomposed rock. In the case of stiff clays, which offer large resistance to the driving of a
bearing pile, pier foundation can conveniently be constructed
Pier foundations may be of:
Masonry or concrete pier
Drilled caisson
24
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Solid Concrete Ground Floors

Ground floors are floors that bear directly on the ground. The materials used are usually
concrete, bricks or timber with timber sometimes resting on dwarf walls.
Concrete is the name given to a mixture of particles of stone bound together with cement.
Because the major part of concrete is of particles of broken stones and sand, it is termed the
aggregate. The material which binds the aggregate is the cement and this is described as the
matrix.
Concrete
House foundations are invariably formed in concrete. It is available in a range of strengths and
is usually brought onto site ready-mixed or mixed in-situ as, and when, required.
What is concrete?
The word concrete is derived from the Latin word concretus, meaning grown together. It is a
mixture of several constituents which behaves as a single material. In its simplest form
concrete comprises cement, aggregate and water. The major constituent by weight in concrete
is aggregate - stone with a range of particle size from 40mm down to 0.1mm. The aggregate is
a mixture of:
• Coarse aggregate - naturally occurring gravel or crushed rock
• Fine aggregate - sand or crushed rock.
The aggregate is bound together by cement paste, a mixture of cement and water.
Properties
The properties of the cement paste are extremely important and largely determine the properties
of the concrete:
• it must be fluid enough for some time after mixing to allow the concrete to be
placed and compacted into its final shape
• it must then set and gain strength so that it binds the aggregates together to make a
strong material.
• The mechanism by which cement sets and hardens depends on the type of cement, usually due
to a chemical reaction between the cement and the mixing water.
25
Uses
The great advantage of concrete as a construction material is that after mixing it is a fluid
(plastic) material which can be compacted into any shaped mould or formwork. This may be
done on site (in situ concrete), or for very high quality finishes, under factory conditions
(precast concrete). When the cement paste solidifies due to the hydration reaction between
cement and water it becomes a structural material. Concrete is very strong in compression.
Its compressive strength makes concrete an ideal material for foundations and floor slabs and
other structural elements that are mainly loaded in compression.
However, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively low, about one tenth of the
compressive strength. Therefore in structural elements such as beams, which, when loaded, are
in compression at the top and tension at the bottom, it is necessary to use reinforced concrete.
Reinforced concrete contains steel reinforcing rods, usually 20-30mm in diameter. These rods
are positioned where the principal tensile stresses will occur in the structure, and then the
concrete is poured and compacted around the reinforcement. Reinforced concrete is therefore
a composite material, where the concrete takes the compressive forces and the
reinforcing steel takes the tensile forces.
2.1 Preparation for oversite concrete
Turf and top soil is removed preparatory to building operations and a hardcore bed and oversite
concrete is spread as a barrier to moisture that might rise from the ground. It is practice on
building sites to first build external and internal load bearing walls from the concrete
foundation upto the level of the damp proof course, above the ground, in walls. The hardcore
bed and the oversite concrete are then spread and leveled with external walls.
The Building Regulations 1976 requires that a continuous layer of concrete atleast 100 thick be
spread over the site of all buildings within the external walls.
Damp proof course should always be atleast 150 above the ground level.
Concrete is used for floors laid directly on the ground (slab-on-grade) and for floors supported
by the structural frames. The slab on grade floors may be poured before any other part of the
building has been built or on leveled and compacted grade after the rest of the building has
been erected. In the first case, side forms of wood or metal are placed, leveled, and staked, and
screed strips are placed at convenient intervals to provide guides in leveling the concrete.
26
A single course slab poured on grade after the walls have been erected is a common occurrence
in industrial and commercial buildings. A reasonable procedure would be as below:
1. Backfill all ditches and trenches within the walls with granular fill or good marrum and
compact thoroughly in layers of about 150.
2. Isolate all columns from the floor slab by boxing them with square wood or metal forms, or
with round fiberboard forms which should be set to level the top of the slab.
3. Set screed strips at the same elevation at convenient intervals through out the area to be
concreted. Provide a key way form on each screed strip
4. Isolate the walls from the slab by fastening strips of asphalt-impregnated fiberboard or other
joint material not more than 12mm thick around the walls, level with the top of the slab
5. Prepare any changes in slab thickness, as at doorways, to be as gradual as possible and at
slopes of not more than 1 in 10.
6. Use a template with legs the length of the slab thickness to check the grade
7. Oil the screed strips
8. Cover the grade with a polythene moisture barrier, allowing generous lap between strips.
9. Place the reinforcement-mesh or rods as specified
10. Place the concrete as close to its final position as possible. Consolidate with an internal
vibrator, especially at corners, walls and bulk heads
11. Trowel to a hard dense surface with hand or power trowel
12. Cure by covering with:- Water proof curing paper or two coats of curing compound or a
layer of damp sand
13. Remove the forms around columns and attach joint material to the vertical faces of the slab
and the base of the columns. Fill with concrete, edge and finish
14. Cut control joints to a depth of atleast 1/5th of the slab thickness with a power saw every 6m
to 7.5m in both directions
14. Caulk the joints with mastic joint filler
15. Cure for atleast 7days before allowing regular traffic on the surface
The building regulations require that the top surface of the concrete ‘is not below the level of
the surface of the ground or paving adjoining any external wall of the building.
It would of course be possible to make the site concrete 450 thick; in this instance so as to bring
its top surface to dpc level, but this would be unnecessarily expensive method. Instead, what is
27
known as hardcore is usually spread first to raise the level of the concrete. It should be noted
that it is not considered good practice to spread the soil excavated from foundation trenches
over the site of buildings so as to raise the level of the site concrete, even though would appear
a reasonable procedure.. The excavated soil will have been broken up in digging and would
need quite thorough ramming to avoid sinking.
2.2 Elements of solid concrete ground floors
 Sub-grade
 Sub-base; this is constructed from selected materials to form a leveled, smooth working
platform on which to construct the slab. On very good sub-grades such as gravels, the
sub base may be omitted.
 Filling:The materials to be used for filling should have a high permeability to minimise
upward movement of water. It most cases hardcore is used
 Slip membrane-damp proof membrane is to minimise/prevent dampness rising to the
concrete slab, It also reduces internal friction between the concrete slab and the sub-
base
 Prevents lost of concrete
Slip membrane
Materials for the slip membrane are polythene, mastic asphalt, building paper and where the
water table is high use tanking, mastic asphalt and bituminous felt
Concrete slab
This is the main concrete structural element forming the floor and may be from plain or
reinforced concrete. This shall depend on the site conditions, loading or function of the
structure
Wearing surface
Screed
This is the finishing of mortar done on the oversite concrete. Screed done immediately after
casting is termed as monolithic. The advantage is that it safes time and bonds better with the
oversite concrete, cheaper interms of the materials and has no joint
Concrete slab can be cast in portions to minimise shrinkage and subsequent cracking. There is
long strip method of casting and chequered method
28
The bays refer to divisions of the slab interms of the widths and lengths. This also makes the
working easier
Control joints: Control joints to minimise cracking due to expansion and contraction should
always be allowed for which are usually inform of longitudinal and transverse joints. It is of
advantage to make these joints coincide with the bay lengths and widths
wearing surface
dpc
oversite concrete
min 150
slip membrane
hardcore{ sub-base}
atleast 600 sub-grade( can be

imported
filled material
materials)
Figure 2.1 Section through a solid ground concrete floor

Hardcore
This is the name given to the infill of materials such as broken bricks, stone or concrete, which
are hard and do not readily absorb water or deteriorate. This hardcore is spread over the site
within the external walls of the building to such thickness as required to raise the surface of the
site concrete. The hardcore should be spread it is roughly level and rammed until it forms a
compact bed for oversite concrete. The thickness is usually from 100 to 300.
The hardcore bed serves as a solid working base for building and as a bed for the oversite
concrete. If the material for the hardcore is hard and irregular in shape they will break the
capillarity which would make dampness to weaken the oversite. It is important the materials are
kept clean and free from old plaster or clay which in contact with broken bricks or gravel
would present a ready narrow capillary path for moisture to rise. The materials for hardcore
should also be chemically inert and not appreciably affected by water. The materials commonly
used for hardcore are: bricks or rubble, concrete rubble, gravel and crushed hard rock, chalk,
pulverized fuel ash, blast furnace slag, colliery spoil etc
29
Blinding
Before the concrete is laid it is usual to blind the top surface of the hardcore. The purpose of
this is to prevent the wet concrete running down between the lumps of stones or bricks as this
would make it easy for water to rise up by capillarity through the concrete. To blind or seal the
top the top surface of the hardcore a thin layer of very dry coarse of clinker or ash can be used.
A weak mix of concrete of 1:4:8 cast to 50 can also be used.
Damp proof membrane
The model Health Bylaws of 1936 required concrete oversite as a barrier to moisture rising
from the ground. Concrete is to some degree permeable to water and will absorb moisture from
the ground. A damp oversite concrete slab will be cold and draw appreciable heat from rooms it
it is to be maintained at an adequable temperature. A damp oversite concrete slab may cause
damage and deterioration in moisture sensitive floor finishes such as wood. On building sites
that retain moisture due to a high water table and on sloping sites where water may run down to
the building and wherever the site concrete is likely to be damp, it is good practice to used
proof membrane under, in or on the site concrete. The damp proof membrane may be on top,
sandwiched in or under the concrete slab.
The materials for dpm are: hot pitch or bitumen, mastic asphalt or pitch mastic, polythene
sheets, tar, rubber emulsion etc.
Damp proof Courses (dpc)
The function of dpc is to act as a barrier to the passage of moisture or water between the parts
separated by the dpc. The movement of moisture or water may be upwards in the foundation of
walls and ground floors, downwards in parapets and chimneys or horizontal where a cavity
wall is closed at the jambs openings. Dpc should always be at a minimum of 150 above the
finished ground level or 150 above the splash apron
The materials for dpc are:
Flexible dpc
Lead, copper, bitumen dpc, polythene sheets,
Semi -Rigid dpc: mastic asphalts
Rigid dpc: slates, bricks, etc
30
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Walls
31
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Roofs
The primary purpose of a roof is to protect a building’s interior, but it may also be used to
contribute to a building’s exterior appearance.
The completed roof consists of several components, including the roof frame, roof deck, vapour
barrier, insulation, water proof roofing material, flashing and drains, construction and control
joints
In the design of a roof, a number of factors are considered .e.g.: weather, appearance, height,
area, and style of the frame.
A roof may be constructed as a flat roof from a timber, metal or concrete framed platform
which is either horizontal or inclined up to 10degrees to the horizontal, or as a pitched roof with
one or more slopes pitched at more than 10 degrees to the horizontal. Some of the examples of
pitched roofs are: Symmetrical pitch, asymmetrical pitch, mono-pitch with trussed rafters, and
mono-pitch with slopping soffit, butterfly roof, and lean to roof.
lean-to
asymmetrical pitch symmetrical pitch
mono-pitch with sloping soffit butterfly roof

mono-pitch with trussed rafters
Figure 1 Sketches of the different pitched roofs

4.1. The functional requirements of a roof are:
Stability
Strength
Exclusion of wind and rain
32
Durability
Fire resistance
Thermal properties
Stability
A roof is constructed to support the dead load of the roof structure and its covering, insulation
and internal finishes, snow loads and pressure or suction due wind without undue deflection or
distortion. The dead load can be calculated from unit weight of materials set out in BS 648.
Snow loads are assumed from average snow falls. The pressure of wind on a roof will depend
on the exposure, height and shape of the roof and the surrounding buildings. Wind blowing
across a roof will tend to cause pressure on the wind ward side and suction on the opposite side
of the building.
The stability of a flat roof depends on the adequate support from walls or beams and sufficient
depth or thickness of timber joist or concrete relative to spans, and the assumed loads to avoid
gross deflection under load.
Strength: The strength of a roof depends on the characteristics of the materials from which it is
constructed and the way in which they are put together in the form of a platform or some form
of triangulated frame.
Exclusion of wind and rain: A roof excludes rain through the material with which it is
covered; varying from the continuous impermeable layer of asphalt covering that can be laid
horizontal to exclude rain, to the small units of clay tiles that are laid overlapping down slopes
so that rain runs rapidly to the eaves. In general the smaller the units of roof covering, such as
tiles or slate, the greater the pitch or slope to exclude rain that runs down in the joints between
the tiles onto the back of another tile or slate lapped under and so on down the roof.
Impermeable materials such as asphalt and bitumen that are laid without joints can be laid flat
and sheet metals such as lead and copper that are joined with welts can be laid with a very
shallow fall.
33
Durability: This depends largely on the ability of the roof covering to exclude rain. Persistent
penetration of water into the roof structure may cause decay of timber, corrosion of steel or
disintegration of concrete
Fire resistance: A roof and its covering should have adequate resistance to damage by fire, and
against spread of flame for escape in fire, for the periods of from thirty minutes to six hours.
Thermal properties: The materials of roof structures and roof coverings are generally poor
insulators against transfer of heat and it is usually necessary to use some material which is a
good insulator, such as light weight boards, quilts or loose fill to provide insulation against
excessive loss or gain of heat.
Insulating materials may be applied to the underside or the top of flat roofs or between the
joists of timber flat roofs. Rigid materials such as wood wool, that serves as roof deck and
insulation are laid on top of the roof and non-structural materials at ceiling level or on top
below some form of decking. It is of good practice to fix insulating materials at ceiling level in
timber flat roofs, so that there can be cross ventilation between the joists from permanent vents,
to limit condensation risks as required by building Regulations 1981.
Vapour barrier: Insulating materials are effective against transfer of heat to the extent that
they retain still air between fibres, in granules or in minute spaces. When this light weight
materials absorb water they lose their insulating properties as water enters the air spaces, and
water is not a good insulator. Precaution must be taken, therefore, to prevent moisture or water
saturating the insulation either through the roof covering or from humid warm air from inside
the buildings. As a barrier to humid warm air from inside the building, an impermeable vapour
barrier should be fixed between the warm air side and the insulation. This vapour barrier takes
the form of a sheet of bitumen, polythene, or aluminium that is impermeable to moisture.
4.2. FLAT ROOFS

A flat roof by definition is any roof with a slope of less than ten degrees.
The simplest roof to construct is a flat roof, framed in wood, steel, or reinforced concrete.
Factors considered in the choice of material to use for structural frame work.
 Cost
 Size (span)
34
 Availability of materials and equipment

 Working Space
4.2. 1Timber flat roof construction:

Timber flat roofs consists of soft wood timber joist of 38 to 50 thick and from 75 to 225 deep
placed on edges from 400 to 600 apart with the ends of the joists built into or onto or against
brick walls and partitions.
Strutting between joists: Solid or herringbone strutting should be fixed between the roof
joists. When timber is seasoned it shrinks, and timber such as roof joists, which is not cut on
the radius of the circle of the log does not shrink uniformly. The shrinkage will tend to make
the floor joists twists, or wind, and to prevent this
solid strutting
75 - 225
100 x 75 wall plates
Roof joists
Figure 2
timber strutting is used. Herringbone strutting consists of short lengths of 50 x 38 softwood
timber nailed between the joists as shown in the illustration below. The other method of
strutting termed solid strutting consists of short length of timber of the same section as the
joists which are nailed between the joists in a line or staggered as in the figure below. This is
not usually so effective a system of strutting as the herringbone system, because unless the
short solid lengths are cut very accurately to fit to the sides of the joists they do not firmly strut
between the joists.
Note: Ceiling noggings can also be used in place of strutting.
35
Usually one set of struts is used for joists spanning up to 3.6 and two for joists spanning more
than 3.6. A single set of struts is fixed across the roof at mid span.
Roof deck/boards: Boards which are left rough surfaced from the saw are usually employed to
board timber flat roofs and is called rough boarding and are usually 19 thick cut with square.
For good work tongued and grooved boards are often used as the plain edged boarding may
shrink and twist out of level as they dry. Chip boards may also be used in lieu of them to
maintain a level roof deck
End support of joists: Roof joists are normally supported on timber or metal wall plates. Wall
plates serve to distribute the roof loads uniformly over the walls and Provides a level bed for
the roof joists.
Where there is a parapet wall, the end of the joists can rest on the inner walls of cavity walls or
on metal hangers.
19mm timber boarding
roof joist
100 x 75 wall plate or

metal plates
Figure 3
roof joist
100 x 75wall plate on

brick corbel
Figure 4
36
wall plate resting on the inner wall of a cavity wall construction

The ends of roof joists are sometimes carried on brick corbel courses, timber plate and corbel
brackets or on hangers.
roof joist
100 x 75 wall plate on

steel corbel brackets
built in at 750 centresl
Figure 5. Timber joists on wall plates supported by steel corbel brackets

The ends of roof joists built into solid brick walls should be given some protection from
dampness by treating them with a preservative. Timber joist may be built into a solid external
wall if the wall is thick enough to prevent penetration of moisture to the joist ends and where
the wall is protected externally with slate or tile hanging.
cavity insulation carried

bituminus felt on boards
upto joint roof insulation
on insulation
timber joists
100 x 75 wall plate
cavity
wall
Figure 6. joists end on cavity walls
37
Timber firring: Flat roofs are usually constructed so that the surface has a slight slope or fall
towards rainwater outlets. This slope could be achieved by fixing the joists to a slight slope but
the ceiling below the roof would then also be sloping. It is usual to provide a sloping surface to
the roof by means of firring pieces. These consist of either tapered lengths of softwood nailed
across the joists or varying depth lengths of softwood nailed across the joists. Tapered firring is
used for roofs covered with chipboard or wood wool slabs and the varying depth firring for
boards laid parallel to the slope of the roof so that variations in the level of the boards do not
impede the flow of rainwater down the shallow slope. As an alternative to firring, some
insulating boards are cut or made to a slight wedge section to provide the necessary fall to a
roof.
varying height
firring pieces nailed
across joists
tapered firing piece nailed

to top of joists
75 - 225
joists
100 x 75wall plates
Roof joists
Figure 7. Timber firring
Thermal insulation: A timber flat roof provides poor insulation against loss or gain of heat as
most of the materials used are poor insulators.
Any material that is to be a good thermal insulator must have a great number of tiny air spaces
in it as it is the air trapped in these spaces that acts as the thermal insulator.
Insulating materials are manufactured in the form of boards, slabs, quilts or loose fill and when
used with timber roofs the boards and slabs are fixed on the joists under the boarding or on the
underside of the joists. Quilted materials are usually laid between or over the joists and dry fill
between the joists.
4.2.2. Reinforced concrete roofs
Reinforced concrete roofs have a better resistance to damage by fire and can safely support self
weight, wind/rain pressure. The resistance to fire required by building regulations for most
38
offices, large blocks of flats, factories and public buildings is greater than can be obtained with
a timber roof.
A reinforced concrete roof will usually span the least width between the external or external
walls and internal load bearing walls and will be supported on walls and partitions.
Monolithic Reinforced concrete roof

The word monolithic means one stone and is used in buildings to described one unbroken mass
of any material. A monolithic concrete roof is one unbroken solid mass of concrete cast-in-situ
and reinforced with mild steel reinforcing bars. To support the concrete while it is still wet and
plastic, and for seven days after it has been placed, a temporary centering has to be used (form
work). This takes the form of rough timer boarding or steel sheets, supported on timber or steel
beams and post. The steel reinforcement is laid out on top of the centering and raised 15 above
the centering by means of small blocks of fine concrete (spacers) which are tied to the
reinforcement bars with wires. The wet concrete is then placed and spread on the centering, and
is compacted and leveled off. It is usual to design the roof to span the least width of the
building and two opposite sides of the concrete are build into walls incase of parapet walls.
asphalt on screed
concrete roof
insulating lining fixed to

cavity sofit of roof and inside of
wall wall for intermittent heating
Figure 8. Reinforced concrete roof
Centering: The temporary timber board or sheet steel support for monolithic concrete floor or
roof is termed centering.
39
Reinforcement of concrete: The steel reinforcing bars are cast into the under side of the roof
with 15 of concrete cover below them to prevent the steel rusting and to give it some protection
incase of fire. The thicker the concrete cover to the reinforcement the greater the resistance of
the roof to fire.
The duty of determining the amount of reinforcement to use in a concrete roof is done by
Engineers usually Structural or Civil Engineers. When the engineer designs a reinforced
concrete roof, he usually calculates the amount of steel reinforcement required for an imaginary
strip of roof 300 wide spanning between the walls, as though the roof were made up of strips of
300 wide concrete beams placed side by side.
Because the centering required to give temporary support to a monolithic concrete roof tends to
obstruct and delay building operation below the roof, the most common concrete roof used
today are the “self centering” concrete.
Self-centering concrete roofs:
These are constructed with precast reinforced concrete slabs which are cast in the
manufacturer’s yard and are delivered to the building site where they are hoisted to the level of
the roof and placed in position. Once in their positions they require no support other than the
bearing of their ends on beams or walls.
Advantages of self centering concrete roofs:
 Concrete has good quality since it is done under strict specialized supervision
 It is faster to complete roofing as the roof slabs can be ordered for in advance.
 There is no much interference of the activities below the roof.
Disadvantages:
Difficulty in hoisting where there is no enough space
The joints sometimes leak when not well finished
Thermal insulation: A reinforced concrete roof provides poor insulation against loss or gain of
heat and some material which is a good thermal insulator should be incorporated in the
construction of the roof or a light weight concrete slab be used. One way of doing this is to
used light weight aggregate instead of sand when screeding. It is the screed which provides the
slope for the rain water to run off the roof. The light weight aggregate in common use are
40
foamed slag, pumice and vermiculite. These materials are porous and it is the air trapped in the
minute pores of the material which at once make them light in weight and good thermal
insulator.
Foam slag: This is formed by spraying water on molten slag which is poured off molten iron in
blast-furnaces. The water causes the slag to expand into a porous light weight mass. The slag is
crushed into small particles used for screed which greatly improves on the thermal properties of
the concrete roof. The thickness of the screed is usually 25mm. This is a cheap material to use.
Pumice: This is a rock of volcanic origin which is usually porous, light weight, and a good
thermal insulator. It is crushed into small particles and used for screeding though usually
expensive and hence not commonly used.
Vermiculite: This is a micaceous mineral which consists of fine layers of materials closely
packed. When it is heated the fine layers open out and gases are trapped in the many spaces
between the expanded layers. It is very light in weight and most commonly used today because
of its effectiveness in thermal insulation.
Any of the rigid, light weight insulating boards may be used to improve the thermal insulation
of a concrete roof fixed either on top or below the concrete roof. The most convenient place for
the insulating board is on top of the concrete roof, under the roof covering. By insulating the
concrete roof from out side air, concrete roof can act to store heat in continuously heated
buildings (winter).
4.3. FLAT ROOF COVERINGS:

The materials used to cover flat roofs are: Built-up bitumen felt, mastic asphalt and the non
ferrous sheet metals, lead, copper, zinc and aluminium.
4.3.1 Built-up bitumen felt:

This is one of the cheapest and most commonly used roof coverings for flat and shallow roof
slopes. The roof is built with three layers of bitumen roof felt.
The three types of base materials used for bitumen roofing are: fibre, asbestos and glass fibre,
the material of the base being felted and impregnated with bitumen. The surface of the under
layer is finished with fine mineral granules so that the bitumen does not bond in rolls and the
exposed layers are finished with a mineral particle finish. The method of fixing is based on the
41
nature of the roof surface to which it is being applied. The felt is laid across the roof with 50
side lap and 75 end laps between sheets.
Glass fibre based felts have excellent dimensional stability, are non-absorbent and will not rot.
Normally used for very good quality works
Asbestos based felts have good resistance to damage by fire, good dimensional stability and are
used as a base layer for fire resistance and for good quality work for both under layers and
exposed layers.
Timber boarded roofs: On a timber board or chip board roof surface with the insulation either
under the boards or at or over the ceiling level, the first under layer of felt is nailed to the
boards either at 150 centres both across and along the roof, or at 50 centres along the laps of
sheets and 150 centres elsewhere. The wider centre of nailing is considered adequate for fixing.
The second underlayer is then bonded to the first in hot bitumen spread by mop or brush on the
first underlayer, and the top, or exposed layer, likewise bonded to the second underlayer with
the joints between sheets in each layer breaking joint.
Dry insulation boards: Rigid preformed insulation boards may be used as insulation and the
surface for bitumen felt roofing on a timber board or chipboard covered roof and on metal and
timber roof decking. Many of the rigid, dry insulation boards, except expanded polystyrene, are
suitable for the direct application of bitumen felt roofing. The insulation boards are laid on an
underlay of self finished roofing felt that serves as a barrier against warm air from the room
below. The underlayer of felt may be nailed, or partially or fully bonded on hot bitumen to the
boards. The insulation board is then partially or fully bonded to the felt underlay and the roof
finish of three layers of glass fibre, asbestos or asbestos first layer and felt fibre layers is then
fully bonded to the insulation.
Concrete screed finish: Cement screeds and particularly light weight aggregate screeds on
concrete roofs take time to thoroughly dry out and may absorb rain water so that it is likely that
some water will be trapped in the screed once bitumen felt covering has been applied. The heat
of the sun will then cause this water to vaporize and the vapour pressure will cause the felt
roofing to blister, crack and let in water. To relieve this water vapour pressure, it is practice to
use a venting layer of felt on wet screeded roofs. This perforated layer of felt is laid dry on the
42
screed and the three layers of felt are then bonded to it. The venting layer allows water vapour
to be released through vapour pressure releases at abutments and verges of the roof.
Parapet walls and abutments: The bitumen felt roofing should be turned up 150 against
parapet and abutting walls, over an angle fillet as shown in the sketch below and either the
damp-proof course turned down over the upstand of the felt roofing or a separate flashing
dressed over the upstand.
non-ferrous sheet metal flashing built into wall and

copping with a dpc under dressed over upstand of
roofing felt
3-layers of roofing felt

bitumen felt dpc
angle fillet
timber boards
on isulation board &
vapour pressure barrier
Figure 9. Parapet wall

Eaves and Verges: Either the bitumen felt roofing may be dressed over gutters with a welt or a
separate non-ferrous drip may be used. Similarly, either the felt or a separate flashing may be
used at verges.
3-layers of bitumen
roofing felt on top of 25 screed
felt turned over verge fillet
and nailed to fascia
concrete roof
cavity
wall filled up to
roof level with insulation
Figure 9. Treatment at eaves and verges

Mastic asphalt: This is a mixture of naturally occurring material which is soft, has a low
melting point and is an effective barrier to penetration of water.
43
Asphalt is manufactured either by crushing natural rock asphalt and mixing it with natural lake
asphalt, or by crushing natural limestone and mixing it with bitumen whilst the two materials
are sufficiently hot to run together. The heated asphalt is run into moulds in which it solidifies
as it cools.
Solid blocks of asphalt are heated on the building g sites and the hot plastic material is spread
over the surface of the roof in two layers breaking joint to a finished thickness of 20mm. as it
cools it hardens and forms a continuous, hard water proof surface.
Parapet walls: External walls of buildings are raised above the level of the roof as a parapet
wall for the sake of the appearance of the building as a whole.
Parapet walls should not be built above the roof level higher than six times the least thickness
of the parapet wall for the sake of stability as they are free standing. To prevent rain water from
saturating parapet walls, it is essential that it should be covered or capped with some non-
absorbent material. Natural stone, concrete, and bricks are some of the materials used for
capping.
Parapet wall d.p.c: It is good practice to build a continuous horizontal d.p.c into brick parapet
wall at the junction of the roof covering, upstand or skirting with the wall. In stone capping
similarly rain water usually penetrate through the cracks and saturate the wall below. If frost
occurs the parapet wall may be damaged, therefore it is good practice to build in a continuous
layer of dpc of bituminous felt, copper or lead below the stone.
Parapet to cavity walls: The construction of a parapet built on a cavity wall is usually
somewhat different from that built on a solid wall. An external wall built with a cavity to
prevent rain penetrating the wall and it is logical to continue the cavity to at least the top of the
roof, so that the cavity protects roof timber or concrete built into or against the wall. The cavity
should always be continued to the level of the asphalt skirting.
44
non-ferrous sheet metal flashing built into wall and

copping with a dpc under dressed over upstand of
roofing felt
3-layers of roofing felt

weep holes
Cavity gutter of
felt or metal
angle fillet
flat roof
Figure 10
Thermal insulation: For effectiveness the thermal insulation of a wall must be continuous for
the height of the wall upto the insulation in the roof. Where a cavity lining or fill is used in a
cavity wall it must be carried up atleast to the roof insulation.
Sheet metal roof coverings
Sheet metal is used as a covering because it gives excellent protection against wind and rain; it
is durable and lighter in weight than asphalt, tiles or slates. The four common sheet forms used
are; lead, copper, zinc and aluminium.
Properties of metals which make them to be used as either a flat roof or pitched roof covering
are:
Lead: This is a heavy, comparatively soft metal with poor resistance to tearing and crushing
hence has to be used in thick sheets as a roof covering. It is malleable and can easily be bent
and beaten into quite complicated shapes without damage to the sheets. Lead is quite resistant
to all weathering and can last upto 100 years.
Copper: This is a heavy metal with good mechanical strength and malleable. Because of its
mechanical strength this metal can be used in quite thin sheets as a roof covering. Like lead,
copper can be beaten and bent into complicated shapes.
On exposure to atmosphere a thin layer of copper oxide forms which is tenacious, non-
absorbent and prevents further oxidation of the copper below. Copper is quite weather resistant
and last as long as lead.
45
Zinc: It is one of the lighter metals with good mechanical strength but not so malleable and
normally brittle. Zinc sheet is liable to damage in very heavily polluted industrial atmospheres
and should not be used there. The useful life of zinc as a roof covering is between 20 to 40
years.
Aluminium: This is one of the lightest metals with moderate mechanical strength and is as
malleable as copper. It is resistant to all weathering agents. On exposure to atmosphere a film
of aluminium oxide forms which is dense and tenacious and prevents further corrosion.
Aluminium as a roof covering has a useful life intermediate between zinc and lead. Bitumen
and asphalt have replaced the above metal roof covering because of their low initial cost,
although metal roof covering is becoming more common because of their use for low pitched
roofs, architectural designs (fashion).
Joint sheets:
The sheets of metals have to be fixed to the roof and jointed to allow for expansion and
contraction without tearing. Three types of jointing have been developed which successfully
joints the sheets, keeps out water and allows for expansion and contraction.
All metal sheets are laid to a fall or slope on roofs so that water runs off. The longitudinal joints
are usually in form of a roll. Rounded timber battens some 50 square are nailed to the roof and
the edges of the sheets are either overlapped or covered at these timber rolls. The joints across
or transverse to the fall of the roof are always formed as a small step called a drip. The purpose
of the drip is to accelerate the flow of rain water running down the shallow slope of the roof
Upstand and apron: Where there is a parapet wall around the roof or where the roof is built up
against a wall, the sheets are turned up against the wall about 150 as an upstand. The top of
these upstands are not fixed in any way so that the sheets can expand without restrain. To cover
the gap between the upstand and the wall strips of sheets, the sheets are tucked into a horizontal
brick joint, wedged in place and then dressed down over the upstand as an apron flashing.
Rain water gutters: If the flat roof is surrounded on all sides by parapet walls it is necessary to
collect the rain water falling off at the lowest point of the roof. A shallow timber framed gutter
is constructed and is lined with sheets. The gutter is constructed to slope or fall towards one or
more rain water outlets. The gutter is usually made 300 wide and is formed between one roof
joist, spaced 300 from a wall, and the wall itself.
Sketch how it is done.
46
Eaves gutter: Where the roof has no parapet walls as for copper roof covering where the
beauty of the roof covering is of importance, the run off rain water is discharged into an eaves
gutter as in the sketch.
It is practice to drain the water from the gutters into down pipes which discharges the water
into reserve tanks or into storm water channels
Draw the sketch
Sheet metal covering to concrete roofs: Bitumen and asphalt have been the cheapest roof
coverings on concrete roofs but they have a useful life of some twenty years only as a result
sheet metals are sometime preferred. The sheet metal is jointed and fixed to a concrete roof in
the same way as a timber roof. The wood rolls are secured to the concrete by screwing them to
splayed timber battens set into the screed on the concrete or by securing them with bolts set in
sand and cement in holes punched in the screed as shown below.
Roofing felt: It is essential that sheet metal be laid on a continuous layer of roofing felt laid on
the surface of the concrete roof. The felt enables the metal to contract and expand freely and
prevents it tearing on any sharp projections in the surface of the concrete roof.
47
PITCHED ROOFS
A pitch roof has one or more roof slopes at a pitch or slope of more than 10 0 to the horizontal.
The most common roof shape is the symmetrical pitch roof pitched to a central ridge with equal
slopes.
Ridge
Hip
Verge board
Hipped end Gable end

with a vent
Eaves
Figu
re 11. Illustration of a pitched roof with a hip and a gabled end
The traditional roofing materials like slate and tiles can only be successfully fixed on to a
surface inclined at atleast 25degrees to the horizontal.
The construction method is to slope the surfaces by pitching the rafters on either sides of the
ridge piece with the rafters bearing on the wall plate. This is the simplest roof because each pair
of rafters acts like two arms pinned at the top and is called a couple. Precautions should be
48
taken on the span as the weight of the roof tends to spread the rafters of a couple roof and over
turn the supporting walls.
In the traditional pitched roof form, timber ties are nailed to the foot of pairs of rafters to
prevent them spreading under the load of the roof. The ties may also serve to support the
ceiling frame. The other approach is to use timber ties nailed to the foot of pairs of rafters to
prevent them spreading under the load of the roof and is termed a closed couple roof
A modification of the close couple roof is the collar roof, where the ties are fixed between pairs
of rafters one third the height of the roof up from the wall plate.
The advantage here is that the roof may extend up into the part of the roof
3.5max 4.5max 5.5max
couple roof collar roof closed couple roof
Fig
ure 12.
Trussed rafters
A trussed rafter is a triangular roof frame of rafters, ceiling joists and internal webs joined with
spiked connector plates and assembled in a factory. A trussed rafter uses upto 60% less timber
than a comparable traditional pitched roof and requires less on site labour as most of the
members are brought to the site and assembled or to be assembled only. Timber- framed
pitched roofs are usually constructed with trussed rafters and are the most economical and
convenient way of framing pitched roofs.
Trussed rafters are fabricated from stress graded timbers, accurately cut to shape and assembled
and joined with steel connector plates. Much of the preparation and fabrication of these trussed
rafters is mechanized, resulting in accurately cut and finished trusses that are delivered to site
ready to be lifted and fixed as a roof frame. The connector plates are made from carbon steel
which is stamped out so that the teeth protrude. The connector- plates are machine pressed to
form strong rigid joints and is used where the joints are butt joints. If the members overlap one
49
another, split rings and bolts are used to connect them. The split rings are set in circular
grooves cut in the meeting places and a bolt through the assembly holds the two together
tightly.
Trussed rafters are erected and nailed to a timber wall plate, bedded on the external walls, at
centres to suit the roof covering.
200 x 32-50 ridge board Collarpiece
100 x50 ties and struts
100-150 rafters on
wall plates
150 x 50 tie beams

at 400-600 centres
100 x 75 wall plate
fitting into the bird mouth
on the rafter
A typical trussed rafter

Figure 13 Trussed rafters
Size of roof timbers
Rafters are usually 38 – 50 thick and 100 – 150 deep and are spaced at from 400 to 600 centres.
The depth of rafters and the centres at which they are fixed depends on the type and weight of
the roof covering they have to support and their unsupported length. In addition to the dead
weight of the roof covering, such as tiles or slates, the rafters have to be able to resist the
pressure of wind. Collars are usually 44 thick and are usually as deep as the roof rafters. The
ridge board is usually 25 – 38 thick and so deep that the whole depth of the splay cut ends of
rafters bear on it.
Eaves: This is a general term used to describe the lowest courses of the slates or tiles and the
timber supporting them. The eaves of most pitched roofs are made to project some 150 to 300
beyond the external face of walls and in Uganda they are as wide as 600. This gives some
protection to walls and enhances the appearance of buildings. Eaves can also be finished flush
with the wall. The roof coverings drains into an eaves gutter fixed to the fascia boards. The
50
soffit of projecting eaves can be finished closed with boards, sheets or plastered ceiling or it
can also be left open.
125x50 rafters
50x25 bracket nailed to rafter

to support soffit 125x50 tie beam
or ceiling joists
225x25 fascia
19 soffit board
making a closed eaves
FIGURE 14 DETAIL OF CLOSED EAVES CONSTRUCTION
Purlin or double roof: A purlin is a continuous timber fixed horizontally under the roof rafters
to give the support between the ridge and the wall plate. The purlin is in turn supported by
means of timber struts which bear onto a load bearing partition or fixed onto the tie beams
resting on the wall plates. It will be seen that the purlins support the rafters mid-way between
the ridge and the eaves and are supported by struts at intervals of about 1.8 along their lengths.
Where the roof slope is long, more than a line of purlin should be provided corresponding to
the struts. Collars fixed every fourth rafter serve to brace the roof and provide a secure fixing
for the purlins which bear on them. The size of the purlins depends on the weight of the roof
and their unsupported length between the struts. With struts not more than 1.8 apart a 125 x 50
purlin is used for most rafters.
Collars of the same section as the roof rafters are fixed to every third or fourth rafter. Struts are
usually 75 square in section. The foot of the strut is fixed to a timber wall plate bedded in
mortar on the load bearing partition. Incase of terrace buildings the purlins can be made to rest
on the diving walls, this also helps to prevent the spread of fire from one house to the other. In
this Case the diving wall should be taken up to the under side of the roof covering or even
through to form a parapet wall.
Timber trusses
A strongly constructed purlin roof depends for support on the load bearing partitions
conveniently placed and these partitions often restrict freedom in planning the rooms of the
51
building. A method of constructing pitched roofs so as to avoid the use of struts to support the
purlins, and load bearing partitions to support the struts, is to use timber trusses. The word truss
means tied together and a timber roof truss is a triangular frame of light section timbers fixed
together. The timber trusses span between external walls and are spaced about 1.8m apart and
they serve to support the purlins which in turn support the roof rafters. The timbers of the truss
are bolted together and to make the connections rigid galvanized iron timber connectors are
bolted between each two timbers at connections. The strength of the trusses derives mainly
from the rigidity of the connections.
To reduce the quantity of timbers used, the ceiling rafters are given support by means of
hangers and binders. The hangers are nailed to the purlins and to these are nailed horizontal
binders to which the ceiling joists are nailed or secured with metal plates.
The timber connectors have opposed teeth which when firmly bolted between the timbers
prevents any scissor movement between them. Timber trusses have largely been superseded by
trussed rafters for most domestic buildings.
52
200 x 32-50 ridge board
100-150 rafters on
wall plates
150x50 purlin
125 x50 collar & 75 x 75 strut
150 x 50 tie beams/ceiling
to every 3rd or 4th rafter
joists at 400-600 centres
100 x 75 wall plate

Load bearing partition on the rafter
FIGURE 15: A typical trussed rafter for span upto 7.5
53
200 x 32-50 ridge board

all joints in truss bolted through
timber connectors
75x38 tie
75 x 50 hangers
100x38 rafters at
400-600 c/c
150x50 purlin

75x50 strut
125x50 ceiling
binders
100 x 75 wall plate

on the rafter
FIGURE 16: A typical trussed rafter for span

upto 8.0
54
galvanised steel gang-nail

connector plates at all joints
75x38 tie
100x38 rafters at
400-600 c/c

75x50 strut
Figure 17: A typical trussed rafter for span upto 12.0 and pitch
from 15 to 40 deg.
55
Hipped roofs
The most economical way of constructing a pitched roof is to form it with two slopes with
gable ends. But a simple gable end roof sometimes looks clumsy due to the great area of tile or
slate covering and this can be avoided by forming hipped ends to the roof.
The hipped ends are pitched at the same slope as the main part of the roof and the rafters in the
triangle of the hipped end are pitched up to a hip rafter. The hip rafters carry the ends of the cut
rafters in the hipped ends and those of the main roof slopes. The hip rafter is usually 38-50
thick and 200 to 250 deep. The cut ‘jack rafter’ are nailed each side of the hip rafter. Because
the hip rafter carries the ends of several jack rafters it tends to over turn the walls at the corner
of the building where it bears on the wall plates and to resist this, angle tie should always be
fixed across the angle of the roof. The angle ties are usually 100 x 75 timber and are either
firmly bolted to or dovetail housed into the top of the wall plates some 600 from the corner of
the building.
200x 38 ridge board
end of hipped rafters

cut & nailed to ridge board
200x50 hip rafter bearing 125x50jack rafters

on the wall plate
125 x 50 ceiling joists
100x75 wall plate
load bearing wall
Figure 18: hipped roof construction
Roof Ventilation
The limited capacity of air to hold moisture in the form of water vapour increases with
temperature. When the temperature of air falls, so does its capacity to hold moisture and the
surplus moisture is given up in the form of condensation. The air inside heated buildings
usually contains more water vapour than outside air and so has a higher vapour pressure which
creates a vapour drive from the area of high pressure inside the building to the out side through
56
the material of the roofs, so that warm moist air will penetrate the ceiling and insulation of
roofs and condense on cold surfaces inside the roof space due to condensation which will cause
corrosion of fixings and decay of timber.
To prevent an excessive built-up of moisture from condensation inside roofs, a cross ventilation
of roof spaces by vents not less than 0.3% of the roof plan area is required. This is done by
fixing ventilators either in the soffit of overhanging eaves incases of hipped roofs or on the
gable ends incase of gabled ends
Lamella Roof construction

A lamella roof is a curved roof similar in shape to one formed by the use of bowstring trusses,
but without the use of frame work of webs and lower chords found in truss roof. It does
however; provide clear spans of great width. It is formed by framing together a series of
intersecting arches made up of relatively short members called lamellas. They are made of 50-
100 material (steel or concrete), 3.6m to 4.9m long, beveled, bored with two holes at each end,
and bolted together.
A reinforced concrete lamella roof may be erected over a curved form made the width of the
building and the depth of one bay carried over movable scaffolds. The erection of the formwork
is begun from both sides at the sill and completed at the centre. The horizontal thrust developed
in this roof must be taken care of by tie rods, wooden ties, buttressed walls or wall columns.
The usual length of individual members is 3.6, 4.2 or 4.9 with arch spacing of approximately
1.2, 1.36 or 1.5 respectively. The angles between the intersecting lamellas should not exceed
450 and should preferably be between 380 and 400
Decking must be applied directly over the framework of the roof.
Folded plate roofs: A folded roof is another roof in which the roof slab has been formed in
thin, self supporting structure, usually made either of wood or concrete.
A concrete roof of this type can be made with precast panels or may be cast-in-situ. The rest of
the construction is like for flat roofs except in this case they are pitched and folded.
57
Lamella roof
lag screw
plate tie rod
bolt
Lamella joint
Figure 19: construction of a lamella roof.
Figure 20: Folded plate roof construction
Pitched Roof Coverings

The traditional covering for pitched roofs, plain clay tiles and natural slates, are much less used
than they were because they are comparatively expensive and the majority of pitched roofs of
new buildings are covered with single lap concrete tiles and mangalore tiles.
The small unit pitched roof coverings are single lap tiles, plain tiles and slates.
Single lap tiles
These are so shaped that they overlap the edges of adjacent tiles in each course. The overlap
prevents water entering the roof between adjacent tiles and in consequence the tiles can be laid
with a single end lap. The advantage of single lap tiling is that its weight per unit area is up to
40% less than that of plain tiling.
Plain tiles: These are flat rectangular roofing units of size 265 by 165 with holes for nailing
and nibs for hanging to batten. These tiles are laid double lap down the slope of the roof
because water running between the open joints between adjacent tiles runs on to the back of a
58
tile double lapped under the joint. A plain tile roof is generally heavier than a comparable
single lap tile roof.
Concrete roofing tiles: These are extensively used today as a substitute for good quality clay
tiles. They are manufactured from a mixture of carefully graded sand, and Portland cement
which is compressed in a mould and painted in different colours.
Clay roofing tiles: Clay can be excavated, moulded and burned without any expensive or
elaborate machinery and for years clay roofing tiles have been used in Uganda. There are hand
made clay tiles and machine pressed clay roofing tiles. Hands made roofing tiles are not so
good and usually have a lot of defects.
Mangalore clay roofing tiles (Uganda clay roofing tiles)
These are the single lap clay tiles. They differ from ordinary single lap tiles in that one or more
grooves exist in the vertical edges of the tiles. The tiles are machine pressed during the
manufacturing. They are hung on softwood battens of 50x38 and weighs 40kg per unit roof
area. Each unit has a weight of 2.5kg and there are 15 pieces in a square metre. The side laps
are usually 50 and the end laps are adjustable with a minimum of 62. Mangalore tiles are of
size 400x230.
In Uganda roofing timber is supplied in sizes of 150x50, 100x50, 100x 75, 75x50 and 250x 25
and 4.2m long.
Roof trusses.
The trusses for mangalore roofing tiles consists of principal rafters of double pieces of 100x50
at 1.8m centres with common rafters of the same size to that of the principal rafters in between
at a spacing of 600 centres. The main tie/ tie beams or ceiling joists are of 150 x 50 and the
purlins of the same size are used to transfer the loads from the common rafters to the principal
rafters. The tie beams are fixed to the legs of the principal rafters at the same centering. Struts
and ties are from 100 x50 timbers and the struts serves to transmit the load from the purlins to
the tie beams and onto the wall plates which are of size 100x75
59
38x200 ridge piece

100x50 tie
100x50 principal rafters at

1.8m c/c made of 2pcs of
rafters
joists at 1.8m centres 100x50 strut
100x75 wall plate
Figure 21: A typical principal trussed rafter
100x50principal rafter
38x50 timber battens

laid over plain sheets 150x50tie beam
100x75 wall plate
plain galv. sheet

metal
Figure 22: Detail of laying mangalore roofing tiles
Traditionally battens were laid on polythene supported by chicken wire mesh due high cost of
metal sheets. This was meant to prevent water escaping through the numerous joints to the
inside of the roof. Today the cost of galvanized plain sheets of lower gauges have come down
and with the coming up of many industries they are readily available in the local markets and as
a result most roofs in Uganda are now covered with plain iron sheets underneath the battens to
receive tiles. Battens of usually size 50x38 are fixed using wire nails at a margin of 312 to 338.
60
The tiles ate then hooked on the battens starting from down the eaves moving up the slope of
the roof to the ridge piece.
Ridge: Any one of the four standard sections of clay ridges may be used to cover the ridge.
Ridges are usually laid using mortar. It is economical to first pack the broken pieces of the tiles
around the ridge piece before applying the mortar.
Hips: Hips are laid the same way like the ridges. However to prevent the tiles from slipping
down the hip a galvanized iron or wrought-iron hip iron is fixed to the hip or fascia.
Read about:
Roofing slates, Pan Tiles, Spanish tiles, and Italian tiles especially the laying.
Timber Pitched Roofs in Sheet Metal Coverings

Various methods are used to make roofing sheets, two basic types are generally made:
corrugated and flat. Galvanized steel, aluminium and galbestos are all used to make corrugated
roofing sheets of varying width, depth and pattern of corrugation and allowable span,
depending on the gauge and material used.
Corrugated sheet metal roofing sheets are normally supported on wood or steel purlins properly
spaced according to the gauge of the metal and the roof load involved. Manufactures normally
give tables of unsupported length of the sheets depending on the gauges to guide roofers in
spacing the purlins.
There are two common laying orders for roofing sheets. Laying should start at the leeward end
of the building so that side laps will have better protection from wind driven rain. The top
edges of eave sheets should extend atleast 38 beyond the back of steel purlin and 75 beyond the
centre line of timber purlins. At side laps where edge corrugation of adjacent sheets is opposite
in direction, the under lapping side should finish with an upturn edge and overlapping side with
a down turned edge.
Sheets should extend atleast one corrugation over the gable and there should be 75 of over hang
at the eaves. End laps between sheets should generally be 150 and side laps of 1.5corrugations
but they may be increased to 225 and two corrugations for extreme conditions
Special nails with a ring or screw-type shank should be used for fastening corrugated sheets to
wood purlin. Nails should be driven at the top of corrugations, but care must be taken not to
61
drive them so far as to flatten the corrugation, thus preventing the next sheet from fitting
properly. Sheets are fastened to steel purlins with stain less self-tapping screws and aluminium
washers.
Steel Roof Trusses
Mild steel is much stronger than timber, it is more fire resisting and its sections can be readily
assembled to for comparatively simple connections. It is principally for these reasons that mild
steel is now employed extensively for roof trusses of small and medium spans and its supersede
of timber as a material for trusses of large span.
Steel for trusses of open (unceiled) roofs of certain buildings, well designed for large spans
with light weight members and satisfactory appearance, chiefly because of the small size of the
members and the simple joints are commonly in use. Mild steel trusses must be painted
periodically to prevent rusting.
A steel truss like the built-up truss is a triangulated structure. The principle rafters are
prevented from spreading by connecting their lower ends by a tie and strut and ties are provided
at intermediate points to afford adequate bracing. The struts should be kept as short as possible.
The centre line principle is adopted through out and thus the point of attachment of each purlin
coincides with the intersection of the axes of truss members. Secondary stresses such as
bending moments in the rafters are thereby avoided.
All the members of a modern metal roof truss are mild steel, and most, if not all should be of
angles. Angles effectively resist both compression and tension stresses; they can be
conveniently attached and the manufacturing process is more economical. Struts consist of
either single or double angles and the main consist of either one or two angles placed back to
back. Until comparatively recently, it was a common practice to use single or double flat bars
for the main tie, as they were suitable for resisting tension stresses, however, owing to wind
pressure and the abnormal strain imposed during the transportation and the erection of trusses,
members may be subjected to changes of stresses and flats will not resist compression. Flat
main therefore tend to become buckled. .if a ceiling is to be provided, ceiling joints can readily
be fixed to a main tie of double angles and this is an additional reason why they should be used
instead of flats.
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Connections
The members of a truss are connected together normally by means of:
a. Bolts and thin plates called gussets
b. welding
c. rivets ( not in common use)
The pitch of rivets is the distance between their centres and should not be less than 2.5
times the diametre of the bolts. The maximum pitch should not exceed 32t or 300mm. the
size of the bolts depends upon that of the members to be connected, thus 16mm diametre
bolts are commonly employed for angles and flats up to 60mm wide and 20mm diametre
bolts for larger members. When making a joint, a number, even if subjected to a small
stress, should be connected to a gusset by at least two bolts. If a member consists of double
angles, gussets are always placed between them.
Support to the trusses

Sound concrete pads of sufficient thickness and area must be provided to give reliable and level
bearing for the end of the truss and to receive the steel fixing bolts. The bolts are called ragged
bolts or ragged lewis bolts.
Fixing the roof coverings

Purlins are laid across the rafters to support the sheeting or tiles/slates (battens). The purlins can
be from timber members or metal angles or zed sections. The spacing of the purlins will depend
on the roof loading, the type of roof covering used and the spacing of the mild steel roof
trusses. Manufactures will recommend maximum centres appropriate to the roof coverings.
Traditionally a hook bolt was used to fix the sheeting, but this presented problems with water
proofing at the top of the bolts. Today an Oakley clip is fixed and adjusted inside the roof and
ensures a satisfactory water seal.
63
100x50 timber purlin
1
80x80x6 rafter L
1 x 50 x 6 strut L
65
1
65 x 50 x 6 ties L
1
65 x 50 x 6main tie L
6mm gusset
shoe
Figure 24: Typical trusses of upto 6m span and upto 3.7 c/c
175x100 purlin
1
80x80x6L.rafter
12mmdia.coach bolt
150x 150x10L.cleat 150long

rafter 1
65x60x6.L. Tie
80X80X10 150 X140X328Pad stone
L.cleats welded
to bearing plates
strut
Figure (a)section thru the strut Figure (b)section thru the pad stone
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150x 150x10L.cleat 150long
oakley clip
twin angle rafter Zed purlin
strut
Figure 26: showing the fixing of the roof covering on the zed purlin
Figure 25: details of

a steel truss connection to the strut and a section thru the pad stone.
65
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Windows and Doors

5.1 Windows
A Window is an opening formed in a wall or roof to admit daylight through some transparent
or translucent material fixed in the opening. The primary function of a window is served by a
sheet of glass fixed in a frame in the widow opening. This is a simple widow and is termed a
dead light window because no part can be opened.
As the window is part of the wall, it should serve the functional requirements of a wall like
exclusion of wind and rain, act as a barrier to excessive transfer of heat and sound and should
be fire resistant in the same way just like the surrounding wall and roof.
The function material of a window, glass, is efficient in admitting day light and excluding wind
and rain but is a poor barrier to the transfer of heat, sound and the spread of fire.
The traditional window is usually designed to ventilate rooms through one or more parts that
open to encourage an exchange of air between inside and outside. It is important to separate
windows from ventilations so that the window may be made more effectively wind and weather
tight and ventilation can be more accurately controlled.
Functional requirements
The primary function of a window is: admission of light. The secondary functions are: a view
and ventilation.
The functional requirements of a window as a component part of a wall or roof are:
 Strength and stiffness.
 Exclusion of wind and rain
 Thermal insulation
 Sound insulation
 Fire resistance
Strength and stiffness

A window should be strong enough when closed to resist the likely pressures and suctions due
to wind, and when open be strong and stiff enough to resist the effect of gale force winds on
opening lights. A window should be sufficiently strong and stiff against pressures and knocks
66
due to normal use and appear to be safe, particularly to occupants in high buildings. A window
should be securely fixed in the wall opening for security, weather tightness and the strength and
stiffness given by fixings.
Exclusion of wind and rain
Air tightness: to conserve heat and avoid cold draught it is good practice to design windows so
that there is little unnecessary leakage of air. Air movement through closed windows may occur
between the window frame and the surrounding wall, through cracks between glass and the
framing, through glazing joints and more particularly through clearance gaps between opening
lights and the window frame. Leakage around window frames, around glass and through
glazing joints can be avoided by care in design, construction and maintenance. The flow of air
through windows is caused by changes in pressure and suction caused by wind and may cause
draughts of in ward flowing cold air and loss of heat by excessive inflow of cold and outflow of
warm air. It is to control this air movement that systems checks rebates and weather stripping
are used in windows.
Exclusion of rain: Penetration of rain through cracks around opening lights, frames or glass
occurs when rain is driven on to vertical windows by wind so that the more the window is
exposed to driving rain, the greater the likely wood of Rain penetration. The performance of
windows in excluding rain is tested in the laboratory by throwing water in droplets, from
horizontally mounted jets, in a band some 50 deep at the head of the test window so that water
runs down the window face.
To minimize the penetration of driven rain through vertical windows the followings should be
done:
 Set the face of the window back from the wall face so that the projecting head and jamb
will to some extent give protection by dispersing rain
 Ensure that external horizontal surfaces below openings are as few and as narrow as
practicable to avoid water being driven into the gaps.
 Ensure that there are no open gaps around opening lights by the use of lapped and
rebated joints and that where there are narrow joints that may act as capillary paths
there may be capillary grooves.
67
 Restrict air penetration by means of weather stripping on the room side of the window
so that the pressure inside the joint is the same as that outside; a pressure difference
would drive water into the joint
 Ensure that any water entering the joints be drained to the outside by open drainage
channels that run to the outside.
Weather stripping: In modern window design weather stripping used depends on the opening
movement of the windows, compression strips being used for hinged and pivoted opening
lights and wiping sliding seals for sliding windows. The material used is resilient rubber
compounds in the form of compression strips and seals or nylon pile strip.
Thermal insulation
Unlike the wall around it a window, which is a component part of a wall, will affect internal
thermal comfort in two ways: by its transmittance of heat and through the penetration of the
radiant heat of the sun that causes solar heat gain.
Heat is transferred through a wall or window by conduction, convection and radiation.
Sound insulation
There is a considerable variation in the level and type of noise that different people can tolerate
without discomfort. In order to establish an acceptable noise level it is necessary to assume a
measure of sound level that corresponds to subjective judgment of noise.
The audible frequencies of sound are from about 20Hz to 20000Hz, where Hz represents the
unit hertz where one hertz is equal to one cycle per second.
Noise is the general term used for the subjective judgement of level of sound that is distracting
or uncomfortable and therefore unacceptable. Tolerable sound level depends on the activities of
those inside particular rooms and the general background level of sound within the room.
The transmission of sound through materials depends on their mass, the more dense or heavier
the material the more effective it is in reducing transmission of sound. The reduction of sound
transmission is termed sound insulation. Because of the thin material with which they are
glazed and the necessary clearance gaps around opening lights, windows afford poor insulation
against external noise. Open windows, as well as providing an obstructed path for intrusive
sound, may often serve to reflect external sounds into rooms. Insulation of a glass can be done
by use of thicker glass or doubling the glass. Doubling the glass by sealed double glazing is not
so effective. It is advisable to use double windows with two separate sheets 200 to 300 apart.
68
Fire resistance
Ordinary glass cracks and breaks within a few minutes when subjected to the heat generated by
fire. To limit the spread of fire, regulations require fire breaks to windows to limit the spread of
fire to adjacent buildings. Fire breaks are solid incombustible upstands or projections to
windows that serve as a barrier to the spread of fire. Wired glass also limits the spread of fire as
the broken glass will be held in place.
Day light
The prime function of a window is to admit daylight for day time activities in sufficient
quantity for efficient performance. The quantity of light admitted depends in general terms on
the size of the window or windows in relation to the area of the room lit and the depth inside
the room to which useful light will penetrate depends on the area of the window and the height
of the head of the window above floor level. Good sense dictates taking the maximum
advantage of this free source of illumination. The accepted minimum level of day light for
performance of various activities varies from ½ for bedrooms, 1 for living rooms to 6 for
drawing rooms, the figures given being the day light factor which is the percentage of day light
admitted through a window from the hemisphere of unobstructed sky. In a room with windows
on one long side with no external obstructions and a room surface reflectance of 40%, where
the glass area is 1/5th 0r 20% of the floor area, the average day light factor will be 4 and the
minimum half of 4.
Example: Determine the size of a window in a room measuring 4x3 with a daylight factor of 6.
Solution: Floor area…………………………………..12m 2
The average day light factor in side –lit rooms is roughly equal to 1/5 th of the percentage
ratio of glass to floor area.
Conversely required glass area = ………………………...6x12x5/100
………………………………. = 3.6 m 2
Window sizes say 2.4x1.5 or two windows of 1.2x1.5
Ventilation
For the comfort and well being of people it is necessary to ventilate rooms by allowing a
natural change of air between inside and outside and outside or to cause a change by
mechanical means. The necessary rate of change will depend on the activities and numbers of
69
those in the room. The total area of ventilation for any habitable room can be calculated as
1/20th of the floor area. The size of a ventilating opening, by itself, gives no clear indication of
the likely air change as the ventilating effect of an opening depends on air pressure difference
between inside and outside and the size of opening or openings through which air will be
evacuated to cause air flow.
Materials used for windows
The common materials for making windows are: Wood, steel, Stainless steel, aluminium,
bronze, and plastics
Wood: The traditional material used for making windows is wood, which is easy to work by
hand or machine, can readily be shaped for rebates, drips, grooves and mouldings, has a
favorable strength to weight ratio, and with good thermal properties.
The disadvantages of wood are the considerable moisture movement that occurs across the
grain with moderate moisture changes and liability to rot. The dimensional changes can make
the joints to open and admit water that increases the moisture content that can lead to rot.
Where windows are made of soft wood timber it should regularly be painted besides treatment
with preservatives. This is to avoid rot.
Steel
Steel section windows have been in use for quite a long time and it is gaining popularity over
timber windows. Steel windows often rust, and corrode there fore care must be taken by use of
zinc coating or regular painting. The advantage it has is the slender sections for both frame and
opening lights that are possible due to inherent strength and rigidity of the material. The
disadvantages are high thermal conductivity that makes the window framing act as a cold
bridge to the transfer of heat and the very necessary regular painting required to protect the
steel from rusting.
Aluminum
Aluminum windows are made from aluminum alloy of magnesium and silicon that is extruded
in channel and box sections with flanges and grooves for rebates and weather stripping.
Aluminum windows have adequate strength and stiffness with good resistance to corrosion and
can also be readily welded and brazed.
70
The advantages of aluminum windows are the variety of sections available for the production
of a wide range of window types, and the freedom from destructive corrosion.
The disadvantage is however the high thermal conductivity of the material which acts as a cold
bridge to heat transfer and aluminum window is relatively very expensive.
Stainless steel: It is made from an alloy of steel and chromium making it corrosion-resistant
and expensive. Because of its cost it is used in windows as a thin surface coating to other
materials such a wood and aluminum for its appearance and freedom from corrosion.
Bronze: Manganese brass is the material commonly used for bronze windows. The material is
rolled or extruded to form window sections. It has advantages of freedom from corrosion, high
strength to weight ratio, and attractive colour and texture of the material.
Plastics: This is the latest material to be used as windows with a particular advantage of being
maintenance free. The disadvantage of plastic is that it is less rigid than the wood or steel and
does not resist heat and fire.
Window types
Fixed light: A fixed light or dead light is a window opening in which one square, pane or sheet
of glass is fixed either directly to the wall structure or more usually to a frame which is in turn
fixed to the wall so that no part of the window will open.
Opening light: An opening light is the whole or part of parts of a window that can be opened
by being hinged or pivoted to the frame or can slide open inside the frame. Windows with
opening lights are classified in accordance with the manner in which the opening lights open
inside the frame as below
 Pivoted
 Hinged
 Sliding and
 Composite action
And as a broad classification as:
 Side hung, Top hung and Bottom hung
 Horizontally pivoted and vertically pivoted
 Vertically siding and horizontally sliding and sliding folding
71
side hung top hung bottom hung
horrizontally pivoted vert. pivoted

louvre
horrizontally sliding
vert sliding
Side hung: The traditional casement consists of a square or rectangular window frame of wood
with the opening light or casement hinged at one side of the frame to open in or out. The side
hung opening part of the window is termed the casement and it consist of glass surrounded and
supported by a wooden frame as below with a simple one light casement, opening out.
head
hinge
window frame
frame of casement
or sash glass
sill
post
casement hinged at
side to open out
Side hung casement window
The traditional casement is hinged to open outward. An outward opening casement can more
readily be made to exclude wind and rain than the one opening in as the casement is forced in
to the outward-facing rebate in the frame by wind pressure and the outward facing rebate is
more effective than the inward facing rebate.
72
Because casement is hinged on one side, its other side tends to sink, due to the weight of the
casement when it is open. If any appreciable sinking occurs the casement will bind in the
window frame and in time may be impossible to open. The wider the casement the greater its
weight and the more likely it is to sink. It is considered wise to construct casement of widths of
not more than 600. Where a window is wider than 600, you design more than one casement.
A window of two casements can be designed with the casements hinged so that when closed
they meet in the middle of the window. It is usually considered better to construct the window
frame with vertical wood members, called mullions, to which each casement closes to avoid
jamming of casements where they meet in the middle.
Because a casement does not provide close control of ventilation it is common to provide small
opening lights, called vent lights, which are usually hinged at the top to open out
head
head ventlight open

transom
hinge
hinge
frame of casement
or sash glass
mullion
glass glass
sill mullion
sill glass
casement hinged at
side to open out casement hinged at
side to open out
casements close to mullion
casements close to mullion
with ventlights
Casement windows with vent lights are usually designed so that the transom is above the
average eye level of people using the room (2.1m) for obvious reasons. The disadvantage of
casement window is that the casements, ventlights, mullions, and transoms reduce the possible
unobstructed area of glass and therefore day light through a window of any size and the many
clearances gaps around opening casements and ventlights and frame members emphasize the
problem of making the window weather tight.
Wood casement windows
For years wood casement windows have been the traditional windows for small buildings. To
provide adequate strength and stiffness in the frame, casements and ventlights of casement
windows and to accommodate rebates for casements and ventlights and for glazing, timber of
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adequate section has to be used and joined. The traditional joint used is the mortice and tenon
joint in which a protruding tenon, cut on the end of one section fits into a matching mortice on
the other, the joint being made secure with glue and wedges as below:
head
tenon
dead light
hinge
glass
mullion
sill mortice
wedge
casement hinged at
side to open out
casements with a dead light on one side style
and open ventlights

Where mass production of wood windows is expected, combed joints are used. This involves
interlocking tongues cut on the ends of members which are put together, glued and pinned.
A casement window frame consists of a head, two posts (jambs) and a sill joined with mortice
and tenon depending on the number of casements and ventlights.
Wood members
The members of a wood window frame are cut from 100x75 or 75x50 sawn timbers for the
head, posts and mullion and from 150x75 or 100x63 for sill and transom. Similarly the rails and
stiles of casements and ventlights are cut from 50x50 or 50x44 sawn timbers which are planed
(wrought) and whose finished sizes are about 45x45 or 39. The sawn timbers are planed smooth
(wrought) and this reduces their sizes by about 5mm on both sides.
Window frames
The members of the frame are joined with wedged mortice and tenon joints. The posts of the
frames are tenoned to the head and sill with the ends of the sill and head projecting some 40mm
or more each side of the frame as horns. These projecting horns can be built into the wall in the
74
jambs of openings or they may be cut off on sites if the frame is built in flush with the outside
of the wall. The reason for using a haunced tenon joint between posts and head is so that when
the horn is cut off there will be a complete mortice and tenon left.
Fixing windows
Wood window frames are usually built in to solid walls as the walls are raised. The other
method is to fix the window in position after the wall is built. Wood window frames are
secured in position in solid walls by means of galvanized steel cramps or lugs that are screwed
to the back of the frame and built into horizontal brick or block work as the wall is raised. The
spacing is the cramps should be between 300 and 450. The other approach is to do the finishing
according to the sizes of the frames and use raw bolts to fix them.
Casement: The four members of the casement are two stiles, top rail and bottom rail. The stiles
and top rail are cut from 50x44 timbers and the bottom rail from 75x44 timbers. The stiles and
rails are rebated fro glass and rounded or moulded on their inside edges for appearance sake.
The rails are tenoned to mortices in the stiles and put together in glue, cramped up and wedged
Ventlights: The four members are cut from the same timbers as the stiles of the casement and
are rebated, moulded and joined in the same way as for the casement.
Some standard wood casement sizes.
Heights Widths
900 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2400
1050
1200
1500
The manufactures of standard windows produce a range of standard windows. The advantage
of having standard windows is in the economy of mass production. In line with the move to
dimensionally co-ordinate building components and assemblies the standard range of windows
may fit with such allowances for tolerances and joints as appropriate. The purpose of
dimensional co-ordination is to rationalize the production of building components and
assemblies through the standardization of sizes within a frame work of basic spaces into which
the standard components and assemblies may fit.
Hinges and fasteners
75
Wood casements and ventlights are hung on standard steel butt hinges or on metal offset
hinges. The offset hinge is designed with the pin offset outside the window so that when the
casement is open there is a gap between the hinged edge of the casement and the frame wide
enough for access for cleaning the outside of glass from within the building.
Steel windows:
Steel casement windows are made either from standard Z-sections or the universal sections.
Steel casements are assembled by welding the joints.
Standard steel casements are made from the hot rolled steel Z-sections which are used both for
the frame, casement and ventlights. The section is cut to length and mitred and welded at the
corners. The assembled and cleaned parts of the window are then rust proofed by the hot dip,
galvanizing process in which the window parts are dipped in a bath of molten zinc.
Hinges and fasteners: Steel casement windows are fitted with steel butt or offset hinges and
lever catches and stay similar to those used for wood windows, the fittings being welded to
frame and casement.
Fixing steel windows
Standard steel windows are usually built in to openings in solid walls and secured with
building-in lugs or ties that are bolted to the back of the frames through a slot that allow
adjustment for building into horizontal brick or block courses.
Window sills
It is good practice to set the outside face of widows back from the outside face of the wall in
which they are set so that the reveals of the opening give some protection against driving rain.
Wind driven rain which will run down the impermeable surface of the window glass to the
bottom of the window should be run out from the window by some form of sill. The function of
an external sill is to conduct the water that runs down from windows, away from the window
and to cover the wall below the window and exclude rain from the window. The material from
which the sills are made should be sufficiently impermeable and durable to perform its function
during the life of the building. External sills are formed either as an integral part of the window
frame, as an attachment to the under side of the window or as a sub-sill, which is in effect a part
of the wall designed to serve as a sill.
The materials used for the construction of window sills are: natural stone, cast stone, concrete,
slates, tiles and bricks.
76
weathered window
sill with
a throat below
Section through a window

Glass and Glazing
Glass is made by heating soda, lime and sand to a temperature at which they melt and fuse.
Molten glass is drawn, cast, rolled or run onto a bed of molten tin to form flat glass. The
followings types of glass are in use in buildings:
Float glass, patterned glass, wired glass, toughened glass, clear sheet glass, polished plate glass,
double glazing units. Glass are manufactured in thicknesses of 3 to 19mm
Wind loading
Glass should be sufficiently thick in relation to its area to safely withstand wind pressure and
suction. The likely wind pressure depends on the exposure of the building and three grades of
exposure are defined as sheltered, moderate and severe
Glazing
The operation of fixing glass in windows, doors and openings is termed glazing. Glass must be
accurately cut to size to provide an edge clearance between the edges of the glass and the bed
of the rebate to allow for variations in the sash or frame and of the glass and to facilitate setting
the glass in position. An edge clearance of 2mm for putty glazing and 3 for other methods of
glazing for glass upto 6 thick and upto 5 for thicker glass must be made. To secure glass in the
glazing rebates with the requisite edge clearance all round, setting locks are placed below the
77
glass. The setting glass are made of pvc, hammered lead, hard nylon or hard wood from 25 to
150 long and of the same thickness as the edge clearance. The two common methods of glazing
are putty and bead glazing
5.20 DOORS
A door is a solid barrier to a doorway or opening that can be opened for access and closed to
deny access for privacy and security and serves as a thermal, acoustic and fire barrier as part of
an external wall.
A doorway is an opening in a wall or partition for access and a door frame or lining is the
timber or metallic or plastic frame or lining fixed in the doorway or opening to which the door
closes on hinges, pivots or runners
5.2 DOORS
Functional requirements
78
The primary function of a door is to provide access.

The secondary functions as a components part of a wall or partition are:
 Strength
 Shape stability
 Privacy
 Security
 Thermal insulation
 Sound insulation
 Fire resistance
 Exclusion of wind and rain as a part of an external wall.
Means of access
The operating characteristics of a door to serve this function depend on the weight of the door
itself and the hardware such as hinges and locks and fitments such as door closers fixed to the
door and frame and draught stripping which cause operating difficulties.
Door(s) leaf
The traditional domestic door is of one leaf which is hinged on one side to open in one
direction for the convenient entry or exit of people. Double-leaf, double swing, sliding, and
sliding and folding doors are also used for both domestic and other purposes. The word leaf
refers to the opening part of a door.
Doors are made of timber, aluminium, steel and plastics just like the windows
STANDARD DOORS
The standard size of door leaf are weight 2040, width 526, 626, 726, 826 and 926 for internal
doors and height 1994, width 806 and 906 for external doors and thickness 40 or 44. A door
set is a standard combination of door leaf with frame or lining and hinges and furniture packed
as a unit ready for fix.
Wood Doors:
Wood doors may be classified as:-
(i) Flush doors
(ii) Panelled doors
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(iii) Match boarded doors.
top rail
brace
stile
middle rail
panel
bottom rail
panelled door matchboarded door flush door
Flush Doors
The fashion in buildings has been for plain surfaces devoid of decorative mouldings that will
collect dust. Hence the use of flush doors which are surfaced with sheets of hardboard or
plywood fixed either to a cellular skeleton or solid core.
Cellular core flush doors:

These doors are made with cellular, fibreboard or paper core in a light softwood frame with
lockage blocks covered with plywood or hardboard both sides.
Skeleton frame flush doors:
In skeleton core flushed doors, a small section in timbers is constructed as illustrated above.
The main members of this structural core are stiles and rails, with intermediate rails.
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soft wood frame core strips glued together
lock block lock block
ply wood or hardboard ply wood or hardboard

facing glued to frame facing glued to frame
& cellular core & cellular core
Cellular core flush Skeleton frame Solid core Flush

door flush door door
Solid core flush doors:

Plywood and hardboard facings bonded to cellular or skeleton flush doors do not always remain
flat and waves on their surface may be apparent particularly if the door is painted with gloss
paint. A flush door with a solid core of timber, clipboard, flax board or compressed fibreboard
can be used for public buildings and other buildings with high levels of use externally and as
fire door. It has better thermal and acoustic properties than cellular core or skeleton core flush
doors.
Fire doors:
The term fire is used as a general description of all doors that serve to control the spread of fire
or the smoke and gases resulting from the fires in buildings. The term fire resisting is used
more specifically to describe a door, together with its frame, that has resistance to collapse,
flame penetration and excessive temperature rise for a stated period of time during fires.
Fire check door:
This most accurately describes the function of a fire door in checking the spread of fire for a
stated period of time.
Smoke control doors:
This accurately describes the purpose of fitting a door solely to check the spread of smoke:
Function
Most fires in buildings from small sources which develop quantities of smoke and other
combustion products in the early stage of the fire. Pressure differences may force smoke
81
through gaps around the door. As the fire develops and the temperatures rises on the effect of
the heat of the fire without collapsing and be capable of serving as a barrier to the spread of
excessive quantities of heat and hot gases
Construction
A range of wood doors has been tested to give fire resistance from 30 to 60 minutes. These
include skeleton-core flush with a plasterboard core and solid-core flush door with solid timber,
compressed, straw, chipboard, flax board or compressed fibre board strips. The resistance of a
door set to the spread of smoke and fire depends on the door frame and the door and its fittings.
Use of Intumescent Strip:
This is a material that swells when heated by foaming and expanding. The material is used
with aluminium or PVC cover strips fixed in rebates to the edges of the door or frames so that
in fires the Intumescent material expands and seals the gaps between the door and frame as a
barrier to the spread of smoke and fire. The seals incorporate a neoprene draught strip that
serves as a smoke seal in the early stages of a fire and Intumescent material acts as a seal
against the spread of fire in the later stages.
Hinges, locks and door closers:
For a door to be effective as a barrier to smoke and frame, it must be held securely in position
on its hinges and firmly on the closed position by the latch and be self closing for the period of
minutes specified for stability and integrity. The purpose three steel hinges are generally
recommended. The latch must be strong and engage the latch plate at least 10 to maintain the
door in the closed position.
Panelled Doors
Panelled doors are framed with stiles and rails around a panel or panels of wood or plywood.
The stiles and rails are cut from timbers of the same thickness and some of the more usual sizes
of timber used are; stiles and top rails 10038 or 10050; middle rail 17538 or 17550,
bottom rail 20038 or 20050. Because the door is hinged on one side to open, it tends to sink
on the lock stile. The stiles and rails have to be joined to resist the tendency of the door to sink
and the two types of joint used are a mortice and tenon joint or a dovetail joint.
Mortice and tenon joint:
82
This is the strongest type of joint used to frame members at right angles in joinery work. The
panels are usually jilted into stiles, rails and cramped after gluing and wedging around the
panels. For economy and mass production dowel joints should always be used.
Panels:
Timber panels, more than 250 wide are made up from boards 150 wide that are tongued
together. The term tongued describes the operation of jointing boards by cutting grooves in
their edges into which a thin tongue or feather of wood is cramped and glued.
Plywood:
This is made from three, five, seven or nine piles or thin layers of wood firmly glued together,
so that the long grain of one ply is at right angles to the grain of the plies to which it is boarded.
The most pronounced shrinkage in wood occurs at right angles to the long grain of the wood
and any shrinkage of the centre ply is resisted by the outer plies, hence the odd number of plies
used. Plywood does not shrink appreciably and because of the opposed long grains, it does not
warp or twist. The three plywood 5 or 6.5 mm thick is generally used for door panels.
Fixing panels:
This is done by fixing panel in the grooves cut in the edges of the stiles and rails. If any
shrinkage of the members of the door occurs, gaps will not appear around the panels. A panel
set in grooves to stiles and rails with square edges may leave an unfinished look which can be
modified by cutting mouldings on the edges of the members. An inferior method of fixing
panels is to plat nail timber beads each side of the panel.
Double swing doors
Doors are hunged to swing both ways to provide ready access to and from parts of buildings
used in common by the occupants and users at points where it is convenient to provide an
opening barrier, for example from halls to corridors, to provide some separation of the public
and the more private parts of the building. These doors, which are liable to heavy use, are
usually constructed as panelled doors with a glazed panel at eye level to prevent accidents due
to simultaneous use for each side. The door leaf is hung either on double action hinges or
pivoted on a double-action floor spring and top pivot
Sliding and sliding folding doors
83
Sliding doors are designed for intermittent use to provide either a clear opening or a barrier
between adjacent rooms or spaces to accommodate change use or function, and in narrow
spaces to avoid the obstruction caused by hinged leaf. They are also designed for intermittent
use to provide a larger opening than is practical with sliding doors, and to divide large spaces
into smaller by closing back to one by opening.
Matchboarded doors
Matchboarded doors are made with a facing of tongued, grooved and V-jointed boards fixe3d
vertically to either ledges and braces or a frame. These doors are used for cellars, sheds and
stores where the appearance of the door is not important.
Ledged Matchboarded door. Matchboarding is nailed to horizontal ledges directly. The direct
nailing does not strongly frame the door which is liable to sinking and losing shape.
Ledged and braced Matchboarded: This type of door is strengthened against sinking with
braces between the rails and is fixed at an angle to resist sinking on the lock edge. The braces
are nailed to the boarding
Framed and braced Matchboarded door: the match boarding is fixed to a frame of stiles and
rails that are framed with mortice and tenon joints with braces to strengthen the door against
sinkin
matchboarding 25, T&G, V-joint

both sides matchboarding 25, T&G, V-joint
both sides
150
ledge 100x32 ledge 150x25
matchboarding
sitle 100x50
nailed to ledges
ledge 150x25
brace 100x25
ledge 150x32 ledge 150x25

ledge 150x32
Ledged martchboarded door Ledged & braced martchboarded door Framed, braced & martchboarded door
Hardware for doors

Hardware is the general term for the hinges, locks latches and handles for a door. Ironmongery
was a term used when most of these were made of steel or iron.
Examples of hinges are; pressed steel butt hinges, cast iron butt hinges, brass butt hinges, steel
skew butt hinges, hook and band hinges. Read about them
84
Latches and locks

The word latch is used to describe any wood or metal device which is attached to a door or
window to keep it closed and which can be opened by the movement of the latch operated by a
handle, lever or bar, a lock is any device of wood or metal attached to a door which can be used
to keep it closed by application of a loose key. Examples of locks are mortice locks, rim lock
and mortice dead lock.
Door frames and linings
A door frame is a surround in a door way or opening, to which the door is hung and to which it
closes, which sufficient strength in itself to support the weight of the door. A door lining is a
surround inside a door way or opening , as wide as the reveal of the opening, to which the door
is hung and closes, which is not in itself strong enough to support the weight of the door
without support from the surrounding wall or partition. Door frames and linings maybe made of
wood, metal or plastic.
Wood door frames
A door frame consists of three or four members which are either rebated 13mm deep for the
door or a wood stop 13mm is planted to the frame. A frame consists of two posts and a head
member and may also have the fourth member, a threshold or sill to assist in weather exclusion.
head 100 x 75
Ends of head project 100 as horns for

building in the wall
100
posts of frame 100 x 75 rebate

for door
50
13
40/44
section through the post
85
Dowels
Door frames that do not have a threshold or sill are often secured to the floor by a mild steel
dowel, 12mm diametre and 50 long that is driven into the foot of the posts and set the concrete
floor.
Fixing door frames
Door frames are usually built in, which describes the operation of building walls or partitions
around the frame. The frame is secured onto the walls with L-shaped galvanized steel building-
in lugs which are screwed to the back of the frames. Frames are also fixed in by screwing in
through to wood plugs fitted in the walls during finishing
Threshold or sill
A wood sill to an external door is usually of some wood, such as oak, and the sill is joined to
the posts of the frame with haunced mortice and tenon joints. The sill is usually wider than the
frame and is rebated for the door 13 deep for an outward opening door and grooved for water
bar for an inward opening door and weathered and throated.
Standard wood door frames and door sets
There are no generally available standard wood door frames and linings for standard doors.
Manufacturers offer standard frames for standard doors of sections from ex. 104x64 to ex
89x64, rebated for doors with co-ordinating dimensions of frame, 900, 1000, 1200, 1500, 1800,
2100 wide and 2100 high.
Metal door frames
These are manufactured from mild steel strip pressed into one of the three standard profiles.
The same profile is used for head and jambs of the frame. The three pressed steel members are
welded together at angles. Two loose pin butt hinges are welded to one jamb of the frame and
an adjustable lock strike plate to the other. Two rubber buffers are fitted into the rebate of the
jambs to which the door closes to cushion the impact sound of the door closing. Metal door
frames are built in and secured with adjustable metal building in lugs. The frames may be used
externally or internally.
86
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 Temporary Works
Temporary work refers to any construction activity which is not a permanent part of the
structure. These are works which are carried out as a means or process of executing the
permanent work. It can also be called ‘false works’.
3.10 scaffolds
This is a temporary structure which provides access on or from which persons work or that is
used to support materials or equipment.
Basic requirements
Where work can not be safely done from the ground level, any part of the permanent structure,
scaffolds can bear on the ground, anchored on the permanent structure from up down wards or
cantilevered
Objectives
 You should be able to identify the different members of a scaffold
 Know the types of scaffolds
 Know how to erect and strip a scaffold
Characteristics of false works
 False works are normally designed for short term loading
 Has no visual requirement
 Often dismantled under load
 The materials can be second hand
 Does not need much skill in erecting
 Made up of numerous small components usually assembled by simple connections
 Alterations are inevitable.
Problems associated with scaffolds:

 It often overturns due to light weight members
 Usually unstable
 Has a high windage surface on the top
 Scaffolds are given scan attention
87
Types of scaffolds
Independent scaffold
Builders or put-log scaffold
Towers
Independent scaffolds: An independent scaffold stand on its own without getting support from
the structure being constructed.
guard
rail
ledgers
boarded platform standard
toe board
cross braces
transom transom
base plate 150x150 base plate 150x150
sole plate sole plate
independent scaffold buider's scaffold
Figure 1 Independent scaffolds and Put-log scaffold

When assembling metallic props fittings and couplers are used. The members tying them
horizontally are called laces.
Standard: This is a vertical or near vertical tube that transmits loads to the foundation (base
plate) and onto a sole plate. It is usually of size 48.3mm and 4mm thick.
Ledger: It is a longitudinal tube normally fixed parallel to the face of the building in the
direction of the larger dimension of the scaffolds. It acts as a support for the put logs and
transoms and frequently for the tie tubes and ledger braces. They are usually joined to adjacent
standards.
Braces: This is a tube fixed diagonally and with a tolerance of 25mm in 2m. They should not
be fitted to touch the grounds. It prevents lateral movements. They are fixed diagonally with
88
respect to the vertical and horizontal members to accord stability. They are usually cross and
longitudinal bracings.
Tie or tie assembly
This is a system of tubes attached to anchorage on buildings or framed around part of it or
wedged or screwed into it with a tie tube; used to secure the scaffold to the structure
bridle
A tie assembly through a wall. A tie assembly through a

window
Figure 2 Tie assembly

Care must be taken to ensure the wall above is in compression or it should have a beam to
support the tie system otherwise the wall might collapse outwards.
Bridle: This is a horizontal tube fixed across an opening or parallel to the face of a building to
support the inner end of a put log, transom or a tie tube.
Guard rail: A member incorporated into the scaffolding system to prevent the fall of a person
from a flat form or access way.
Most scaffolds should be atleast one board (300) from the building
Buttresses: These are used to add on lateral rigidity and especially when the height is going
higher for independent scaffolds.
Ladders: These are used to access the scaffolds and should always go above the working plat
form atleast 1070mm to enhance easy climbing
Lift: This is the distance from a ledger to ledger and should always be atleast 2.0 to
accommodate a person working.
Bay length: This is the centre to centre of standards and are usually 1.5 to 1.5m
89
Nets, fans or sheets should always be incorporated to prevent particles from flying off and
disrupting the pubic from normal operation around the site and also allow operatives to
concentrate.
Independent tied scaffolds are sometimes called double scaffolds and can be classified into
three according to their use.
The working platform: This is where workers stand to execute the works. It is where the
materials for the days work are also kept. Platforms for walkway is usually 630wide, for
materials and walkway 830mmwide (4boards) and if barrows are used then add 200 to the four
boards. It is usual to use 5boards
Types of scaffolds Purpose
For painting or cleaning faces of
Light duty buildings. Only one platform used at
a time.
To provide upto four working

platforms in use at any one time.
General purpose Maximum load per platform is
180kg/m2
Heavy duty Has two heavy duty platforms& two

working platforms with maximum
load of 290kg/m2
guard rail
toe board
transom longitudinal bracing
ledger
base plate
standard
sole plate
This is called longitudinal bracing. The angle of the raker

should be at 45 degrees and up to full height of the scaffold
Figure 3 Elevation showing the different components
90
The load on the standards needs to be spread over a sufficient area of ground to avoid
settlement. This is achieved by using a scaffolding fitting called a base plate and a timber sole
plate as seen from the above figure.
A builder’s scaffold is usually made up of a single line of standards; as a result it gets its
support from the structure being erected as seen from the sketch.
It is important to introduce members called laces at some intervals on the standards to reduce
the effective heights.
Safety considerations when using scaffolds
 After the erection, the scaffolds should always be checked for any false like missing
components, settlement etc.
 Materials should not be thrown down or up
 Materials should be heaped close to the standards
 If any member is to be dismantle temporarily, it should first be braced
 The loading should always be axially done
Hoist: This is a power operated means of delivering or transporting workers and materials to
the work points
A hoist is composed of:
 A gate at every platform
 Lift
 A cage were workers and materials are loaded for transporting
Differences between a temporary work and permanent works

Temporary works Permanent works
Short term loading Permanent loading
No visual beauty is required Appearance very important
Dismantled under load Needs skilled labour
Second hand materials No part can be dismantled under load
Does not require skilled labour Materials are usually first hand
Alterations are inevitable
Read about:
1. Tower scaffolds
91
2. Cantilever scaffolds
3. Trussed scaffolds
6.1: Formworks
Definition: A formwork is a container within which in-situ concrete is cast. The purpose is to
contain freshly placed concrete until it has gained sufficient strength to resist superimposed
loads, frost damage and mechanical damages. Formwork also helps to produce the desired
shape and finish to the concrete member
The principle of construction of formworks must revolve around the following requirements
1. Strength: Formwork must be sufficiently strong to support the loads imposed during
placing and curing concrete. These loads will be dead load of the fresh concrete and the
dead load of formwork. It should also contain the live loads due operatives, mechanical
compaction and tools and equipment. Formworks should be tight fitted and to the required
tolerance. These tolerances are usually given in the specifications for the work. Economics
dictates that the shapes of the members be the same allowing the formwork to be reused.
The sequence of re-using formwork is as below:
I. Position steel reinforcement or position formwork
II. Check for alignment, plumb and tolerance
III. Concrete member
IV. Cure concrete
V. Support until concrete achieves required strength
VI. Strike formwork
VII. Clean and re-use.
2. Durability: It should withstand adverse conditions for the expected period of use
3. Impermeability: The material should be impermeable to avoid the lost of water.
4. Surface finish: The finish required to the concrete can affect the cost considerably.
Formwork should be able to produce the desired finish on the surface. There is direct
finishing after formwork is removed, indirect finishing where some portions of the concrete
is removed to say expose coarse aggregates as desired and secondary finishing where
concrete is added say by rough casting after striking formwork.
5. Cost: Cheapness must be in consistence with quality and this can be achieved by re-use of
standard stock.
92
6. Economy: Consider the re-use value without cutting unnecessary waste.

7. Ease of fixing and striking: consider the problem of striking without damaging the
concrete and the formwork. Formwork must be easy to assemble and dismantle
Materials from which formworks are made:
Timber, steel, plastics, rubber, plywood, fibre glass, plaster of Paris, aluminium, iron sheets
Timber formwork
This is the most commonly used and is divided into hardwood and softwood.
Softwood is the most commonly used for formwork because it is cheaper than hardwood. The
softwoods used are kirundu, Cyprus, pines, etc. Besides being cheap they are soft and hence
easily worked.
Formwork to columns:
chemical releasing agent

coated on sheeting
adjustible props
starter bar
softwood 50mm conc kicker

framing
wt of conc. + vibration
trnasfered to sheeting
plan of column
column elevation
Figure 6.4 Column Formwork

The weight of wet concrete plus the equipment and vibration load has to be supported.
Column forms are often subjected to a much greater lateral pressure than wall forms because of
their comparatively small cross-section and relatively high rates of placement.
It is therefore necessary to provide tight joints and strong tie support. Some means of accurately
locating column forms, anchoring them at their base, and keeping them in a vertical position
93
are also prime considerations. Where possible a clean out opening should be provided at the
bottom of columns so that debris may be removed before pouring begins. Windows are often
built into one side of tall column forms to allow the placing of concrete in the bottom half of
the form without having to it from the top. Columns may be square, rectangular, round, or
irregular, and forms may be of wood, steel or fibreboard
Factors which influences the pressure of concrete on the formwork:
 Density of concrete
 Depth of concrete
 Workability of the mix
 Rate of placing
 Concrete temperature
 Height of lift
 Section of the formwork
 Type of cement used
Positioning the formwork:

The starter bars usually go through the slab, but should not be used for alignment. A concrete
kicker is first cast and then the formwork is erected tight up to the kicker. Before the formwork
is erected the release agent is applied either by brush or spray. To keep the formwork tight
together to prevent shape distortion and loss of cement slurry a steel cramp can be used. The
columns should be kept plumb and this is done by the use of steel adjustable props or pull-push
props. A tie piece can also be used. A tie has the following functions:
a) It fixes two sides together
b) Holds two parts away from each other
c) Anchor one side only
d) Provides anchorage for the next lift
e) Resist shear stresses.
There are two types of ties: Non-recoverable and Recoverable tie. A yoke can also be used to
do the same thing.
The weight of the concrete will depend on the rate of pour. In columns we normally fill the
concrete to column full height, whereas in a wall we would fill or pour the concrete in lifts.
94
Column formwork should always be checked for tightness, alignment and plumb prior to
concreting. The steel reinforcement should always have sufficient concrete cover of atleast
20mm.
Curing concrete: Concrete hardens by a process called hydration. As water evaporates voids
are created in the setting concrete. It is the extent to which these voids are filled with silicate
gel that determines the strength, durability and density of concrete. As active hydration takes
place in the first few hours after placing fresh concrete, it is important for water to be retained
during an extended period, this is called curing.
The rate of evaporation from unprotected area will be higher when; the relative humidity, Wind
speed and the concrete temperature is high or not uniform
Generally concrete curing refers to the act of controlling the concrete temperature and water
content in the concrete for a definite period of time after placing. The time for curing concrete
depends on:
a. Air temperature
b. Shuttering material
c. Concrete temperature
d. Thermal insulation of the curing material
e. Size of pour
Optimum concrete temperature is 200c
The length of hydration of the cement and therefore the rate of hardening of the concrete
depends on temperature and moisture available. The duration of controlled curing is important.
95
100x50timber bearers
Formwork
Brace wall(200x25)
Cleat
Gravel
Forming top of a trench simple footing form

Form braced against excavtion
Figure6.5. Footing Forms

There are usually two factors of prime importance to consider in the construction of footings.
One is that the concrete must be upto specified strength and the other that the footings be
positioned according to plan.
A certain amount of tolerance is allowed in footing size and thickness, but reinforcing bars and
dowels must be placed as specified. Concrete is can sometime be cast against the excavation,
but care must be taken that this does not give inferior results, caused by the earth absorbing
water from the concrete or by pieces of earth falling into it.
In cases where wall footings are shallow, lateral pressure is small and the forms are simple
structures as seen in the figure above. When the soil is firm, the form can be held in place by
stakes and braces. If the soil will hold stakes, the forms may be secured by bracing them
against the excavation sides only.
Formwork for beams
spacer
form side ledgers
kicker
brace (Shore)
100x50stud
bearer
sofit
prop
Formwork for a beam
Figure 3.6. Section through a beam formwork
96
6.3: Timbering to excavations: This is the support given to the sides of excavation to protect
soil collapsing inwards, people falling in. It includes the covering of trenches or forming a
barrier to warn people. By regulation any excavation exceeding 1.5m should have the sides
supported. Timbering should be inspected everyday and after every shift.
Some form of record should be kept especially when using explosives for excavation.
100x100 waling 100x100 waling
100x100 strut
closed boarding used in loose open boarding used in

soil semi-closed boarding firm soil
Figure 6. 7. The different methods of timbering

The choice of the type and size of boarding depends on the nature of the soil and depth of
excavation
Sheet piles
These are temporary structures used in place of timbering
Advantages of sheet piling
 Higher efficiency and speed in erection
 Driven before excavation commences
 Re-used
 No strutting required
Precautions taken during excavation:
 Proper access to excavation
 Escape route/ provision be allowed
 Ventilation
 Warning signs should be installed
97
cantilevered sheet pile anchored sheet pile
Figure 3. 8 Sheet piling

Form treatment, care and removal
In nearly all types of building construction, formwork constitutes a significant part of the cost
of the building. In order to keep this cost at a minimum, forms are often made reusable, either
wholly or in part. They must therefore be designed so that removal is simple and can be
accomplished without damage to the form sections. Care must be taken in handling and storing
these units so they will not be broken or damaged and will be available for re-use. In order to
facilitate removal, form faces must be treated to prevent concrete from adhering to them. A
number of materials are available for this purpose usually consisting of liquids which are to be
brushed or sprayed on the form. Wooden forms must be treated to minimize absorption of
water. Oil is one material used for this purpose. Form sealers which coat the surface of the form
with an impervious film are also used for this type of treatment. Form removal must be carried
out without damaging either the forms or the structure being stripped. Levers should not be
used against the concrete to pry forms away because green concrete is relatively easy to
damage.
98

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION NOTES

1.1 Functional Requirements

The characteristics of a soil that affect its behaviour as a foundation are:

Figure showing heaving of the soil

• To determine the nature, past use, and condition of the site.

The various methods of site exploration may be grouped as follow:

1. Open Excavation (Open Trial Pits)

(iv) Percussion boring

(i) Auger boring

(iii) Wash boring

Electrical Resistivity Method

Choice of Exploration Method

Soil Samples and Samplers

 Movement of ground water and uplift pressure

Foundations may broadly be classified under two heads:

As earlier mentioned, foundations may be classified as:

strip foundation pad foundation raft foundation

reinforced conc fdn

2.0 Solid Concrete Ground Floors

2.2 Elements of solid concrete ground floors

atleast 600 sub-grade( can be

Figure 2.1 Section through a solid ground concrete floor

mono-pitch with sloping soffit butterfly roof

Figure 1 Sketches of the different pitched roofs

4.2. FLAT ROOFS

 Availability of materials and equipment

4.2. 1Timber flat roof construction:

100 x 75 wall plates

19mm timber boarding

100 x 75 wall plate or

19mm timber boarding

100 x 75wall plate on

wall plate resting on the inner wall of a cavity wall construction

19mm timber boarding

100 x 75 wall plate on

Figure 5. Timber joists on wall plates supported by steel corbel brackets

cavity insulation carried

100 x 75 wall plate

Figure 6. joists end on cavity walls

tapered firing piece nailed

Figure 7. Timber firring

Monolithic Reinforced concrete roof

insulating lining fixed to

Figure 8. Reinforced concrete roof

4.3. FLAT ROOF COVERINGS:

4.3.1 Built-up bitumen felt:

non-ferrous sheet metal flashing built into wall and

3-layers of roofing felt

Figure 9. Parapet wall

Figure 9. Treatment at eaves and verges

non-ferrous sheet metal flashing built into wall and

3-layers of roofing felt

Hipped end Gable end

3.5max 4.5max 5.5max

couple roof collar roof closed couple roof

100 x50 ties and struts

150 x 50 tie beams

A typical trussed rafter

50x25 bracket nailed to rafter

FIGURE 14 DETAIL OF CLOSED EAVES CONSTRUCTION

200 x 32-50 ridge board

100 x 75 wall plate

FIGURE 15: A typical trussed rafter for span upto 7.5