Uncerta - Pressure - May 2013 - Part1 - Introd

Ministry Of Scientific Research
National Institute for Standard ( NIS )

Mass, Density and Pressure laboratory
SI System of units
An accurate and consistent system of measurement is the foundation of a
healthy economy. In the United States, a carpenter pays for lumber by the
board-foot, while a motorist buys gasoline by the gallon, and a jeweler
sells gold by the ounce. Land is sold by the acre, fruits and vegetables are
sold by the pound, and electric cable is sold by the yard. Without a
consistent, honest system of measurement, world trade would be thrown
into chaos.
Throughout history, buyers and sellers have tried to defraud each other by
inaccurately representing the quantity of the product exchanged. From
ancient times to the present there has been a need for measuring things
accurately.
When the ancient Egyptians built monuments like the pyramids, they
measured the stones they cut using body dimensions every worker could
relate to. Small distances were measured in "digits" (the width of a finger)
and longer distances in "cubits" (the length from the tip of the elbow to the
tip of the middle finger; 1 cubit = 28 digits). The Romans were famous
road builders and measured distances in "paces" (1 pace = two steps).
Archaeologists have uncovered ancient Roman roads and found "mile"-
stones marking each 1000 paces (mil is Latin for 1000). The Danes were
a seafaring people and particularly interested in knowing the depth of
Tersa Street, El-Haram, El-Giza - EGYPT Box: 136 Giza Code No. 12211
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water in shipping channels. They measured soundings in "fathoms" (the

distance from the tip of the middle finger on one hand to the tip of the
middle finger on the other) so navigators could easily visualize how much
clearance their boats would have. In England distances were defined with
reference to body features of the king. A "yard" was the circumference of
his waist, an "inch" was the width of his thumb, and a "foot" the length of
his foot. English farmers, however, estimated lengths in something they
could more easily relate to: "furlongs", the length of an average plowed
furrow.
As various cultures emigrated to England, they brought with them their
various measurement systems. Today, the English or Customary system
reflects the variety of different measurement systems from which it
originated. There are, for example, many units in which distance can be
measured in the Customary system, but they bear no logical relationship to
each other:
1 statute mile = 0.8688 nautical miles = 1,760 yards = 320 rods = 8

furlongs =5280 feet = 63360 inches = 880 fathoms = 15840 hands
Many English units are specific to certain professions or trades. A sea

captain reports distances in nautical miles and depths in fathoms, while a
horse trainer measures height in hands and distance in furlongs.
Unfortunately, most people have no idea what nautical miles, fathoms,
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hands, or furlongs are because they only use the more common measures
of miles, yards, inches.
The early English settlers brought the Customary system of measurement
with them to the American colonies. Although the Customary system is
still widely used in America, scientists prefer to use the metric system.
Unlike the English (Customary) system, the metric system did not evolve
from a variety of ancient measurement systems, but was a logical,
simplified system developed in Europe during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. The metric system is now the mandatory system of
measurement in every country of the world except the United States,
Liberia and Burma (Myanmar).
In 1960, an international conference was called to standardize the
metric system. The international System of Units (SI) was established in
which all units of measurement are based upon seven base units: meter
(distance), kilogram (mass), second (time), ampere (electrical current),
Kelvin (temperature), mole (quantity), and candela (luminous intensity).
The metric system simplifies measurement by using a single base unit for
each quantity and by establishing decimal relationships among the various
units of that same quantity. For example, the meter is the base unit of
length and other necessary units are simple multiples or sub-multiples:
1 meter = 0.001 kilometer = 1,000 millimeters =1,000,000 micrometers =

1,000,000,000 nanometers
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In 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted

the International System of measurement (SI) and assigned base units for
each physical quantity. The following table shows some common
physical quantities and their SI units. The first 7 (bold type) are the seven
fundamental units while the remaining units are derived from these.
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symbol SI measurement units symbol unit dimensions

distance d meter m m
mass m kilogram kg kg
time t second s s
electric charge* Q coulomb C C
temperature T Kelvin K K
amount of substance n mole mol mol
luminous intensity I candela cd cd
acceleration a meter per second squared m/s2 m/s2
area A square meter m2 m2
capacitance C farad F C2.s2/kg.m2
concentration [C] molar M mol/m3
3
density D kilogram per cubic meter kg/m kg/m3
electric current I ampere A C/s
electric field intensity E newton per coulomb N/C kg m/C.s2
.
electric resistance R ohm  kg.m2/C2.s

emf  volt V kg.m2/C.s2
energy E joule J kg.m2/s2
force F newton N kg.m/s2
frequency f hertz Hz s-1
. 2 2
heat Q joule J kg m /s
illumination E lux (lumen per square meter) lx cd/m2
inductance L henry H kg.m2/C2
magnetic flux  weber Wb kg.m2/C.s
potential difference V volt V kg.m2/C.s2
power P watt W kg.m2/s3
pressure p pascal (newton per square Pa kg/m.s2
meter)
velocity v meter per second m/s m/s
volume V cubic meter m3 m3
. 2 2
work W joule J kg m /s
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Tables of Units of Mass Measurement
In the metric system of measurement, designations of multiples and subdivisions of

any unit may be arrived at by combining with the name of the unit the prefixes deka,
hecto, and kilo meaning, respectively, 10, 100, and 1 000, and deci, centi, and milli,
meaning, respectively, one-tenth, one-hundredth, and one- thousandth. The following
prefixes have been introduced and these are now generally recognized:
yotta, (Y) meaning 1024 deci, (d), meaning 10-1

zetta, (Z), meaning 1021 centi, (c), meaning 10-2
exa, (E), meaning 1018 milli, (m), meaning 10-3
peta, (P), meaning 1015 micro, (µ), meaning 10-6
tera, (T), meaning 1012 nano, (n), meaning 10-9
giga, (G), meaning 109 pico, (p), meaning 10-12
mega, (M), meaning 106 femto, (f), meaning 10-15
kilo, (k), meaning 103 atto, (a), meaning 10-18
hecto, (h), meaning 102 zepto, (z), meaning 10-21
deka, (da), meaning 101 yocto, (y), meaning 10-24
Units of Mass
10 milligrams (mg) = 1 centigram (cg)

10 centigrams = 1 decigram (dg) = 100 milligrams
10 decigrams = 1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams
10 grams = 1 dekagram (dag)
10 dekagrams = 1 hectogram (hg) = 100 grams
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams
1000 kilograms = 1 megagram (Mg) or 1 metric ton(t)
1
Avoirdupois Units of Mass
[The "grain" (gr) is the same in avoirdupois, troy, and apothecaries units of mass.]
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27-11/32 grains = 1 dram (dr)

16 drams = 1 ounce (oz)
= 437-1/2 grains
16 ounces = 1 pound (lb)
= 256 drams
= 7000 grains
100 pounds = 1 hundredweight (cwt)2
20 hundredweights = 1 ton
= 2000 pounds7
In "gross" or "long" measure, the following values are recognized:
112 pounds = 1 gross or long hundredweight 7

20 gross or long hundredweights= 1 gross or long ton
= 2240 pounds7
Troy Units of Mass
[The "grain" is the same in avoirdupois, troy, and apothecaries units of mass.]
24 grains = 1 pennyweight (dwt)

20 pennyweights = 1 ounce troy (oz t)= 480 grains
12 ounces troy = 1 pound troy (lb t)
= 240 pennyweights = 5760 grains
Apothecaries Units of Mass
[The "grain" is the same in avoirdupois, troy, and apothecaries units of mass.]
20 grains = 1 scruple (s ap or ℈ )
3 scruples = 1 dram apothecaries (dr ap or ʒ)
= 60 grains
8 drams apothecaries = 1 ounce apothecaries (oz ap or ℥)
= 24 scruples = 480 grains
12 ounces apothecaries = 1 pound apothecaries (lb ap)
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= 96 drams apothecaries
= 288 scruples = 5760 grains
The table of British avoirdupois mass is the same as the United States table up to 1
pound; above that point the table reads:
14 pounds = 1 stone
2 stones = 1 quarter = 28 pounds
4 quarters = 1 hundredweight = 112 pounds
20 hundredweight = 1 ton = 2240 pounds
Units of Mass Not Less Than Avoirdupois Ounces (all underlined figures are exact)
Units Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Short Short tons

Ounces Pounds Hundred-
weights
1 avoirdupois ounce = 1 0.0625 0.000 625 0.000 031 25
1 avoirdupois pound = 16 1 0.01 0.000 5
1 short hundredweight = 1600 100 1 0.05
1 short ton = 32 000 2000 20 1

1 long ton = 35 840 2240 22.4 1.12
1 kilogram = 35.273 96 2.204 623 0.022 046 23 0.001 102 311
1 metric ton = 35 273.96 2204.623 22.046 23 1.102 311
Units Long Tons Kilograms Metric Tons

1 avoirdupois ounce = 0.000 027 901 79 0.028 349 523 125 0.000028349523 125
1 avoirdupois pound = 0.000 446 428 6 0.453 592 37 0.000 453 592 37
1 short hundredweight = 0.044 642 86 45.359 237 0.045 359 237
1 short ton = 0.892 857 1 907.184 74 0.907 184 74
1 long ton = 1 1016.046 908 8 1.016 046 908 8
1 kilogram = 0.000 984 206 5 1 0.001
1 metric ton = 0.984 206 5 1000 1
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Units of Mass Not Greater Than Pounds and Kilograms

(all underlined figures are exact)
Units Grains Apothecaries Pennyweights Avoirdupois
Scruples Drams
1 grain = 1 0.05 0.04166667 0.03657143
1 apoth. Scruple = 20 1 0.8333333 0.7314286
1 pennyweight = 24 1.2 1 0.8777143
1 avdp. dram = 27.34375 1.3671875 1.139323 1
1 apoth. dram = 60 3 2.5 2.194286
1 avdp. ounce = 437.5 21.875 18.229 17 16
1 apoth. or troy oz. = 480 24 20 17.55429
1 apoth. or troy pound = 5760 288 240 210.6514
1 avdp. pound = 7000 350 291.6667 256

1 milligram = 0.01543236 0.0007716179 0.0006430149 0.0005643834
1 gram = 15.43236 0.7716179 0.6430149 0.5643834
1 kilogram = 1543236 771.6179 643.014 9 564.383 4
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Units Apothecaries Avoirdupois Apothecaries or Apothecaries or

Drams Ounces Troy Ounces Troy Pounds
1 grain = 0.016 666 67 0.002 285 714 0.002 083 333 0.0001736111
1 apoth. scruple = 0.333 333 3 0.045 714 29 0.041 666 67 0.003 472 222
1 pennyweight = 0.4 0.054 857 14 0.05 0.004 166 667
1 avdp. dram = 0.455 729 2 0.062 5 0.56 966 15 0.004 747 179
1 apoth. dram = 1 0.137 142 9 0.125 0.010 416 67
1 avdp. ounce = 7.291 667 1 0.911 458 3 0.075 954 86
1 apoth. or troy ounce = 8 1.097 143 1 0.083 333 333
1 apoth. or troy pound = 96 13.165 71 12 1
1 avdp. pound = 116.666 7 16 14.583 33 1.215 278
1 milligram = 0.0002572060 0.00003527396 0.000 032 150 75 0.000002679229
1 gram = 0.257 206 0 0.035 273 96 0.032 150 75 0.002 679 229
1 kilogram = 257.206 0 35.273 96 32.150 75 2.679 229
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Units Avoirdupois Pounds Milligrams Grams Kilograms

1 grain = 0.000 142 857 1 64.798 91 0.064 798 91 0.000 064 798 91
1 apoth. scruple = 0.002 857 143 1295.978 2 1.295 978 2 0.001 295 978 2
1 pennyweight = 0.003 428 571 1555.173 84 1.555 173 84 0.001 555 173 84
1 avdp. dram = 0.003 906 25 1771.845 195 312 5 1.771845195312 5 0.0017718451953125
1 apoth. dram = 0.008 571 429 3887.934 6 3.887 934 6 0.003 887 934 6
1 avdp. ounce = 0.062 5 28 349.523 125 28.349 523 125 0.028 349 523 125
1 apoth. or troy ounce = 0.068 571 43 31 103.476 8 31.103 476 8 0.031 103 476 8
1 apoth. or troy pound = 0.822 857 1 373 241.721 6 373.241 721 6 0.373 241 721 6
1 avdp. Pound = 1 453 592.37.37 453.592 37 0.453 592 37

1 milligram = 0.000 002 204 623 1 0.001 0.000 001
1 gram = 0.002 204 623 1000 1 0.001
1 kilogram = 2.204 623 1 000 000 1000 1
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Error of Measurement
What is a measurement?
A measurement tells us about a property of something.
(How heavy, how hot, or how long it ….)
A measurement gives a number to that property.
Measurements are always made using an instrument of some kind.

(Weighing scales, thermometer, rulers ….)
The result of measurement is normally in two parts;

- number,
- unit of measurement
What is not a measurement?

Some processes are look like measurements but are not.
As - Comparing
- Counting
- Test is not a always measurements; test normally lead to a
‘yes/no’ answer or ‘pass/fail’ results.
Measurements may be part of the process leading to a test result
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Uncertainty of measurement
What is uncertainty of measurement?
The uncertainty of a measurement tells us some thing about QUALITY.
Uncertainty of measurement is the doubt which exists about the result of

any measurement.
For every measurement - even the most careful – there is always a margin
of doubt.
Expressing uncertainty of measurement

Since there is always a margin of doubt about any measurement, we need
to ask;
- How big is the margin?
- How bad is the doubt?
Thus we need two number in order to quantify an uncertainty;

- The width of the margin,
- The confidence level
Example:
We might say that length of a certain stick measures 20 centimeters plus

or minus 1 centimeter, at the 95 percent confidence level. This result could
be written:
20 cm ± 1 cm, at a level of confidence of 95%.
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Definitions
Error; is the difference between the measured value and the ‘true value’
of the thing being measured.
Accuracy; ability of a measuring instrument to give responses close to a

true value.
Note: “Accuracy “is a qualitative concept.
Drift; slow change of a metrological characteristic of a measuring

instrument.
Repeatability; is precision under repeatability conditions, i.e. ability of

measuring instrument to provide closely similar indications for repeated
applications of the same measured under the same conditions of
measurement.
Reproducibility ; is precision under reproducibility conditions, i.e.

conditions where independent test results are obtained with the same
method on identical test items in different laboratories by different
operators using different equipment.
Uncertainty; is a quantification of the doubt about the measurement

results.
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Good repeatability
Poor accuracy
Poor repeatability
Good accuracy
Good repeatability
Good accuracy
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Why is uncertainty of measurement important?

- You wish to make good quality measurements
- To understand the results
- As part of Calibration; uncertainty must be reported in the
certificate
- As part of Test; uncertainty is needed to determine a pass or fail
- To meet a Tolerance; you need to know the uncertainty before you
can decide whether the tolerance is meet.
- To read and understand a calibration certificate or written
specification for a test.
Basic statistics on sets of numbers
1) “ Measure thrice, cut once” ……… operator error
It is wise to make at least three tries at any measurement.
2) Getting the best estimate – taking the average of a number of
readings
* If repeated measurements give different answers,
* You may not be doing anything wrong.
* It may be due to natural variations in what is going on.
* OR it may be because your measuring instrument dose not
behave in a completely stable way.
Average
When there is variation in reading when they are repeated, it is
best to take many readings an take an average. An average gives
you an estimate of the ‘true’ value.
Mean or average reading
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How many readings do you need to find an average?

The more measurements you use, the better the estimate you will
have.
The more results you use, the closer you get to that ideal
estimate of the mean.
Between 3 and 10 reading is sufficient

Standard Deviation “s” … Spread
When repeated measurements give different results, we want to
know how widely spread the readings are.
The spread of values tells us something about the uncertainty of a

measurement.
Sometimes it is enough to know the range between the highest and

lowest values.
The usual way to quantify spread is standard deviation.
Roughly two thirds of all readings will fall between plus and minus
(±) one standard deviation of the average.
Roughly 95% of all readings will fall within two standard deviations.
Where do errors and uncertainties come from?

Because real measurements are never made under perfect conditions,
errors and uncertainties can come from:
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 The measuring instrument – instruments can suffer from

errors including bias, changes due to ageing, wear, or other kinds of
drift, poor readability, noise, …etc.
 The item being measured – which may not be stable?
 The measurement process – the measurement itself may be
difficult to make.
 Imported uncertainties – calibration of your instrument has an
uncertainty which is then built into the uncertainty of the
measurements you make.
 Operator skill – some measurements depend on the skill and
judgment of the operator.
 Sampling issues – the measurements you make must be
properly representative of the process you are trying to assess.
 The environment – temperature, air pressure, humidity and
many other conditions can affect the measuring instrument or the
item being measured.
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Source of Error in Measurement
i- Instrumental Errors - are generally caused by

improper use of a piece of equipment. These include errors which
are due to improper positioning or Leveling of the standard or test
item, incorrect zero adjustment, loading effects, and also errors due
to misues or normal wear of the instruments. The observer must be
satisfied that his instruments have recently been calibrated, that they
are used in the proper position, that all adjustments have been
properly made, and that the instruments have not been abused prior
to starting the measurement Process. This may be accomplished by
visual inspection and/or following the steps of the measurement
procedure.
il- Leveling. Many instruments read as well in one position
as another, other instruments must be carefully leveled in order to
obtain the best results.
ill- Zeroing. Many instruments require a “zeroing,” power-
set, “self- check,” or other adjustment prior to use. This is a very
likely source of error if not properly accounted for.
llll – Wear. An Instrument gets old, and after much use,
tends to wear out. Bearings wear or become loose, friction becomes
appreciable between moving parts, dust and corrosion accumulate,
magnets weaken, and springs stretch. All of these factors contribute
errors which are difficult to evaluate without calibration.
I V- Loading. Loading could be considered as a source
Of error arising from a misuse of an instrument. Each instrument
requires a certain amount of energy for proper operation. If the
source of energy is insufficient, the instrument may read incorrectly.
V- Hysteresis In many measuring systems, including
almost all meter movements, there is a tendency for the indications
on an upward cycle to differ from the indications at the same points
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on a downward cycle. This effect, arising from various causes, is

called hysteresis. If necessary, it can be corrected for by taking
readings in one direction only.
ii – Environmental Errors are caused by the effect
of the local environment on measurements. Most measurements will
change in value due to changes in temperature, pressure, humidity,
vibration, electromagnetic fields, and local interference. The
environment should be controlled in the measurement procedure. If a
change in the enviroiiment is noted, consideration must be given top
its possible effect on the measurement.
Temperature Highly accurate measurement
instruments are calibrated to be within their rated tolerances at a
specified temperature. If the temperature is not within the specified
range, the readings will be erroneous. The amount of error involved
is often accounted for by using temperature correction charts which
accompany the standard or instrument, in most cases the errors
caused by temperature arise as a result of thermal expansion or from
a change in electrical resistance.
Pressure Variations in atmospheric or ambient pressure
cause changes to occur in the measurement medium which can affect
pressure, temperature, optcal, and electrical measurements.
However, the effect of ambient pressure changes is usually much
smaller than that caused by temperature charges.
Humidity When humidity changes, the dielectric
constant of air changes, causing changes in capacitance, resistance,
and leakage currents which in turn may cause readings to be in error.
Humidity also causes the density of air to change causing changes in
air buoyancy. Generally, variations in humidity have relatively little
effect on most measurements.
Vibration Sometimes a better reading can be obtained
when vibration is present. However, unless a meter is designed to be
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used while vibrating, vibration will cause a blurring of the read-out

with a reduction in resolution.
Magnetic Fields Stray AC and DC magnetic fields
are undesirable in the measurement laboratory. AC magnetic fields
can induce undesired voltages in lead wires, chokes, and
transformers. They also tend to destroy permanent magnets, ferrite
isolators, etc. by partially demagnetizing them. DC fields can deflect
the stream of electrons in vacuum tubes or vary the accuracy of
meter movements.
Electrostatic Fields. AC can be radiated from or
be picked up’ by unshielded wiring. If the signal being
measured is quite small and the amplification large, these stray
pickups can constitute objectionable noise or signal distortion. Static
electricity or DC fields also exert unwanted attraction or repulsion of
the needle or movements of certain instruments.
Observational Errors. Are errors, which are
generated by the observer in his
reading of dials and scales. The parallax introduced when
reading, errors in interpolating between scale markings or
graduations, and errors in recording previous results are examples of
observational error. Through increased skill, experience and
alertness on the part of the observer, observational error can be
minimized, but it can never be completely eliminated from a
measurement.
Parallax. There is a finite distance between the needle
and the scale. If readings are made from different angles, different
readings will be obtained. There is no way to know afterwards which
set of readings is correct. This type of error can be minimized by
using a mirror-backed scale or meter.
Interpolation. When the needle is not exactly on a scale
mark, the observer frequently has to estimate the reading to a
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fraction of a division. The ability to visually divide a division into

equal parts without a vernier is limited and is subject to error.
RANDOM ERRORS :- Random errors are the results
of the fluctuations of the many factors that affect the performance of
the instruments and the item being measured. Environmental
changes which are of small magnitude and of high speed that cannot
be sensed by the environmental control or monitoring equipment
will cause slight changes in the measurement system and physical
property being measured. For example, measurement conditions
for temperature could be specified as being within ± 2 degrees of
some value to reduce systematic effects. However, the fluctuation
the temperature within the control limits ± 2 degrees will cause some
random error. The combined effect of the fluctuation of all the
factors which influence the measurement process cause the random
error. The more sensitive the measurement system, the more it will
be affected by the following factors:
Drafts. Air currents are constantly affecting measurement
systems. They may affect the reading as a physical force and also
because of the accompanying change in temperature.
Radiation. All measurement systems are subject to heat
and electrical radiation. The observer’s body radiates heat and may
cause changes in the readings as opposed to remote readings, taken
with the operator not present.
Dirt. Even a thorough cleaning will not completely
remove the dirt from measurement systems. Dirt or dust may
interfere with the proper reaction of components one time and yet
have a negligible effect on the next reading.
Noise. The presence of random amounts of the electrical or
physical property being measured in the location of the test
instrument may cause differences in repeated readings.
Readability. Readability of an instrument is the
smallest division or part of a division which can be accurately read
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by the observer. The ability of the observer to interpolate between

the smallest graduations on a dial or meter i a factor in determining
instrument readability. The term “resolution” is often used to signify
readability.
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Pressure balance
If a device is to be considered a primary standard, it must refer directly to absolute

standards of mass, length and time. The mercury barometer/manometer may be
considered as a primary standard in that it meets these requirements; whereas the best
Bourdon tube or diaphragm gage can only be classified as a secondary standard in
that it does not reference directly the above mentioned parameters.
Another primary standard which lends itself well to the measurement of high
pressures is called a deadweight piston. This kind of instrument operates on the basis
of equation (1) which states:
P=F/A (1)
Used
Weights
Piston
Cylinder
Applied pressure
Diagram of simple piston cylinder assembly
A piston gauge is essentially made up of a piston-and-cylinder assembly (PCA) and

of a system for the application of a known vertical load on the piston. The PCA is the
essential part of the apparatus, as it is used to define the effective area on which
pressure is applied. There are basically three designs of piston cylinder assembly
(PCA) .
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The most commonly used design, known as the 'simple' type, is shown
diagrammatically in figure (2). The action of the pressure-transmitting fluid on the
base of the piston causes mechanical distortion leading to excessive leakage of fluid
at high. Such pressure balances can thus be used only over a limited pressure range,
although with appropriate design they may be used successfully up to pressures of
about 800 MPa.
Simple piston-cylinder assembly
The design of the higher pressure instruments is different in two respects:
 Firstly, the radial gap between the piston and cylinder is substantially small,
often with an interference fit at lower pressures.
 Secondly, the load is applied to the working piston via a coaxial auxiliary
piston. This arrangement reduces the bending moments that might be imparted
to the piston by the load. This technique is also employed with other types of
pressure balance.
To combat the problem of excessive fluid leakage at high pressures two further basic
designs have evolved. In the simpler of these, often referred to as the 're-entrant' type,
the pressure transmitting fluid acts not only on the base of the piston and along the
engagement length of the piston and cylinder, but also on the external surface of the
cylinder.
This external pressure contracts the gap between the piston and the cylinder over part
of the engagement length thus reducing the fluid leakage; a typical design is shown
in figure below. The upper pressure limit is set by the reduction of the gap to an
interference fit.
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P
Re-entrant piston-cylinder assembly
In the third design, so called controlled clearance piston cylinder assembly, a variable
fluid pressure, pj, in an independent pressure system, is applied to the external
surface of the cylinder, thus providing control of the gap between the piston and
cylinder; such an arrangement is shown in figure below.
P
Controlled-clearance piston-cylinder assembly
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Although in principle this design will cover a very wide range of pressure using only
one piston-cylinder assembly, in practice it is usually better to use a series of
assemblies to achieve the best sensitivity for a particular pressure range. This type of
pressure balance mostly used in very high pressure applications, is not commonly
available commercially, and is generally more difficult to operate than the two other
designs.
The pressure balances normally encountered fall into two main categories, those
using oil as the pressure transmitting fluid, and those using air or some other suitable
permanent gas, e.g. nitrogen.
The latter types sometimes incorporate the facility to evacuate the ambient space
around the piston-cylinder assembly, thus permitting their use for 'absolute' as well as
'gauge' pressure measurements.
Many commercially available oil-operated pressure balances are supplied in the form
of a complete pressure gauge testing system, often referred to as a dead-weight tester;
generally they comprise a priming pump, an oil reservoir, a screw press (volume
adjuster), a piston-cylinder assembly and a port into which the gauge under test can
be fitted. All the components are mounted as a compact unit with interconnecting
tubing and valves.
At pressures above a few MPa, oil is generally preferred as a pressure medium both
for reasons of safety and because of the increased fluid leakage encountered when
using gas.
The latter problem has been countered by some manufacturers by the provision of oil
lubrication of the piston-cylinder assembly, either by oil being fed directly into the
annular region (via the cylinder wall) from a small, pressurized reservoir or by
incorporating an oil-gas interface into the main body of the assembly.
Consider the circular piston and cylinder of Fig. 1 the piston has some cross sectional
area (A). The total weight of the piston assembly is made up of the weight of the
piston (WP ) and any weight (W) placed on top of the piston.
When the force exerted on the bottom of the piston is slightly greater than the total
weight of the piston assembly (W + WP ) the piston will be moved up. If this upward
force is exactly the same as the total weight of the piston assembly, it will neither rise
nor fall, but rather it will be in equilibrium.
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The pressure of the fluid in the cylinder generates a force over the bottom of the
piston. The force acting on the bottom of the piston is a function of the fluid pressure
and piston area, or from equation (2):
F=P*A (2)
If the system is in equilibrium (piston floating) we can say:
W=F
W the total weight of the piston assembly (W + W P )

F the force acting on the bottom of the piston
This, then, is the principle of a dead weight pressure balance. Therefore, when
pressure is applied to the bottom of the piston, and the system can be determined to
be in equilibrium, the magnitude of the pressure can be measured by using the
expression:
P=W/A
W = the weight of the piston plus any weights on top of it

A = the cross sectional area of the piston
P = the unknown pressure which has established equilibrium
Normally a piston area is selected which will allow weights to be used that are
convenient, with respect to the pressure range desired.
Example 1:
A dead weight piston gage is to be designed with a pressure range to 2,000 kg/cm2 . It
is also desirable that 10 separate weights be used to generate 10 discrete pressures in
10% increments up to the total pressure.
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Compute a nominal piston area and weight series which will accomplish the required
mission.
Solution
First, let us consider that we will .have 10 weights to handle where measuring full
pressure. Since these weights usually must be manually loaded and unloaded from
the tester, we want to keep their weight reasonable.
As the piston area gets smaller it requires less weight to generate a given pressure;
however, there is a minimum diameter which can be specified for the piston before
the tolerance in machining becomes a problem.
If we give the piston an area of 1 cm2 it would require 2,000 kgf to generate the
required pressure!!!!
If consider 100 kgf as the total weight to be handled, we can compute the piston area
using the formula:
A=W/P
Substituting for the weight and pressure we get:
A = (100 kg) / (2000 kg/ cm2)
A = (1 / 20) cm2
A = 0.05 cm2
The piston diameter, if desired, can be found by using the formula:
A = π D2/ 4
or, solving for the diameter, we ‘get:
4A
D

Substituting for the required area we get:
4 * (0.05cm 2 )
D

or:
D = 0.252 cm
Since a diameter of one quarter cm is easily machined to close tolerance, this piston
area is suitable. The complete tester would be as illustrated in following Fig.
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Mass
Piston
Cylinder
Pressure balance
DHI pressure balance
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Ruska pressure balance
DH pressure balance
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Plate (4) DH absolute pressure balance
So in our example it would be made up of 10 weights of 10 kilogram each. Since the

piston assembly has weight, it would be desirable if its weight were also 10 kg and
thus could act as one of the load weights.
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The weight of the piston itself would define and produce the minimum pressure, 200
kg/cm2. As each weight was added, it would generate an additional 200 kg/cm2, until
with nine weights plus the piston the pressure would be 2,000 kg/cm2.
Although simplified, this is the principle which is applied to pressure balance. Since
each weight operates with a fixed piston area, the weights can be marked to indicate
the nominal pressure in kg/cm2 that they will generate if placed on the piston.
The weights of Example (1) would be marked as 200 kg/cm2 each, rather than as 10
kg each. Actually, on commercial units, smaller weights are provided to generate
incremental pressures. The piston weight also would be smaller than illustrated to
provide a lower minimum pressure for the tester.
Let us illustrate the weights which might be supplied with a typical pressure balance.
Consider a 1,000 kg/cm2 unit with a piston area of 0.1 cm2. Table 1 lists the weights
available, their serial number, and their nominal pressure (considering the piston
area).
Table (1) Typical weights values
Serial No. Nominal Pressure Weight
2
kg/cm (kgf)
1 100 10
2 100 10
3 100 10
4 100 10
5 100 10
6 100 10
7 100 10
8 100 10
9 100 10
- 500 5
1 200 2
2 200 2
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Piston 100 1
Notice that the total of all the weights is 100 kg, which is required for 1,000 kg/cm2.
The minimum pressure is 100 kg/cm2, as united by the piston. The resolution is also
10 kg/cm2, as limited by the smallest weight (piston and carrier weight). Thus, any
pressure up to 1,000 kg/cm2 can be generated at 100 kg/cm2 increments.
The weights are serialized because in precision work neither the nominal area of the
piston nor the nominal pressure, as indicated on the weights, is sufficient. If pressures
of ± 0.1% of indicated value or better are to be generated, the actual mass of each
weight used and the piston area must be known to a minimum of five significant
figures. One more word about the basic concept of a dead weight tester, dead weight
piston gage or pressure balance, almost without exception, use air, oil, or water as a
pressure media. Since friction cannot be tolerated, there must be some clearance
between the piston and cylinder. This clearance allows some of the fluid to leak by
the piston.
This is not altogether undesirable, as the fluid provides lubrication between the
piston and cylinder. To insure that the pressure, as indicated by the weights and
piston area is to be equal to the pressure of the fluid the piston must be floating If the
leakage rate of the fluid by the piston is not closely controlled, the piston may tend to
fall too rap idly; thus, equilibrium cannot be assured. The piston is generally rotated
in the cylinder either manually or mechanically to decrease friction and the fluid
leakage which restricts the piston fall rate.
A rotation rate which has proved adequate for most testers is from 20 to 30
rev/min.
Due to the fact that some leakage does exist, the effective area of the tester is not that
of the piston alone. It is taken as the mean area of the piston and cylinder. If a piston
has an area of 0.02000 cm2 and its cylinder area is 0.02010 cm2 the effective area is:
Aeff= (0.02000+ 0.02010 ) / 2
or:
Aeff= 0.02005 cm2
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The pressure measured by a dead weight piston gage, as mentioned before, may be
basically described using the expression:
P=W/A
If the indicated pressure (P) is to be accurate to ±0.1 % of indicated value or better,

the weights and effective area must be known to a level which is compatible with the
accuracy required, assuming that the tester in question has the precision and stability
required.
If an accuracy of ±0.1% or better is required, the individual serial numbers of the

weights used to generate a given pressure are usually noted, and the actual “mass
weight” is compiled for a given pres sure by adding the mass weights of each weight
used. This information is available from the calibration report for the tester in
question.
The weights values illustrated for the hypothetical 1,000 kg/cm2 tester that illustrated
in table (1) is for standard gravity. If the tester is used at any other location, a
gravitational correction must be applied. Thus, with this consideration, the basic
equation (1) becomes:
W g 
P *  L 
A  gS 
(3)
The values given in Table (1) are further specified as “apparent mass versus brass” in
air. Even though the weights may be made out of cast iron, they must be corrected
for air buoyancy as if they were made of brass. Thus, equation (3) now becomes:
W     gL 
P * 1  a  *  
A  W   gS 
(4)
where:
ρa the density of air
ρw the density of weight
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gL local gravitational acceleration

gS standard gravitational acceleration
A the effective area of the tester
W the total apparent mass of weights applied
P the true pressure generated
Is it necessary to use the actual mass values and correct for air buoyancy and gravity?
Even though the weights may be class F (in tolerances) or better individually, their
accumulated error may well be significant. The buoyancy correction for the weights
is .014%. The gravitational correction can be as large as ±.25%, depending upon
where the tester is used. As in all cases, the corrections should be considered and
applied, with regard to the accuracy required.
Thus far we have treated the mean area of the piston/cylinder as the effective area.
This is not strictly true, when the mean piston area was measured it was at some
temperature (tc) which is listed on the calibration report.
The mean area of the piston is listed at this temperature and designated “Ao” this is
the mean area of the piston at the temperature of calibration and zero pressure.
The problem, as it relates to the mean piston area, is two-fold.

• First, the piston is generally made of tungsten carbide or stainless steel. The
cylinder is made of a similar material. If the tester is not used at the same
temperature as that of its calibration, the mean piston area will not be the same, due
to thermal expansion. The coefficient of thermal expansion for dead weight pistons is
generally represented by the symbol αP and that for dead weight cylinders by the
symbol αC.
The value of αP and αC will vary between testers, depending upon the material of the
piston and cylinder.
The mean area correction (K) for temperature is generally written in the form:
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K = [1 + (αP + αC ) (t-20)] (5)

where:
t the temperature of use
The mean area (zero pressure) corrected for temperature thus becomes:
A= Ao [1 + (αP + αC ) (t-20)] (6)
Let us define the effective area (Aeff ) as the mean piston area at the temperature and
pressure of use; whereas Ao was the area at the temperature of calibration and zero
pressure. The mean area of the piston must be established at the applied pressure
because pressure causes deformation of the piston.
Piston deformation, at higher pressures, is the single most significant cause of

pressure measurement uncertainty. It does not necessarily cause the largest numerical
correction, but it is of such a nature that it cannot be predicted accurately in many
cases.
When a tester is calibrated, this deformation or variation coefficient is computed, and

a value is assigned to the tester which later will allow the user to compute the effect
of pressure on the piston area of the tester. The deformation coefficient is, in some
instances, assigned the letter “λ” and the correction is given in the form:
A = Ao (1+ λP) (7)
where:
Ao the mean area at zero pressure
λ the pressure coefficient (kg/cm2)-1
P the nominal pressure (kg/cm2 )
A the mean area, corrected only for pressure
The effective area (Aeff) may now be written:
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Aeff = Ao (1+ λP) [1 + (αP + αC ) (t-20)] (8)
Finally for simple and re-entrant piston cylinder assemblies the complete pressure
generated equation is given by:
 gL   air 
Mg L g 
 1  
    W
 S  M 
P 
Ao [1  ( c   p )(t  Tr )](1  po )
Where:
M Total mass applied on the piston
Ao Nominal effective area for used piston cylinder
αp+αc Thermal expansion coefficient for piston and cylinder
materials
t Temperature of the piston cylinder assembly
Tr Reference temperature
ρair Density of air
ρM Density of the weights
g Local gravity at place of standard PCA calibration
gL Local gravitational acceleration
gS standard gravitational acceleration
γ Surface tension of the used oil
χ Circumference of the piston
Γw Tare force
Po Nominal pressure
λ Distortion coefficient of piston cylinder assembly
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Characterization of pressure balance
While the operating principle of pressure balance is simple, its complete

characterization as a primary standard requires a very precise investigation.
Determination of the effective area (Aeff) and calculation of the dependence of the
effective area on the system pressure (distortion coefficient (λ)) are the main required
quantities for pressure balance characterization. The methods and techniques
involved in determining the effective area of a piston cylinder assembly divide
themselves naturally into two main groups:
1. Those in which the effective area of a piston cylinder assembly is obtained
from fundamental principles, i.e. without reference to any other standard of
pressure;
2. Those in which the effective area of a piston cylinder assembly is obtained
by a process of comparison with some other fundamental pressure standard.
The methods of group (1) for effective area of a piston cylinder assembly are mainly
restricted to the evaluation of primary or perhaps national standards and are dealt
with in two ways:
a) Calculation from measured dimensions by analytical method.
b) Characterization of controlled clearance pressure balance using Heydmann-
Welch model for effective area of a piston cylinder assembly calculation.
The dimensional measurements (group(a)) required for the calculation of effective
areas are the diameters of both the piston and cylinder at suitably spaced positions
along the axis of the assembly. These data may usefully be supplemented by
measurements of the degree of departure from true circularity and straightness, which
will contribute to the uncertainties attaching to the final result.
In the controlled-clearance system group (b) only the dimensions of the piston are, in
principle, required. These measurements will usually be entrusted to a laboratory
specializing in dimensional metrology and we shall therefore make no attempt to
describe them. The methods of group (2) are of particular significance in the
calibration of balances used as secondary standards and working standards.
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SI Unit of SI Unit of Acceleration

Length Mass of Gravity
Effective Applied force on

area of PCA PCA
SI Unit of
Pressure
Fig (6) Traceability to the basic physical units of pressure through dimensional and mass measurements
Characterization of pressure balance from dimensional measurements
Based on the progress made in the field of dimensional metrology, it is possible to

trace pressure measurements in the 1 MPa range directly back to the base units of the
SI as shown in figure (4), with relative standard uncertainties of pressure
measurement considerably below 10 ppm if adequately sized piston/cylinder (p/c)
assemblies are used.
Characterization of controlled clearance primary standard pressure balance

using Heydemann and Welch model
According to Heydemann and Welch model for controlled clearance pressure balance
characterization, five quantities are required for the characterization of controlled
clearance pressure balance. These quantities are Ao, αP+αc , λ, d and Pz as described
by equation
  
Mg 1  air      W
P  M 
Ao [1  ( c   p )(t  Tr )](1  po )[1  ( D  EW  FW 2 )( pzo  szW  qzW 2  p j )]
 Ao is the area of the piston determined from dimensional measurements
adjusted to a reference temperature of 23 oC,
 αP and αc are the linear thermal expansion coefficients for the piston and the
cylinder materials respectively,
 λ is the pressure distortion coefficient of the piston determined from elasticity
theory.
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 Pz and d are parameters relating to the gap between the piston and cylinder and
the distortion of the cylinder
Pz = PZ0 + sZ W or Pz = PZ0 + sZ W + qZ W2
d = D + EW or d = D + EW + FW2
Where first or second order equation selection depends on the shape of the obtained
data. Pj is the pressure in the applied to the outside of the cylinder to control the
piston/cylinder gap.
The values of these parameters will be calculated from two measuring experiments,
the first is the falling rate measurements where the values Pzo, sZ and qZ will be
calculated. The second is the “d” measurements, in which the effective area is
measured by a crossfloat with a second pressure balance as the jacket pressure is
varied at constant system pressure. From those measurements, the parameters D, E
and F will be calculated.
Calibration of pressure balance using cross floating method

The effective areas of working instruments and, indeed, of many reference standards,
being usually determined by comparison with some form of independent standard. In
this part we shall describe the procedures for such comparisons and finally refer to
some points of
Fig. (7) Schematic diagram illustrating the comparison of two pressure balance
(cross floating experiment
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interest in the expression of the resulting data. We have already noted that there are
commonly available two independent forms of primary standard in the field of
pressure measurement, viz. the pressure balance itself and the manometric column.
The calibration of an individual pressure balance may, in principle, be carried out by
comparison with either of these primary devices, and we shall therefore consider
both techniques. It must be emphasized, however, that the intercomparison of a
pressure balance and a manometric column is generally a more complicated and
difficult operation than the comparison of two pressure balances and the difficulty of
such 'mixed' comparisons is greatly accentuated at the higher pressures. The direct
comparison with a standard balance is therefore the method used in the great
majority of pressure-balance calibrations, while the mixed comparisons are normally
reserved for applications where there are special reasons for their adoption.
2.3.1 Determination by comparison with a standard pressure balance
For the above reason, the determination of the ratio of the effective areas of two
piston-cylinder assemblies is a particularly important aspect of calibration, for which
the above figure gives a generalized schematic diagram. The two assemblies, of
effective areas SA and SB, are shown mounted on a common pressure system and are
'in equilibrium', at the applied pressure P, reckoned at an appropriate reference level,
when the loads are WA and WB respectively.
Preparation for calibration
The calibration should only be carried out when the pressure balance is in
good working order. The operation of the pressure balance under calibration and the
pressure reference standard should be carried out according to the laboratory's
calibration procedure prepared from this guideline, and the manufacturer's technical
manual.
Calibration room
The following parameters shall be controlled according to the uncertainty regime.

Typically:
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 Ambient temperature within 15 °C and 25 °C, stabilized within + 2 °C. For

lower uncertainty, typically 0,01 %, the temperature of the piston-cylinder
assembly should preferably be measured.
 Relative humidity between 40 % and 65 %, or measured.
 Control opening of doors and the movement of operators to keep a stable
atmosphere, and control ventilation in order to prevent intense airflow above
or below the piston balances.
Devices installation
Install the devices out of the air disturbances such as ventilation and air-
conditioning.
Install the balance to be calibrated as near the standard instrument as possible.
Use a rigid, stable table supporting the full load, checked in with a spirit level.
Minimise the height difference between the reference levels of the two
instruments to be compared.
Respect the verticality of the piston as recommended by the manufacturer use the
built-in spirit level, or a laboratory spirit level on the top of the piston to minimise
the tilt. This should be checked also at full mass load.
Use short, wide bore pipework. This is more critical at low pressure.
Insure the cleanliness and the tightness of the tubings.
Install appropriate drain to control the nature of the fluid in the tubings.
Attach a suitable temperature measurement system.
Pressure generation
For gas pressure:

(a) Use a clean and dry gas (nitrogen for example), at a temperature near ambient.
(b) Adjust the pressure input to the range of the intercompared instruments.
(c) Clean the tubings of any liquid (for the oil-lubricated type).
II- For absolute pressure:

(a) Use a clean pump, or, when using mechanical rotational pumps, use an
appropriate trap.
(b) Use an appropriate vacuum pump to ensure that the residual pressure over the
mass-piston set is less than typically 2 Pa or 10-5 of the measured pressure,
whichever is the higher, unless otherwise recommended by the manufacturer.
(c) Measure the residual pressure with a vacuum gauge calibrated and connected
directly to the belljar.
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III- For liquid pressure:

(a) Use the liquid recommended by the manufacturer.
(b) If the liquid is not the same in the balance under calibration as in the standard, use
appropriate interface/separator to avoid any mixture of the two liquids.
(c) Clean the tubings of any other liquid.
(d) Clean the fluid in the tubings of any possible internal gas.
Pressure reference
 The pressure reference instrument in general use for the calibration of a pressure
balance is another pressure balance. For the ranges lower than 300 kPa, the
standard instrument may be a mercury column manometer. Other instruments
may be used as an alternative for specific cases (low gauge pressure for
example).
 The calibration of an absolute pressure balance may be carried out in gauge
mode, with an added uncertainty in Ao.
 In all cases, the reference instrument used for the calibration has to meet the
following conditions:
(a) to be traceable to a National Standard with a recognised calibration
certificate.
(b) to have an uncertainty better than the presupposed uncertainty of the
balance to be calibrated. Complete the uncertainty budget on the reference
standard pressure balance to check this condition.
Preparation of the pressure balance

 The pressure balance under calibration shall be placed in the laboratory at least 12
hours before the calibration is started, to reach thermal equilibrium.
(a) Check that the oil is free from impurities. If not, drain all the tubings and
replace the oil in the tank.
(b) With the pressure circuit closed and half the set of weights placed on the
piston, the piston shall be moved upwards and downwards by means of the
spindle pump. Thus, the mobility of the piston is examined over the total
range of displacement.
(c) If necessary, and using the technical manual, remove the piston-cylinder
assembly, and clean the surfaces of the two pieces with a suitable solvent or
pure soap, and with dry soft cloth according to the manufacturer's
recommendations. Inspect the piston and the cylinder for surface scratches
and corrosion. Relubricate the piston with clean liquid if the piston-cylinder
operates in liquid, or if the balance operates in gas but with an oil-lubricated
piston-cylinder assembly.
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(d) Examine the free rotation time (for the hand-rotating pressure balances
only). Weights corresponding to 2/10 of maximum pressure are placed upon
the piston. The initial rotation rate should be approximately 30 rpm. Measure
the elapsed time until the piston is stationary. This time should be at least 3
min.
(e) Examine the descent rate of the piston. The piston descent rate is observed at
maximum pressure when the piston is rotating. Measure the time interval in
which the piston drops from top to bottom position. This time should be at
least 3 min.
Note: For these two last parameters, the stated values should be related to the
technical instructions of the manufacturer.
(f ) Connect the pressure balance to the standard instrument.
(g) Identify the reference level for both pressure balances. The reference level
should be defined by the manufacturer at the bottom surface of the piston
when the balance is in equilibrium. In the absence of this, and when the
bottom surface of the piston is not accessible, the reference level is generally
defined at the outlet pipe connection level. The difference in height between
the reference level of the standard and the reference level of the balance to be
calibrated shall be reduced as much as possible and measured. In any case the
difference in height between the reference levels of both standard and balance
under calibration will need to be measured in order to apply the appropriate
head correction.
(h) For absolute pressure, pump for 30 min. at the beginning of the calibration
to eliminate the water vapor in the belljar. Use dry nitrogen as working gas.
(j) Rotate the piston or cylinder while respecting the manufacturer's
recommendation.
(k) For hand rotating balances, check the clockwise and anticlockwise direction
influence (if any), or indicate the rotation direction in the certificate.
Example of calibration procedure
Methods to apply
Both methods that follow are comparative ones, consisting of comparing the balance
to be calibrated and the standard instrument when both are submitted to the same
pressure and the same environmental conditions. However, dependent on the
presupposed accuracy of the balance to be calibrated, and according to customer
requirement alternative methods may be used:
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Method A . Generated pressure method
The scope of this method is to determine the bias error and the repeatability of
the calibrated pressure balance. This is done by determining the generated pressure
corresponding to well identified weights. In that method the weighing of the masses
of the instrument under calibration is optional.
Method A procedure
Three measuring series are carried out, each of them with at least five pressure
points regularly spaced over the whole range of the pressure balance. For twin range
balances, at least five pressure points should be carried out for each range. The
pressure points should be selected evenly spaced across the range of the instrument
under test.
Method B . Effective area determination method
The scope of this method is to determine:

(a) the value of the mass of all the weights, including piston of the pressure balance if
removable.
(b) the effective area A referred to 20 °C of the piston-cylinder assembly of the
pressure balance (e as a function of pressure. At high pressure, this area can be
expressed from the effective area at null pressure A~ and the pressure distortion
coefficient .
(c) the repeatability as a function of the measured pressure.
Method B procedure
I- Determination of the mass
(a) The value of the mass of each weight (including the floating
elements when removable) of the pressure balance shall be
determined by a laboratory accredited for such mass
measurements. The relative uncertainty of the mass
determination should not usually exceed 20 % of the likely
total measurement uncertainty of the pressure balance to be
calibrated. For example, if the supposed expanded uncertainty
of the pressure balance is 5x10-5 x p, the relative uncertainty of
mass determination should be within l x10-5 x m.
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(b) If the floatbase weight cannot be determined by weighing, the

corresponding base pressure may be determined from the results of the
pressure comparison measurements by using a least-squares analysis: in this
case a tare value in pressure units should be given. The p-method
mentioned letter allows the determination of this initial value.
Determination of the effective area

(a) For pressure balances which are equipped with both low pressure and
high pressure piston-cylinder assemblies or with removable piston-cylinder
assemblies, the complete calibration process should be carried out for each
piston-cylinder assembly.
(b) The effective area shall be determined by carrying out three to
five measuring series, each of them with at least six pressure
points. The first point shall be chosen at the minimum value
of the pressure range (manufacturer indicated value, or the
lower value corresponding to a satisfactory functioning, see
paragraph 4.5). The other pressure points should be spaced
over the whole range, typically between 1/10 and 10/10 of the
maximum pressure range.
(c) The repeatability of the measured pressure is estimated from
the experimental standard deviation calculated from the
successive determinations operated for each pressure point.
Note (valid for both methods): Ascending measuring series can be considered to be
identical to descending measuring series, as the balances used for pressure
measurements usually have no significant hysteresis effect.
Method A is usually not employed where the smallest uncertainty is required.
Cross f1oating procedure
I- Gauge pressure mode

(a) When using a pressure balance as standard instrument, the cross-floating
method is carried out at each measuring point:
(b) Place the weights on the pressure balance to be calibrated, so that the masses
correspond to the fixed pressure point.
(c) Adjust the pressure to equilibrate the balance under calibration.
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(d) Perform an adjustment with small weights on one of both instruments (usually
the one which is the more sensitive to a change in mass), until the equilibrium
condition of both balances has been found. The equilibrium should be
considered as reached when the proper falling rate of both pistons is found
(no flow of fluid in the tubing between the two pressure balances). Both
pistons have to rotate during the adjustment. In the case of hand rotating
units, the influence of the clockwise/ anticlockwise rotation, and of the spin
rate will be checked.
(e) Note the reference number of each of the weights applied on both balances.
(f ) Note the temperature of the piston-cylinder assembly of both balances.
If the balance is not equipped with a temperature probe, note the surrounding
air temperature using an electronic thermometer attached to some suitable point of
the balance. This information shall be included in the certificate.
II- Absolute pressure mode
(a) When using a pressure balance as standard instrument, the cross floating
method cannot be used. In this case a differential pressure transducer
equipped with a by-pass is used to measure the difference between the
pressures measured by both balances. For each pressure point:
(b) Place the corresponding weights on both pressure balances.
(c) Adjust the pressure to equilibrate the standard balance.
(d) Read the zero of the transducer.
(e) Close the by-pass.
(f) Adjust the pressure on both sides to equilibrate both balances.
(g) Record the reading of the transducer. If the differential pressure is so high that
the needed uncertainty cannot be reached from the calibration of the
transducer, adjust the mass on the reference balance and repeat the three last
operations.
(h) Note the reference number of each of the weights applied on both balances.
(j) Note the temperature of the piston-cylinder assembly of both balances. If the
balance is not equipped with a temperature probe, note the surrounding air
temperature.
(k) Note the residual pressure in the belljar of both balances.
Data evaluation and calibration certificate

I- Method A procedure
The following technical data shall be included in the Certificate:

(a) type of the working fluid
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(b) linear thermal expansion coefficients of the piston-cylinder assembly under

calibration (if not determined experimentally, e.g. using literature data, this
shall be stated);
(c) pressure distortion coefficient (if obtained by a theoretical method)
(d) position of the pressure reference level
(e) information about how to convert the pressure values to the measurement
temperature and to the local acceleration due to gravity.
Usually the results will be presented for the standard value of the gravity 9,80665
m s-2 (unless customer requests his own local gravity) and the reference
temperature 20 °C in the form of a table. It will include:
(a) the pressure indicated by the balance under calibration (pm )
(b) the reference pressure measured by the standard instrument (mean of the three
determinations), in Pa and in the unit of the pressure delivered by the balance
if different (pr);
(c) the standard deviation of the reference pressure pr.
(d) the difference between the indicated pressure and the reference pressure
(pm-pr);
(e) the uncertainty of this difference, in the conditions of the calibration.
The method used to estimate this uncertainty shall be reported in the Certificate.
A table that lists all weights applied on the unit to be calibrated for each pressure
point of the calibration shall be included in the Calibration Certificate.
Method B procedure
The following technical data shall be included in the Certificate:

(a) type of the working fluid
(b) equation according to which the pressures reported in the certificate have
been calculated
(c) linear thermal expansion coefficients of the piston-cylinder assembly under
calibration (if not determined experimentally, e.g. by using literature data,
this shall be stated)
(d) position of the pressure reference level
The results of the calibration, after analysis

(a) effective area and its combined uncertainty
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(b) if relevant, the pressure distortion coefficient(s) and the corresponding

combined uncertainty
Calculation of the effective area
(a) The computing method in more general use can be used to calculate step by
step the effective area of the pressure balance to be calibrated from the mass
applied on its piston and the pressure delivered by the standard instrument.
(b) From this method, the effective area is calculated by reversing the equation of
definition of the pressure presented before
(c) The use of other methods, such as differential method (p-method) to
eliminate potential zero-errors is not excluded, but requires some experience in
the analysis of the results. Particularly, the p-method may be the only one
available if method B is used for the determination of effective area of pressure
balances with an unknown initial weight that cannot be determined by
weighing.
(d) The step-by-step determination of the effective area as a function of pressure
allows a modelling of effective area. In any case all the experimental data and
the residuals of the modelling shall be reported in the certificate to make
apparent the validity of the used method.
(e) The results may be presented in the form of a table, including:
(i) the reference pressure measured by the reference standard instrument in
each pressure point, in Pa and in the unit of the pressure delivered by the
balance if different;
(ii) the corresponding mass applied on the floating element of the balance to
be calibrated;
(iii) the corresponding temperature of the measuring assembly during the
calibration;
(iv) the individual value of the effective area Ap calculated at the reference
temperature and at reference pressure
(v) the mean value of the effective area Ap;
(vi) the experimental standard deviation of the mean.
(f) Then, the effective area as a function of pressure is analysed using a least-
squares method. Three cases can be observed:
(i) the dependence upon pressure is not significant relating to the standard
deviation (this is always the case for the low-range pressure balances). The
effective area at null pressure Ao is calculated as the mean value of all the
determinations. If the theoretical pressure distortion coefficient is known, it
shall be used for calculating the effective area. The type A standard
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uncertainty is estimated from the experimental standard deviation of the

mean Ao.
(ii) the dependence upon pressure can be considered to be linear. The
effective area at null pressure Ao and the pressure distortion coefficient I
are calculated by analogy with the best least-squares straight line. The type
A combined standard uncertainty is estimated using the standard
uncertainties of Ao and .
(iii) the dependence upon pressure cannot be considered to be linear. The
effective area at null pressure Ao and the pressure distortion coefficient 
(first order) and ’ (second order) are calculated by analogy with the least-
squares second-order best fit. The type A combined standard uncertainty is
estimated using the standard uncertainties of Ao,  and ’.
(g) The standard uncertainties of each of the parameters shall be estimated using
literature on statistics.
(h) The certificate shall report:
(i) the calculated value of the effective area under reference conditions A o
and the corresponding uncertainty, estimated from the standard deviation
of Ao, and the contribution of the standard, the measurement of the mass
applied to the moving element and the temperature.
(ii) when relevant, the pressure distortion coefficient(s) and the corresponding
uncertainty estimated from the standard deviation of  and the uncertainty
of the pressure distortion coefficient of the standard.
Calculation of the measured pressure
(a) The pressure measured by the pressure balance to be calibrated can

be calculated using the equation presented before. It is useful to the
user to have this measured pressure compared to the reference
pressure delivered by the standard, under the conditions of the
calibration.
(b) The results shall be presented in the form of a table; including:
(i) the reference pressure measured by the standard instrument, in Pa and in
the unit of the pressure delivered by the balance if different
(ii) the corresponding pressure measured by the balance under calibration,
and calculated from the data (effective area and pressure distortion
coefficient) taken from the certificate
(iii) the difference between the measured pressure and the reference pressure
for each pressure equilibrium, as residuals of the effective area modeling
(iv) the mean value of these differences
(v) the experimental standard deviation of the measured' differences
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(c) This table gives information on a potential residual pressure due to unknown
forces and on the repeatability of the pressure balance as a function of pressure.
So, the minimum information contained in this part of the certificate is the mean
difference and the experimental standard deviation.
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Calibration of Electromechanical Manometers
1 - INTRODUCTION:
This document deals with the calibration of electromechanical

manometers. The
document does not cover the dial gauges as there are standards for this
type of instrument.
The Guidelines provide the users of electromechanical manometers
with the fundamentals necessary for establishing and applying calibration
procedures.
These Guidelines apply to all electromechanical manometers for
measuring absolute, gauge or differential pressures, excluding vacuum
devices measuring pressures below 1 kPa.
Notes:
a - The Guidelines refer to the "measurement" function of a measuring
pressure controller in particular.
b - The Guidelines do not refer to piezoelectric pressure transducers.
2 - Definitions
In order to avoid ambiguity, the terms mentioned below have the
following meanings :
- Line pressure: Static pressure used as a reference for differential

pressures.
- Reference level: Level at which the value of the applied pressure is
quantified.
Note: The manufacturer of the instrument specifies this level. If this is not
the case, the calibration laboratory shall specify it.
3 - PRINCIPLES OF THE ELECTROMECHANICAL

MANOMETERS :
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The Guidelines deal with three types of electromechanical

manometers :
 pressure transducers,


3.1 Pressure transducers

The pressure transducers convert the measured pressure into an
analogue electrical signal that is proportional to the applied voltage.
According to the model, the output signal can be :



To ensure their function, the pressure transducers need a continuous
power supply stabilized to a level in relation to the expected uncertainty of
the pressure measurement .
3.2 Pressure transmitters

A pressure transmitter generally is a unit that consists of a pressure
transducer and a module for conditioning and amplifying the transducer
signal.
According to the model, the output information of a pressure
transmitter can be :

 -20 mA; ...),


For operation, pressure transmitters need a continuous electrical supply,

which need not be specifically stabilized .
3.3 Manometers with digital or analogue indication
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This type of manometer is a complete measuring instrument that

indicates units of pressure. According to the pattern, it may consist of the
following units :
(a) Manometer with a digital indication:

 ansducer,

 -to-digital converter,



(b) Manometer with an analogue indication:




These elements may be accommodated in one housing (internal

transducer) or constitute separate devices one of which is the transducer
(external transducer) .
The manometers may also be equipped with analogue or digital output
ports.
Note: Complete calibration of such an instrument makes it necessary to

perform a calibration for each output.
4 - Laboratory calibration procedures

4.1 Installation of the equipment
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
laboratory before starting the calibration in order to reach the
thermal equilibrium of the whole system.
 equipment from direct sunlight.


reference standard.

as close as possible and account for the difference in the pressure
reference level when calculating corrections and uncertainties.

torque, warm-up, for example.
4.2 Methods of calibration

If appropriate, the procedure of calibration should allow according to
the client's requirement the evaluation of the hysteresis, the linearity and
the repeatability of the instrument to be calibrated.
The applied procedure depends on the expected accuracy of the
instrument according to the client's requirement.
4.2.1 Basic calibration procedure

The basic calibration procedure should be used for the instruments
the expected expanded measurement uncertainty (k=2) of which is U > 0,2
% FS. Calibration is performed once at 6 pressure points in increasing and
decreasing pressures.
Repeatability is estimated from three repeated measurements in one
pressure point (preferably 50 % FS).
4.2.2 Standard calibration procedure

The Standard calibration procedure should be used for the
instruments the expected expanded measurement uncertainty (k=2) of
which is 0,05 % FS  U 
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Calibration is performed once at 11 pressure points in increasing and

decreasing pressures. Repeatability is estimated from calibration in four
pressure points (preferably 0, 20, 50, 80 % FS) that are repeated three
times.
4.2.3 Comprehensive calibration procedure

The Comprehensive calibration procedure should be used for the
instruments the expected expanded measurement uncertainty (k=2) of
which is U < 0,05 % FS.
Calibration is performed at 11 pressure points in three measuring
series.
4.3 Means to be used

4.3.1 Reference instrument
The reference instrument should comply with the following
requirements :

 uncertainty shall be better (if practicable) than that of the
instrument to be calibrated, the ratio being in general equal to or
greater than 2.
4.3.2 Mechanical set-up

4.3.2.1 Gauge pressure in gaseous media
The typical set-up may be as follows (see figure 1) :
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1. reference standard
2. instrument to be calibrated, mounted in a position of its normal
use
3. fine-regulated inlet valve
4. fine-regulated pressure relief valve
5. volume regulator
6. pressure source
Figure 1 - Set-up in gauge pressure, gaseous media
It is strongly recommended to use a pressurized container with dry

and clean gas as the pressure source. The container must be equipped with
a pressure-reducing valve or connected to a pressure control valve if
required by the measurement range of the
instrument to be calibrated.
The required pressure is roughly set up using inlet or outlet valves

depending on whether the pressure is supposed to be set up from low
pressure or from high pressure. The final pressure adjustment is performed
using a volume regulator.
4.3.2.2 Absolute pressure in gaseous media

The typical set-up may be as follows (see figure 2):
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1. reference standard
2. instrument to be calibrated, mounted in a position of normal use
5. volume regulator
6. pressure source
7. vacuum pump
Figure 2 - Set-up in absolute pressure, gaseous media
In order to ensure the quality of the gas, the vacuum pump shall be
equipped with accessories such as traps and isolating valves.
In the case of absolute pressures significantly higher than the
atmospheric pressure, the use of a gauge pressure reference standard and a
barometric pressure-measuring reference standard is acceptable. The set-
up recommended for gauge pressures is applicable. The value of the
absolute pressure is obtained by summation of the values of the pressures
measured with the two reference standards.
4.3.2.3 Gas differential pressure

The following set-up is recommended (see figure 3):
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1. two reference standards (or a differential pressure standard)

2. instrument to be calibrated
3. bypass valve
6. two volume regulators
7. vacuum pump (for line pressure below atmosphere)
8. pressure source
Figure 3 - Set-up in gas differential pressure
The required line pressure is roughly set up using inlet or outlet

valves depending on whether the pressure is supposed to be set up from
low pressure or from high pressure. The final pressure adjustment is
performed using a volume regulator.
During this procedure the bypass valve is open. The required
differential pressure is set up using one of the volume regulators.
Instead of using two reference standards, a differential pressure
standard or a twin pressure balance may be used.
A vacuum pump arranged downstream of the inlet valve can allow
the line pressure to be lower than the atmospheric pressure.
4.3.2.4 Hydraulic pressure :

The set-up for gauge pressure and differential pressure is basically the
same as that for gaseous media with the following options :
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
to a reservoir of pressure transmitting fluid,
 and/or
priming pump.
For absolute liquid pressures, refer to the last paragraph of section
5.3.2.2.
4.3.3 Electrical set-up

This section refers only to transducers and transmitters with an
analogue output signal.
If the transducer being calibrated is equipped with a signal
conditioner, concerning the electrical set-up follow the manufacture's
instructions If no signal conditioner is available, a relevant data sheet with
manufacturer's specifications shall be available.
If applicable, the voltmeter and the reference standard resistor shall
be calibrated and traceable to the corresponding national/international
standard.
In every case, it is important to follow the recommendations
concerning the electrical shielding, to ensure the quality of the connections
(of the "low-level" transducers in particular), to meet the safety
requirements. Some instruments may be supplied with a power supply
system or are supposed to be connected to such a system.
According to the instrument type, various set-ups are possible. This
Guide deals only with the three most typical set-ups:
4.3.3.1 Two-wire transmitters :

Generally, this is the case of instruments with DC loop (4 - 20) mA.
However some other output signals (0 to 10 mA, 0 to 20 mA or 0 to 50
mA) are applicable.
The typical set-up may be as follows (see figure 4) :
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1. transmitter
2. power supply
3. measurement
Figure 4 - Electrical set-up, two-wire transmitters
The current (I) is determined by measuring the output voltage (Us) at

the terminals of a calibrated standard resistor (R):
I = Us / R
It is recommended to follow he manufacturer's instructions

concerning the values of the power supply voltage and the resistor or the
client's specifications when appropriate.
4.3.3.2 Three-wire transmitters or transducers :

These are generally instruments with Wheatstone Bridge. The typical
set-up may be as follows (see figure 5):
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1. transmitter or transducer
2. power supply
3. measurement output
Figure 5 - Electrical set-up, three-wire transmitters or

transducers
For the selection of the power supply and the voltage-measuring

instrument, it is recommended to follow the manufacturer's specifications.
The resistor of this instrument shall, however, be sufficiently high (at least
10 times) compared with the
internal resistance of the transmitter or transducer.
4.3.3.3 Four-wire transmitters or transducers :

These are generally instruments with the Wheatstone Bridge.
The typical set-up is as follows (see figure 6):
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1. transmitter or transducer
2. power supply
3. measurement
Figure 6 - Electrical set-up, four-wire transmitters or transducers
As the output signal is a low-level signal, it is important to ensure an

appropriate quality of the earth connections and of the shielding.
Variants :
 signal is an amplified signal from the amplifier (high-
level outputs) incorporated in the transmitter.

compensation; the output of this probe may consist of one or two
supplementary wires.
4.4 Calibration sequences :

4.4.1 Preparatory work :
Prior the calibration itself, the good working condition of the
instrument shall be visually checked, especially :


It is recommended to perform the following operations:

- of the reference,
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- of the instrument to be calibrated (at the level of the connection

or at the reference level defined by the manufacturer),
 levels,

instructions.
4.4.2 Calibration procedures :

In the case of instruments with several outputs, it is sufficient to
perform the calibration for the output(s) specified by the user.
Irrespective of the instrument to be calibrated and of the procedure to be
used (refer to section 4.2), the operations are performed in three
successive steps :

range to determine the initial metrological condition of the
instrument,

specification,

measurement range or span.
Each of these operations, especially adjustment of the instrument, shall
be performed only with the agreement of the client and shall be reported in
the calibration certificate.
4.4.2.1 Initial check :

To determine the long-term drift of the instrument, it is necessary to
provide the user with some information on its condition prior to any
potential adjustment.
If the user does not apply for a complete calibration being carried out
prior to the adjustment, it is recommended to perform the following
operations :
 t least twice to its upper
pressure limit and keep the pressure for at least one minute,

for conformity with the specifications,
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 00 % of
its measurement span.
4.4.2.2 Adjustment :
If the response of the instrument does not conform to the
conventional response, i.e. :
- for a digital manometer with direct reading, if there is a
difference between the indicated pressure and the applied pressure,
- for a transmitter with electrical output, if there is a deviation from
the conventional signal of, for example, 4 to 20 mA),
perform an adjustment of the instrument according to the client’s
requirements.
Depending on the capabilities of the calibration laboratory such

procedure shall be performed :
-
(potentiometers for zero and full scale, sometimes with mid-scale),
-
(potentiometers, storage of a calibration curve, etc.), in conformity
with the information contained in the technical description, after
agreement of the client.
Note: This operation obviously presumes a detailed knowledge of the
adjustment procedures and requires specialized operators and calibration
means that are more powerful than the instrument to be calibrated.
If the instrument provides scale marks which are useful to the user
(calibration notches, restitution of a calibration curve for example), it is
recommended to determine these elements in order to report them in the
calibration certificate.
4.4.2.3 Main calibration

The calibration procedure to be used (cf. section 4.2) is selected
according to the
uncertainty of measurement expected for the instrument to be calibrated.
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At each calibration point at least the following data shall be recorded

:
-
elements necessary for calculating the pressure actually measured
(values of masses and temperature for a pressure balance, for
example)
-
The following data shall be also recorded :

-
pressure),
- instrument to be calibrated,
-
system and/or instrument used for measuring the output signal.
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Ministry Of Scientific Research

National Institute for Standard ( NIS )

water in shipping channels. They measured soundings in "fathoms" (the

1 statute mile = 0.8688 nautical miles = 1,760 yards = 320 rods = 8

Many English units are specific to certain professions or trades. A sea

1 meter = 0.001 kilometer = 1,000 millimeters =1,000,000 micrometers =

In 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted

symbol SI measurement units symbol unit dimensions

electric resistance R ohm  kg.m2/C2.s

Tables of Units of Mass Measurement

In the metric system of measurement, designations of multiples and subdivisions of

yotta, (Y) meaning 1024 deci, (d), meaning 10-1

10 milligrams (mg) = 1 centigram (cg)

27-11/32 grains = 1 dram (dr)

In "gross" or "long" measure, the following values are recognized:

112 pounds = 1 gross or long hundredweight 7

Troy Units of Mass

24 grains = 1 pennyweight (dwt)

Apothecaries Units of Mass

Units Avoirdupois Avoirdupois Short Short tons

1 short ton = 32 000 2000 20 1

Units Long Tons Kilograms Metric Tons

Units of Mass Not Greater Than Pounds and Kilograms

1 avdp. pound = 7000 350 291.6667 256

Units Apothecaries Avoirdupois Apothecaries or Apothecaries or

Units Avoirdupois Pounds Milligrams Grams Kilograms

1 avdp. Pound = 1 453 592.37.37 453.592 37 0.453 592 37

A measurement gives a number to that property.

Measurements are always made using an instrument of some kind.

The result of measurement is normally in two parts;

What is not a measurement?

Measurements may be part of the process leading to a test result

Uncertainty of measurement is the doubt which exists about the result of

Expressing uncertainty of measurement

Thus we need two number in order to quantify an uncertainty;

We might say that length of a certain stick measures 20 centimeters plus

20 cm ± 1 cm, at a level of confidence of 95%.

Accuracy; ability of a measuring instrument to give responses close to a

Drift; slow change of a metrological characteristic of a measuring

Repeatability; is precision under repeatability conditions, i.e. ability of

Reproducibility ; is precision under reproducibility conditions, i.e.

Uncertainty; is a quantification of the doubt about the measurement

Why is uncertainty of measurement important?

How many readings do you need to find an average?

Between 3 and 10 reading is sufficient

The spread of values tells us something about the uncertainty of a

Sometimes it is enough to know the range between the highest and

The usual way to quantify spread is standard deviation.

Where do errors and uncertainties come from?

 The measuring instrument – instruments can suffer from

Source of Error in Measurement

i- Instrumental Errors - are generally caused by

on a downward cycle. This effect, arising from various causes, is

used while vibrating, vibration will cause a blurring of the read-out

fraction of a division. The ability to visually divide a division into

by the observer. The ability of the observer to interpolate between

If a device is to be considered a primary standard, it must refer directly to absolute

Diagram of simple piston cylinder assembly

A piston gauge is essentially made up of a piston-and-cylinder assembly (PCA) and

Simple piston-cylinder assembly

The design of the higher pressure instruments is different in two respects:

If the system is in equilibrium (piston floating) we can say:

W the total weight of the piston assembly (W + W P )