Oceanography:

January 20, 2010:

 70.78% of the earth is covered by water

 You will feel 1kg/cm^2 in pressure when you are 10m in depth

 2.5% of the total amount of water is freshwater 97.5% is salt water

68.7% is in glaciers .8% is permafrost and 30.1% is ground water

rivers and lakes only contain about .007% of the total water

 The relative amount of water in various locations on or near Earth’s surface.

More than 97% of the water lies in the ocean. Of all water at Earth’s surface,
ice on land contains about 1.7%, groundwater 0.8%, rivers and lakes 0.007%,
and the atmosphere 0.001%.

o most of the land is in the Northern Hemisphere

Characteristics of the World Oceans

o Deepest spot: Mariana Trench 11,022m (36,163 feet)
o Highest spot is Mt. Everest 8848m (29,028 feet)
o Avg. depth 3,796 m ( 12,451 feet)
o Avg. temperature: 3.9C… 39F
o Age: about 4.6 billion years

Utilization of the Ocean:

o Transportation
o Natural resources
o High concentration of human population in the coastal region
o Pollution
o Naval power

Oceanography (Marine Science)

o Biological- study of the nature and distribution of marine organisms
o Chemical- study of the dissolved gases and solids in the ocean
o Geological- study of earths crust
o Physical- study waves, currents and climate prediction
o Marine Biology- the study of the nature and distribution of marine organisms
o Marine geology- the study of the earths crust and composition

Oceans role in Weather Forecast and Climate Change:

o Ocean covers 70.8% of the earths surface
 o Heat capacity of water is much larger than that of land and air
o Dominant role of ocean-atmosphere interaction in regulating the earths
weather and climate

1/21/10

Polynesian migration of the Pacific Ocean

 Ability to navigate trans-oceanic voyaged utilizing stars, clouds, wave and
wind pattern, migrating birds, etc.
 Systematic study of the ocean began at the library of Alexandria
 The library of Alexandria, in Egypt was founded in the 3rd century B.C.
became a repository of maritime records describing the Mediterranean coast.
 The principles of celestial navigation were invented at the library of
Alexandria
 Eratosthenes of Cyrene was the 2nd librarian at Alexandria.
o He was 1st to calculate the circumference of the Earth
 Used a technique for calculating the circumference of earth
 Calculated by looking at a shadow
 He had 2 pieces of information and made an assumption: the
sun is far and the earth is a sphere; at the center of the earth it
makes an angle and the distance is 85 km; if you know the
angle you can find the hypotenuse and find the radius to find
the circumference and diameter; he was accurate within 8%
o Invented longitude and latitude
o Used simple geometry

The Greek World according to Herodotus (450 BC)

Viking periodically raided various parts of Europe. They colonized Vinland and
Newfoundland (North America), though the colony was later abandoned.
They were the only ones to do notable things in the dark ages
Chinese Contributions
 They set out in the 1400s to explore the Indian Ocean, Indonesia, Africa, and
the Atlantic ocean. Their ships were laden with gifts designed to show
China’s wealth and degree of civilization. The Chinese invented:
o The central rudder
o Water-tight compartments
o Sails on multiple masts
o Magnetic compass most important

Chinese Ocean Exploration- 7 voyages 1405-1433

 The largest peacetime ocean exploration ever mounted (at least 317
ships and 37,000 men)
 They gave gifts out to people
 They did this to show their civilization and wealth

World prior to the age of Discovery

o Arabs controlled the trading route to Asia (silk, spices)
o Marco Polo, from Venice, wrote a book about his journey with his father and
uncle to China via Silk Route
o The silk Road and Spice trade routes became blocked by the Ottoman
Empire.

The Age of Discovery

o Portugal’s Prince Henry the Navigator
o Established a center for seafaring in order to mount expeditions to
open a new trading route to Asia
o Portuguese eventually reached the southern tip of Africa
o In 1498, Vasco DA Gama reached India by sailing around the tip of Africa
o Europeans explored the world by sea during the renaissance
o Henry the Navigator- explorers under his patronage complied
detailed charts and explored the west coast of Africa
o Christopher Columbus- (A Spanish) “discovered” the new world in
1492. Although in reality he never saw the mainland of North
America, his stories inspired other explorers to follow
o Ferdinand Magellan- he and his crew (220 people) took on
circumnavigation in 15-9-1522 by sailing westward from Europe. The
first voyage around the world. Only 18 people survived – he did this
for Spain
o English and Dutch took over trade

John Harrison’s Chronometer (needed to find longitude at sea)

 o With a magnetic Compass and an accurate clock , you can find your
location at sea
o You need to know your location for north and south but for east and
west you can use stars. You need to know the time in order to know
longitude
o 20,000 pounds was the reward for someone who could make the
chronometer
o John Harrison was a cabinet maker
o Finally his number 4 was the final piece that worked for the sea

James Cook, Commander in the British royal navy- his cruises are considered to be
the first scientific ocean exploration and greatly contributed to scientific
oceanography.
o Credited for finding Australia
o Verification of calculations of planetary orbits
o Charting of new Zealand and the great barrier reef, Tonga, and Easter
islands
o Was friendly with native populations
o Recording data concerning the ocean floor and geological formations

1st Scientific expeditions were undertaken by governments

o the US exploring expedition launched in 1838 was a naval and scientific
expedition
o the HMS Beagle, on which Charles Darwin served as a naturalist, voyaged to
South America and some Pacific Island
o HMS Challenger expedition of 1872-1876 was the first oceanic expedition
dedicated to scientific research. It was sponsored by royal society of London.
It started marine biology
o There cant be life under 500 meters
 b/c of no sunlight and because of pressure

American Contributions
o Ben Franklin published first map of the Gulf Stream ( a swift current
circulation clockwise in the north Atlantic ocean)

Mathew Fontaine Maury

o “Father of Physical Oceanography”
o organized vast amount of data on wind, current and weather recorded
in ship logbooks
o good at synthesizing information
o he got hurt- put into an office-

Latitude and Longitude

 o A 3rd century B.C chart showing the system of latitude and longitude
developed by Eratosthenes

o Diagrams showing the calculation of lines of latitude and longitude

Longitude Problem:

 Earth rotates once in every 24 hours

 Earth rotates from west to east
 Sun rises form the east and sets in the west
 Local noon time changes depending on where you are
 Relative to Greenwich, local noon occurs 1 hour late for ever 15 degrees
westward of Greenwich
When it is noon at Greenwich
 It is 1pm at 15 degrees East
 It is 11 am at 15 degrees West
 EARLIER IS EAST later is WEST
If you set your clock at Greenwich (0 degrees longitude) and travels either eastward
or westward without adjusting your clock to local time
If local noon (Sun is at its highest) occurs at 11 am (1 hr earlier than at Greenwich),
you are located at 15 degrees East
If local noon at 2 pm (2 hrs later than at Greenwich), you are located at 30 degrees
west

Assignment 1: you set your clock at Greenwich (0 degrees longitude) and travels
either eastward or westward without adjusting your clock to local time.
DUE: January 27, 2010

If local noon (Sun is at its highest) occurs at 10 am (2 hrs earlier than at Greenwich),
where are you located at (in terms of longitude)? Describe how you obtain the
answer.
If local noon occurs at 3pm (3 hrs later than at Greenwich), where are you located
at? Describe how you obtain the answer.

The 20th Century sees the most rapid development in oceanographic research
 Modern technological development was used
o Computer technology
o Instruments and sensors (Electronic instead of mechanical)
o Satellite technology
Military’s role in the development of oceanography
Government involvement in oceanography
International cooperation was needed

Other 20th century voyages

 German Meteor Expedition (1925) crisscrossed the South Atlantic for 2 years
and introduced modern optical and electronic equipment to oceanographic
research
o They introduced a device called the Echo sounder
 The first U.S. research ship built specifically for ocean studies was the Atlantis
(1931).
 A new HMS Challenger (1951) began a two--year voyage that would make
precise depth measurements in the Atlantic, Pacific, and the Indian Ocean
including the Mediterranean Sea. They discovered ocean’s deepest trench.
 The drilling ship Glomar Challenger (1968) set out to test a controversial
hypothesis about the history of the ocean floor. It could recover seafloor
sediments from depths up to 6000 m.

 Echo sounders sense the contour of the seafloor by beaming sound waves to
the bottom and measuring the time required for the sound waves to bounce
back to the ship.
  If the round-trip travel time and wave velocity are known, distance to the
bottom can be calculated. This technique was first used on a large scale by
the German research vessel Meteorin the 1920s (1925- 1927).

Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP)

 1960’s-1980’s (To test the hypothesis about the history of the ocean floor—
Plate Tectonics)
 It is capable of drilling into the ocean bottom beneath more than 6000 meters
of water and recovering samples of seafloor sediments

Oceanographic Institutions
 Oceanographic institutions, agencies, and consortia arose and evolved to
conduct large scale and complex ocean studies.
 Prominent oceanographic institutions in the United States:
 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (1930)
 Scripps Institution of Oceanography (1903)
 Lamont--Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University (1949)

Government Agencies:
 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
o National Ocean Service
o National Weather Service
o National Marine Fisheries Service
o Office of Sea Grant
Dept of Navy: The Office of Naval Research
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

TOPEX/POSEIDON Satellite measures sea surface topography (altimetry)

Ocean surface topography measured by satellite

Sea surface temperature distribution in the Gulf of Mexico from NOAA AVHRR
satellite

infrared band
 this satellite technology lets a see a continuous view
January 25, 2010

Origins
o -Earth was formed of material made in stars
o -Earth, ocean, and atmosphere accumulated in layers sorted by
density
o -Life probably originated in the ocean
o -What will be the future of earth?

The origin of the ocean is closely linked to the origin of the earth

What is the sun?- it’s a star

What is our galaxy?- milky way

The force that it’s all held together- gravity

The big bang is the term used to describe the beginning of the universe,
probably about 14 billion years ago. As the universe expanded, it cooled,
eventually allowing the formation of atoms, which then formed galaxies and
stars

Our universe is mainly made of 75% of hydrogen

Our stars are formed of gases

Stars:
What do stars have to do with the ocean?
o Most of the substances of Earth , its ocean, and all living things, was
formed by stars. Every chemical element heavier than hydrogen was
manufactured and released into space by stars.
o Our sun, like all normal stars, is powered by nuclear fusion
o Started with a nebula (mainly hydrogen)
o The spinning may have been initiated by the explosion by the super
nova

Formation of the planets of the solar system

~4.6 billion years

How did the earth become density stratified?

o Young earth was probably homogeneous- it was uniformed- everything in
the surface was the same
o Heat and gravitational pressure caused earth to partially melt
o Gravity then pulled the iron present into the center of earth- (iron)
o This heated earth further
 o Lighter minerals migrated to earths surface and formed the crust

The planet grew by the aggregation of particle. Meteors and asteroids

bombarded the surface, heating the new planet and adding to its growing mass.
At the time, earth was composed of a homogeneous mixture of materials.

Earth lost volume because of gravitational compression. High temperatures in

the interior turned the inner earth into a semisolid mass; dense iron (Red drops)
fell toward the center to form the core, while less dense silicate move outward.
Friction generated by this movement heated earth even more.

The result of density stratification is evident in the formation of an inner….

How did water and water vapor form on early earth?

o The sun stripped away earths first atmosphere
o Gases, including water vapor, released by the process of out gassing,
replaced the first atmosphere.
o Water vapor in the atmosphere condensed into clouds.
o After millions of years, the clouds cooled enough for water droplets to
form.
o Hot rain fell and boiled back into the clouds
o Eventually, the surface cooled enough for water to collect in basins

Volcanic activity is a major source of the earth’s ocean and atmosphere

Out gassing process releases water into the earths surface

Comets may have delivered some of earths surface water. Intense bombardment of
the early earth by large bodies- comets and asteroids probably lasted until about 3.8
billion years ago.

The Early Atmosphere

o The early atmosphere was very different form the atmosphere today
o Initially mainly we had nitrogen and carbon dioxide

Uniqueness of the earth’s present atmosphere/ Hospitable to living organisms

How much carbon dioxide we have now? It’s a very small amount

Water is required for any life form

o All life, from a jellyfish to a desert weed, depends on saline water within its
cells to dissolve and transport chemicals

Life probably originated in the ocean

o Fossil of a bacteria-like organism (with an artists reconstruction) that
photosynthesized and released oxygen into the atmosphere
 o Among the oldest fossils ever discovered, this microscopic filament from
northwestern Australia is about 3.5 billion years old

Origin of life on earth

o Single cell plant organisms, using sunlight, perform photosynthesis (using
sunlight, convert carbon dioxide into oxygen)
o Bacteria in the absence of sunlight, using chemical compounds such as
ammonia, methane, hydrogen sulfide…

What will be the future of the earth?

How long can earth exist?
o Our sun will begin to die in 5 billion years
o 6 billion years from now the sun will enter the red giant phase and will
engulf the inner planets
o At that time, earth will probably be recycled into component atoms

Other Ocean Worlds:

Where have scientists found evidence of water?
-Europa-
-Mars-

January 27, 2010

 Earth’s interior is layered inside

 The study of earth quakes provided evidence for laying
 Earths inner structure
o Layers classified by composition
o Layers classified by physical properties
o Isostatic equilibrium supports continents above sea level
A new understanding of earth evolved slowly that culminated in the theory of plate
tectonics

Formation of concentric layers

(heavier material sank toward the center of the earth and lighter material floated at
surface, which is the reason for the earth’s concentric spherical layers)
Earths interior is layered inside
o Density is a key concept for understanding the structure of Earth
o Density measures the mass per unit volume of a substance
o Density= mass/volume
o Density is expressed as grams per cubic centimeter kilograms per cubic
meter
o Water has a density of 1/g/cm3
1000 kg/m3

The study of earthquakes provides evidence for layering

What evidence supports the idea that earth has layers?
o The behavior of seismic waves generated by earthquakes give scientists
some of the best evidence about the structure of earth. Low frequency pulses
of energy generated by the forces that cause earthquakes can spread rapidly
through earth in all directions then return to the surface
o Surface waves causes most destruction
o P wave is the compressional wave- travels through solids and liquids
o S wave is the shield wave- travels side ways- travels only through
solids not liquids
o Earthquake waves passing through a homogenous planet would not
be reflected or refracted (bent). The waves would follow linear paths
(arrows)
 In a planet that becomes gradually denser and more rigid with
depth, the waves would bend along evenly curved paths.

 P waves (compressional waves) can penetrate the liquid outer

core but are bent in transit. A P-wave shadow zone forms between
103 degrees and 143 degrees from an earthquake’s source

 Our earth has a liquid outer core though which the side-to-side S
waves (shear waves) cant penetrate, creating a large “shadow
zone” between 103 degrees and 108 degrees from an earthquake’s
 source. Very sensitive seismographs can sometimes detect weak P-
wave signals reflecting off the solid inner core

 -As going into the interior of the earth, temperature increases

 -The highest temperature is found near the center of the earth
 -Heat has been escaping toward the outer space
 -Heat is due to radioactive decay
 -When there is pressure- temperature increases
- the center of the earth is hot b/c of radioactive decay
-the mantle is though to consist mainly of silicon, oxygen, iron, and magnesium
almost 40% of the material is oxygen
-the outer layer and inner core consist mainly of iron and nickel
the inner part is very dense
- the upper mantle is hard and malleable
- on top of that is the lithosphere- its cooled down

which layers is the densest-

inner core (solid)

the least is the-

the lithosphere

Earth’s layers may also be classified by physical properties

  Note that earth is density stratified, that is, each deeper layer is denser than
the layer above.
 Oceanic crust is heavier than continental crust
 Mantle
 Core- densest part 13g/cm^3

The layering of the lithosphere and asthenosphere

 Continental crust: granitic, less dense, thicker and older

 Oceanic crust: basaltic, denser, thinner and younger
o A cool, rigid, less dense layer (lithosphere) floats on a hot, slowly
flowing denser layer (asthenosphere)
 Why doesn’t the lithosphere sink into the asthenosphere? How are features
such as mountains supported?

Buoyancy is the ability of an object to float in a fluid by displacing a volume of that

fluid equal in eight to the floating objects own weight.
 When the weight increases on the ship- it displaces more water- that’s why
there is a limit to how much weight can be put on a boat
The buoyancy of an object depends on the density difference between itself and the
fluid

Icebergs sink into water so that the same proportion of their volume (about 90%) is
submerged. Therefore, for an iceberg to stand high in the water, it must have a deep
submerged portion to support it.

Large regions of earth’s continents are held above sea level by isostatic equilibrium,
a process analogous to a ship floating in water.
 Blocks of wood- the thicker blocks extend further a above the water than the
thinnest
Isostatic equilibrium supports continents above sea level
Erosion and isostatic readjustment can cause continental crust to become thinner in
mountainous regions
(a) a mountain range soon after its formation

(b) as mountains are eroded over time, isostatic uplift causes their roots to rise.
The same thing happens when an iceberg melts

(c) further erosion exposes rocks that were once embedded deep within the
peaks. Deposition of sediments away from the mountains often causes
nearby crust to sink

History of Plate Tectonics

 Alfred Wegener proposed Continental Drift (1915). He could not explain the
source of energy to move continents
 Harry Hess proposed seafloor spreading (1962)
 Now plate tectonics synthesizes all the previous ideas
Alfred Wegener and Continental Drift (1915)
 The fit of all continents around the Atlantic at a water depth of about 137
meters, as calculated by Sir Edward Bullard at the University of Cambridge in
the early 1960s.
 In his book “ the origin of continents and oceans” published in 1915,
Wegener proposed the continental drift theory
o Supercontinent Pangaea could explain:
 Shape of shorelines
 Mountains
 Fossil records
 Characteristic features left by ancient glaciers
 However, Wegener couldn’t explain how the continents move

Alfred Wegener’s theory of continental drift was out of favor with the scientific
community until new technology provided evidence to support his ideas
1) Seismographs revealed a pattern of volcanoes and earthquakes
2) Radiometric dating of rocks revealed a surprisingly young oceanic crust
3) Echo sounders revealed the shape of the mid-Atlantic ridge
Mid-Ocean Ridges

Trenches

Fracture Zones

January 29, 2010

Age of various rocks can be dated by measuring radioactive decay

Age of Ocean Floor: Ocean floor ages as you go away from midocean ridges

Seismic activity is not evenly distributed

Professor Harry Hess postulated that oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges
and moves toward trenches, where it is destroyed.

Major features of seafloor spreading

 New seafloor is being formed at mid-ocean ridges (spreading centers)
  Old seafloor is being destroyed at trenches (subduction zones)

Mantle Convection driven by the heat escaping from the earth’s interior provides
energy needed to maintain sea floor spreading

Plate tectonics: earth’s surface consists of several major lithospheric plates

 Plate tectonics theory suggests that earths surface is not a static arrangement
of continents and ocean, but a dynamic mosaic of jostling segments called
lithospheric plates. The plates have collided, moved apart, and slipped past
one another since earths crust first solidified

The confirmation of plate tectonics rests on diverse scientific studies from many
disciplines. Among the most convincing is the study of paleomagnetism, the
orientation of earths magnetic field frozen into rock as it solidifies

Paleomagnetism
  Study of geological past by examining the earths magnetic conditions
recorded in the rock samples
 At intervals of about 100,000 years, earths magnetic poles have gone through
reversals
 The magnetic of the of the north is negative polarity and south is positive?
 The earths magnetic field is important*

Magnetic anomalies recorded near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

 The molten rocks at the spreading center take on the polarity of the planet
while they are cooling. When Earth’s polarity reverses, the polarity of newly
formed rock changes

How to record magnetic reversals

 The molten rocks forming at the spreading center take on the polarity of the
planet when they are cooling and then move slowly in both directions from
the center. When earths magnetic field reverses, the polarity of new formed
rocks changes, creating symmetrical bands of opposite polarity

In 1965, the ideas of continental drift and seafloor spreading were integrated into
the overriding concept of plate tectonics, primarily by the work of John Tuzo Wilson,
a geophysicist at the University of Toronto

Main points of the Plate Tectonics theory include:

 Earth’s outer layer is divided into many lithospheric plates
  Earth’s plates float on the asthenosphere
 Plate movement is powered by convection currents in the asthenosphere at
seafloor spreading centers, and the downward pull of a descending plate’s
leading edge at subduction zones

A synthesis of continental drift and seafloor spreading produced the theory of plate
tectonics
 Where does the heat within Earth’s layers come from?
o Heat from within Earth keeps the asthenosphere flowing. This allows
the lithosphere to keep moving. Most of the heat that drives the plates
is generated by radioactive decay, given off when nuclei of unstable
elements break apart.
 The tectonic system is powered by heat. Some parts of the mantle are
warmer than others, and convection currents form when warm mantle
material rises and cool material falls. Above the mantle floats the cool, rigid,
lithosphere which is fragmented into plate. Plate movement is powered by
gravity: the plate slide down the ridges at the places of their formation; their
dense, cool leading edges are pulled back into the mantle.
The largest plate: the pacific plate and it’s the oldest
The Africa plate: Africa is being separated into 2 parts now

Plate tectonics could explain:

 Pattern of paleomagnetism
 Pattern of sedimentation
 Age of continents and oceanic crust
 Ocean depth increases away from the mid ocean ridge
 Pattern of earthquakes and volcanic activities
 Shape of coastlines
 Fossil records
 Hot spots
 Atoll and guyots

Plate tectonics: earths surface consists of several major lithospheric plates.

 Plate tectonics theory suggest that earths surface is not a static arrangement
of continents and ocean, but a dynamic mosaic of jostling segments called
lithospheric plates . the plates have collided, moved apart, and slipped past
one another since earths crust first solidified

Most tectonic activity occurs at plate boundaries:

 Earthquake activity: shallow and deep
o Shallow occur at midoceanic ridges- they are spreading centers;
subduction zones are where plates are being destroyed

Most Tectonic Activity Occurs at Plate Boundaries

As plate A moves to the left (west), a gap forms behind it (1) and an overlap with
Plate B forms in front of (2). Sliding occurs along the top and bottoms sides (3)
The margins of Plate A experience the 3 types of interactions: At (1), extension
characteristic of divergent boundaries; at (2), compression characteristic of
convergent boundaries; and at (3), the shear characteristic of transform plate
boundaries

The earth is divided into plates and at certain boundaries we have new material
being formed at mid oceanic regions- its spreading centers; in some other areas we
have material being destroyed in the subduction zones

3 types of plate boundaries:

 divergent (Spreading centers), mid-ocean ridges, hydrothermal activity,
pillow lavas, shallow earthquakes
 convergent (subduction), trenches, volcanoes, island arcs, deep earthquakes
 transform-fault (2 plates sliding past each other, faults

most tectonic activity occurs at plate boundaries

 the lithospheric plates interact with the neighboring plates in several ways
o divergent plate boundaries- boundaries between plates moving apart,
further classified as:
 divergent oceanic crust- for example, the mid-atlantic ridge
 divergent continental crust- for example, the Rift Valley of East
Africa
 below- extension of divergent boundaries causes splitting and
rifting

convergent plate boundaries- regions where plates are pushing together

example: mt. ranges/ south america
(Below) compression at convergent boundaries produces buckling and shortening

transform plate boundaries- locations where crustal plates move past one
another, for example, the San Andreas fault
ocean basins are formed at divergent plate boundaries
divergent plate boundaries- boundaries between plates moving apart, further
classified as:
(figure below)
(a) as the lithosphere began to crack, a rift formed beneath the continent, and
molten basalt from the asthenosphere began to rise
(b) as the rift continued to open, the two new continents were separated by a
growing ocean basin. Volcanoes and earthquakes occur along the active rift
area, which is the mid-ocean ridge. The east African rift valley currently
resembles this stage
(c) a new ocean basin (shown in green) forms beneath a new ocean

near mid-ocean ridges

if the rate of spreading is larger than the rate of subduction than the ocean basin is
expanding
Hydrothermal circulation near a mid-ocean ridge
black smoker
 when hot water circulation near the mid-ocean ridges comes in contact with
cold surrounding sea water, precipitation of sulfur-bearing minerals takes
place.
 Rich biological communities flourish near vents (vent community based on
chemosynthesis)

ocean bottom near mid-ocean ridges is littered with pillow lavas

 first direct observation of pillow lavas near mid-ocean ridges was made near
the mid-atlantic ridge using submersible ALVIN (mid 1970s)
 Active hydrothermal vents were discovered by ALVIN near the East Pacific
rise (late 1970s) (black smokers)

island arcs form, continents collide, and crust recycles at convergent plate
boundaries
Convergent Plate Boundaries: regions where plates are pushing together can be
further classified as:
 Oceanic crust toward continental crust- for example, the west coast of
South America
 Oceanic crust toward oceanic crust- occurring in the northern pacific
 Continental crust toward continental crust- one example is the
Himalayas

(Above) A cross section through the west coast of South America, showing the
convergence of a continental plate and an oceanic plate. The subducting oceanic
plate becomes more dense as it descends, its downward slide propelled by
gravity. At a depth of about 80 kilometers (50 miles), heat drives water and
other volatile components from the subducted sediments into the overlying
mantle, lowering its melting point. Masses of the melted material, rich in water
and carbon dioxide, rise to power Andean volcanoes (deep earthquakes)

(Above) The formation of an island arc along a trench as two oceanic plates
converge. The volcanic islands form as masses of magma reach the seafloor. The
Japanese islands were formed in this way. Magma is the seafloor.
 The distribution of shallow, intermediate, and deep earthquakes for part of
the
 Pacific Ring of Fire in the vicinity of the Japan trench.
 Note that the earthquakes occur only on one side of the trench, the side on
which the place subducts.
 The great Indonesian tsunami of 2005 was caused by these forces; the site
of the catastrophic 1995 Kobe subduction earthquake is marked
 (Above) A cross section through southern China, showing the convergence of
two continental plates. Neither plate is dense enough to subduct; instead, their
compression and folding uplift the plate edges to form the Himalayas. Notice
compression and folding uplift the plate edges to form the Himalayas. Notice the
massive supporting “root” beneath the emergent mountain needed for isostatic
equilibrium.

Crust fractures and slides at transform plate boundaries

 Transform faults (orange) form because the axis of seafloor spreading on the
surface of a sphere cannot follow a smoothly curving line. The motion of 2
diverging lithospheric plates (arrows) rotates about an imaginary axis
extending through earth.

 A long transform plate boundary, which include California’s san Andréa’s

fault. Note the offset plate boundaries caused by divergence on a sphere.
A history of plate movement has been captured in residual magnetic fields
 Paleomagnetism: strips of alternating magnetic polarity at spreading regions
 The patterns of paleomagnetism support plate tectonic theory. The molten
rocks at the spreading center take on the polarity of the planet while they are
cooling. When earths polarity reverses, the polarity of newly formed rock
changes
 When scientists conducted a magnetic survey of a spreading center, the mid-
atlantic ridge, they found bands of weaker and stronger magnetic fields
frozen in the rocks
 The molten rocks forming at the spreading center take on the polarity of the
planet when they are cooling and then move slowly in both directions from
the center. When earth’s magnetic field reverses, the polarity of new-formed
 rocks changes, creating symmetrical bands of opposite polarity

oceanic crust- the japaneses islands- 2 oceanic crust going towards each other
continental crust- the Indian continental crust, the asian continental crust

ocean floor age

 the age of the ocean floors. The colors seen here represent an expression of
seafloor spreading over the last 200 million years as revealed by
paleomagnetic patterns. Note, especially the relative symmetry of the
Atlantic basin in contrast with the asymmetrical pacific, where the spreading
center is located close to the eastern margin and intersects the coast of
California.

Plate movement above mantle plumes and hot spots provides evidence of
plate tectonics
o Formation of a volcanic island chain as an oceanic plate moves over a
stationary mantle plume and hot spot (the location of hot sports
remain fixed for a long time). In this example, showing the formation
of the Hawaiian islands, Loihi is such a newly forming island.
 February 1, 2010

Chapter 4

Continental margins and ocean basins

 Seafloor features result form a combination of tectonic activity and the
processes of erosion and deposition
 As the continents break up- parts of the continents have subsided below the
ocean

The ocean floor is mapped by bathymetry

 The discovery and study of ocean floor contours is called bathymetry
 Challenger report (1880)
 Seamen are handing the stream winch used to lower a weight on the end of a
line to the seabed to find ocean depth
 Manual work that was repetitive and took a long time

Bathymetry: the study of the ocean floor contours

 How did early scientists study the ocean floor?
 o Early bathymetric studies were often performed using a weighted line
to measure the depth of the ocean floor
 Advances in bathymetry
o Echo sounding
o Multibeam systems- multiple echo sounders that are joined together
o Satellite altimetry

Echo sounders bounce sound off the seabed

 Echo sounding is a method of measuring seafloor depth using powerful
sound pulses. The accuracy of an echo sounder can be affected by water
conditions and bottom contour. The pulses of sound energy, or “pings”, from
the sounder spread out in a narrow cone as they travel from the ship. When
depth is great, the sounds reflect from a large area of seabed. Because the
first sound of the returning echo is used to sense depth, measurements over
deep depressions are often inaccurate
 Depth= v(t/2) (v= velocity of sound)
 The first reflection is the depth/ generally ignore the 2nd and 3rd return b/c
they think it could be from sediments
 Different layers of sediments can return different sounds
Multibeam systems combine many echo sounders
 Multibeam systems can provide more accurate measurements than echo
sounders do. Multibeam systems collect data from as many as 121 beams to
measure the contours of the ocean floor.

Satellites can be used to map seabed contours

 Satellite altimetry measure the sea surface height from orbit. Satellites can
bound 1,000 pulses of radar energy off the ocean surface every second
o Geosat, us navy satellite, 1985-1990, provided measurements of sea
surface height from orbit. Moving above the ocean surface at 7km (4
miles) a second, Geosat bound 1,000 pulses of radar energy off the
ocean every second. Height accuracy was within .03 meters (1 inch)
o With the use of satellite altimetry, sea surface levels can be measure
more accurately, showing sea surface distortion. Distortion of the sea
surface above a seabed feature occurs when the extra gravitational
attraction of the feature “pulls” water toward it form the sides,
forming a mound of water over itself

The topography of ocean floors

 Cross section of the Atlantic ocean basin and the continental US, showing the
range of elevations. The vertical exaggeration is 100:1
 Although ocean depth is clearly greater than the average height of the
continent, the general range of contours is smaller
Ocean covers 70.8% of earth’s surface
Land covers 29.2% (concentrated mostly in the N. Hemisphere)

Distribution of water (in volume) on earths surface

 More than 97% of all the water found at or near the surface of the earth is
contained in the ocean while the bulk of the remaining ~3% is contained in
the glaciers in Antarctic Continent and Greenland
The hypsographic curve showing the distribution elevations and depths on the earth
 A hypsographic curve is a plot of the area of the earth’s surface above any
given elevation or depth above or below sea level
 Note that more than half of earths solid surface is at least 3,000 meters
(10,000 feet) below sea level.
 The average depth of the ocean (3,790 meters) is much greater than the
average elevation of the continents (840 meters)
 Mariana trench ~11km – deepest depth
Continental margins and ocean basins
 What are the 2 classification of ocean floor?
o Continental margins- the submerged outer edge of a continent
o Ocean basin- the deep seafloor beyond the continental margin
 Near shore, the features of the ocean floor are similar to those of the adjacent
continents because they share the same granitic basement. The transition to
basalt marks the true edge for the continent and divides ocean floors into 2
major provinces. The submerged outer edge of a continent is called the
continental margin. The deep-sea floor beyond the continental margin is
properly called the ocean basin.

Cross section of oceanic basin (e.g., Atlantic ocean)* know this diagram
 Continental margins have several distinct components.
 Cross section of a typical ocean basin flanked by passive continental margins
 The submerged outer edge of a continent is called the continental margin
 The deep-sea floor beyond the continental margin is properly called the
ocean basin
 Continental slope has the steepest slope, and the abyssal plain is the flattest
 Difference between 2 continental and oceanic crust:
o Oceanic crust goes over continental b/c its higher density
o Where was the oceanic crust formed- it was formed at the mid oceanic
ridges
o The oceanic crust is still magma, but its basaltic
o the continental crust cooled slowly

 continental rise is where the continental slope meets the oceanic crust
 continental shelf and continental rise are covered by sediments
 the continental margin: continental shelf, slope, rise
o continental slope- continental slope goes down to the oceanic crust
 as you go away from mid oceanic ridge, depth increases
Continental margins and ocean basins
 What are the 2 types of continental margins
o Passive margins, also called Atlantic-type margins, face the edges of
diverging tectonic plates. Very little volcanic or earthquake activity is
associated with passive margins (US East Coast)
o Active margins, known as pacific-type margins, are located near the
edges of converging plates. Active margins are the site of volcanic and
earthquake activity (US West Coast)

Continental margins have several distinct components

cross section of a typical ocean basin flanked by passive continental margins

The submerged outer edge of a continent is called the continental margin. The
Deep sea floor beyond the continental margin is properly called the ocean basin.
Continental slope has the steepest slope, and the abyssal plain is the flattest. Ocean
floor environment (crust) is basaltic (type of rock-basalt) Continental crust is
granitic

Continental Margins may be active or passive

Typical continental margins bordering the tectonically active (Pacific-type) and

passive (Atlantic type) edges of a moving continent. The vertical Scale has been
exaggerated
  Continental margins facing the edge of diverging plates are called passive
margins
 The shelf at a passive margin is broad
 Continental margins near the edges of converging plates (or near places
where plates are slipping past each other) are called active margins
 The shelf at an active margin is narrow

Continental Shelves are Seaward Extensions of the Continents

 The features of a passive continental margin :
o (a)Vertical exaggeration 50:1
o (b)No vertical exaggeration margin

Continental margins may be active or passive

o on the west coast you see the active margins because the oceanic plate is
pushing against the south American plate- its subducting it- due to
subduction- you can see an active margin- with mountains- with active
margins- its very deep
o passive margins- shelf extends for a long distance

continental shelves are seaward extensions of the continents

o the features of a passive continental margin:
o vertical exaggeration 50:1
o no vertical exaggeration margin

ocean crust is basaltic- it’s a type of rock- continental crust is granitic-

the difference is the density. When the magma comes out of the spreading center it
comes in contact with cold water so it cools fast- (basaltic)

February 3, 2010
Continental Margins may be active or passive
 Continental margins have several components:
o Continental shelf- the shallow, submerged edge of the continent
o Continental slopes-the transition between the continental shelf and
the deep-ocean floor
o Shelf break- the abrupt transition from continental shelf to the
continental slope
o Continental rises-accumulated sediment found at the base of the
continental slope

Changes in seal level over the last 250,000 years

 Changes in sea level over the last 250,000 years, as traced by data taken from
ocean floor cores. The rise and fall of sea level is due largely to the coming
and going of ice ages—periods of increased and decreased glaciations,
respectively. Because water that formed the ice-age glaciers came from the
ocean, sea level dropped. Point a indicated a low stand of -125 meters at the
climax of the last ice age some 18,000 years ago. Point b indicated a high
stand of +6 meters (+19.7 feet) during the last interglacial period about
120,000 years ago. Point c shows the present sea level. Sea level continues to
rise as we emerge from the last ice age and enter an accelerating period of
global warming.

at the peak of the last glacial period (A), coast was located near the present
shelf break (present continental shelf was land!)

Submarine canyons form at the junction between continental shelf and continental
slop
 Submarine canyons are a feature of some continental margins. They cut
into the continental shelf and slope, often terminating on the deep-sea floor
in a fan-shaped wedge of sediment
  (below) A turbidity current flowing down a submerged slope off the island of
Jamaica. A turbidity current is not propelled by the water within it but by
gravity. The propeller of a submarine caused the turbidity current by
disturbing sediment along the slope.
 Avalanche-like sediment movement caused when turbulence mixes
sediments into water above a sloping bottom are called turbidity currents

Turbidity currents flow down submarine canyons and deposit sediments as deep-
sea fans
 Turbidity currents are an underwater “avalanche” of sediments thought
responsible for the sculpturing of submarine canyons and a means of
sediment transport into abyssal plains.

Abyssal plain- flat part of the oceans

Seamounts- volcanic mounts in the ocean more than 1 km height- other than we that
we would call them hills
The topology of deep-ocean basins differs from that of the continental margin
 What are some features of the deep-ocean floor?
o Oceanic ridges- most important feature
o Hydrothermal vents
o Abyssal plains and abyssal hills- the plains in the deep ocean- have
hills
o Seamounts and guyots
o Trenches and island arcs- example of island arcs: formed at
subduction zones- Japan Islands

Oceanic Ridges Circle the World

 An oceanic ridge is a mountainous chain of young, basaltic rock at an active
spreading center of an ocean. The oceanic ridge system (in colors) stretches
some 65,000 km (40,000 miles) around earth. The thickness of the red lines
indicates the rate of spreading for some of the most rapidly spreading
sections, and the numbers give spreading rates in centimeters per year. The
east pacific rise typically spreads about 6 times as fast as the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge
 The spreading rate is not uniform everywhere
 Based on the spreading rate we can more or less tell where the spreading
rate
 If its small it should be in Atlantic, if it’s a high rate its in the pacific
 Pacific spreading rate is about 6x more than in the Atlantic ocean
 Andes’ mountains- have lots of volcanic activity b/c the pacific plate is
spreading, a lot more material coming out in this area, the subduction rate is
much higher.
 Earth quake activity is much more in the south American area
Oceanic ridges circle the world
 Rapid spreading at the East pacific rise (lower image) spreads ridge features
over a greater area. The slops spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
concentrates the features in a smaller area with more pronounced contours.
 Transform faults and fracture zones along an oceanic ridge
 Transform faults are fractures along with lithospheric plates slide
horizontally past one another. Transform faults are the active part of fracture
zones

Hydrothermal Vents are Hot Springs on Active Oceanic Ridges

 Hydrothermal vents are sites where superheated water containing dissolved
minerals and gases escapes through fissures, or vents. Cool water (blue
arrows) is heated as it descends toward the hot magma chamber, leaching
sulfur, iron, copper, zinc, and other materials form the surrounding rocks.
The heated water (red arrows) returning to the surface carries these
elements upward, discharging them at hydrothermal springs on the seafloor.
Volcanic Seamounts and Guyots Project above the Seabed
 Seamounts are volcanic projections form the ocean floor that don’t rise above
sea level. Flat-topped seamounts eroded by wave action are called guyots
 Abyssal Hills are flat areas of sediment-covered ocean floor found between
the continental margins and oceanic ridges. Abyssal hills are small, extinct
volcanoes or rock intrusions near the oceanic ridges
trenches are arc-shaped depressions in the coean floor caused by the subduction of
a converging ocean plate.

Most trenches are around the edges of the active pacific. Trenches are the deepest
places in earths crust, 3-6 km (1.9-3.7 miles) deeper than the adjacent basin floor.
The oceans greatest depth is the Mariana Trench where the depth reaches 11,022
meters (36,163 miles) below sea level.

Trenches and Island Arcs form in Subduction Zones

The Mariana Trench
(a) comparing the challenger deep and mount Everest at the same scale shows
that the deepest part of the Mariana trench is about 20% deeper than the
mountain is high.
(b) The Mariana trench shown without vertical exaggeration
HOMEWORK 1:
ANSWER 1:
30 degrees East of Greenwich
relative to Greenwich, local time occurs 1 hour early for every 15 degrees E of
Greenwich. Therefore 2 hours earlier than Greenwich would locate me at 30 degrees
east of Greenwich

ANSWER 2:
45 degrees West of Greenwich
relative to Greenwich, local time occurs 1 hour late for every 15 degrees W of
Greenwich. Therefore 3 hours later than Greenwich would locate me at 45 degrees
west of Greenwich

February 3, 2010

Sediments:
 Sediment is particles of organic or inorganic matter that accumulate in a
loose, unconsolidated form. Sediment may be classified by grain size or by
the origin of the majority of the particles
 2 classifications:
 o grain size
o the source of it (land, ocean, so on)

Ocean sediments are important b/c they provide:

 a record of ocean basin history
 a record of global climate change
 a record of bottom physical processes (bottom currents, etc)

Figure B2-1

Seismic echo profile of sea floor sediments in the Gulf of Mexico

 Tells us info on the history of the climate
 Seismic profiles we can use to study so we don’t have to go out and get
samples
Figure 4B Dynamic positioning of the JOIDES Resolution

A Deep-sea sediment core obtained by the drilling ship Glomar Challenger

 The brown can tell us of the organic matter that can be good for plant matter
 May have been a volcanic event
 Provides us information that has happened in the past

 Cores are sectioned longitudinally, placed in trays, and stored in hermetically

sealed cold rooms. The gulf coast Repository of the Ocean Drilling program,
located at Texas A&M University (pictured here), stores about 75,000
sections taken from ore than 80 km (50 miles) of cores recovered form the
Pacific and Indian oceans. Smaller core libraries are maintained at the
Scripps Institution in California (pacific and Indian oceans) and at the
Lamont-Doherty Earth observatory in New York State (Atlantic Ocean)
Classification of sediments by particle size
 Although boulders, cobbles, and peddles occur in the ocean, most marine
sediments are made of finer particles: sand, silt, and clay
 Table 5.1 Particle Sizes and Settling Rate in Sediment

The velocities of currents required for erosion

 The velocities of currents required for erosion, transportation, and
deposition (sedimentation) of sediment particles of different sizes.
 To dislodge and carry a particle size A, the speed of current must exceed 20
cm/s. When the current falls below 1 cm/s, the particle will be deposited
 For sand-size and coarser grain sediments, the larger the particle, the
stronger the current must be to erode the material. Surprisingly, greater
current velocities are required to erode clays (finer sediments), despite the
small size, than to erode fine sand. Those fine-clay particles tend to form
aggregates thus are cohesive and, hence “stickier” than sand.
 The velocity of the current required to initiate the erosion (black line)
 The deposition (the velocity at which the particle will it start sinking to the
bottom (red line)
 Particle A= .07 (velocity is 20 cm/sec) (black line) if it falls back at 1 cm/sec
the particle will start sinking (red line)
 The fine particles like clay are cohesive and need stronger currents to
dislodge them
Sediments of high (top) and low (bottom) energy environments:
Bottom- uniform- homogeneous
Top- heterogeneous

Sorting is a function of the energy of the environment

 Well-sorted sediments:
 Composed of particles of mostly one size.
 Where energy fluctuates within a narrow range
 Deep sea floor

Poorly-sorted sediments:
 Sediments with a mixture of sizes
 Where energy fluctuates over a wide range
 Near submarine canyon turbidity current

Forces of sediment transport

 Gravity- in order for particles to settle- density must be more than water
 Wind- wind can blow dust across continents
 Waves- energetic waves can re-suspend the sediment
 Turbidity currents- the sediments mix with water- high density falls
  Oceanic currents- there are different speeds/ they can move clay materials
(clay is in suspension for long time)
 Glaciers and icebergs- in antartic the glaciers extend out in the shelf and
when they form the ice has a sediments and in the summer when they melt,
they release some sediments

Classification of sediments by source:

 Lithogeneous (Terrigenous): - Terri is the same as earth- come from land
 Biogeneous: hard parts of some marine organisms
o Siliceous—silicon-containing and calcareous- calcium carbonate
 Hydrogenous (authigenic): precipitated directly from sea water
 Cosmogenous: from outer space- like dust coming from space
 Most sediment deposits are mixtures of terrigenous and biogenious
particles

An example of lithogeneous/terrigenous sediments: ash cloud from a volcanic

eruption

An example of terrigeneous sediments: dust storm blowing from Sahara Desert

A biogenous sediment that contains more than 30% of the hard parts (Shells) of
planktonic marine organisms is called ooze
 Calcareious ooze: calcium- containing material
 Siliceous ooze: silica rich residues
Calcareous- calcium carbonate
 Calcareous Sediments
 Organisms that contribute to calcareous ooze.
o 1- a living foraminiferan, an amoeba-like organism. The shell of this
beautiful foraminiferan, genus Hastigerina, is surrounded by a
bubblelike capsule. It is one of the largest of the planktonic species
with spines, reaching nearly 5 centimeters (2 inches) in length
o 2-The shell of a smaller foraminiferan- the snail- like planktonic
Globigerina- is visible in this visible light micrograph.
o 3-Coccoliths, individual plates of coccolithophores, a form of
planktonic algae. Because of their tendency to dissolve, calcareous
oozes very rarely occur at bottom depths below 4,500 meters (14,800
feet). Note its very small size in this scanning electron micrograph

siliceous-silicon-containing
 Siliceous sediments
 Micrographs of siliceous oozes, which are most common at great depths
 1- Shells of radiolarians, amoeba-like organisms. Radiolarian oozes are found
primarily in the equatorial regions
 2- A shell of a diatom, a single celled alga. Diatom oozes are most common at
high latitudes

Biogenous sediment:
 A Fecal pellet of a planktonic animal
Cosmogenous sediment
 Cosmic dust

Hydrogenous sediment:
 Manganese nodules
 Lemon-sized manganese nodules littering the abyssal pacific

A cross section of a manganese nodule

Sorting of sediments on continental shelf:

 Coarser materials settle out first.
 In deep water, finer sediments settle out
 Grain size decreases as you go away from the coast
Turbidity currents flow down submarine canyons and deposit sediments as deep-
sea fans
 Turbidities: are sediment deposits formed by turbidity currents

Classification of sediments by location of deposits:

Neritic—of the shore or coast (contains mostly terrigenous material)
Pelagic—the open ocean (contain a greater proportion of biogenous material)
The formation of glacial-marine sediments (Southern Ocean, Greenland)

The sediments of deep-ocean basins:

 Turbidites: deposit laid down by turbidity currents (more prevalent in
Atlantic than Pacific. Trenches in the pacific trap most of the turbidites)
 Clays: the smallest sediment category (<.004 mm) about 37% of deep sea
sediments are clays
 Oozes: sediments of at least 30% biological origin. (calcareous ooze, siliceous
ooze)
 Siliceous oozes dominate in deep water

Calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD)

 At deep depths, sea water becomes slightly acidic
  Below CCD, calcareous sediments dissolve, so no calcareous oozes form.
Siliceous oozes dominate in deep water.

below CCD, water holds more CO2, which results in more carbonic acid, which
dissolves CaCO3 faster

The sediments of deep-ocean basins

 Sediments are thinnest near the mid-ocean ridges, and thickest near the
continental rise
Total sediment thickness of the ocean floor, with the thinnest deposits in dark blue
and thickest in red. Note the abundant deposits along the east and Gulf Coasts of
North America, in the South China Sea, and in the Bay of Bengal east of India.

The distribution and average thickness of marine sediments:

Sediments are historical records of ocean processes
The ages of portions of the Pacific ocean floor, based on core samples of sediments
just above the basalt seabed, in millions of years ago (Ma, mega-annum.) the
youngest sediments are found near the East Pacific Rise; and the oldest, close to the
eastern side of the trenches

Economic importance of marine sediments

 Oil and gas fields
 Source of sand and gravel