Screwed Fitting - An Overview - ScienceDirect Topics PDF

10/19/2020 Screwed Fitting - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Screwed Fitting
Related terms:
Expansion Joints, Flanges, Piping Systems, Butt Joint, Nozzle, Male Thread, Pipe
Header, Reinforcing Pad
Pipe Fittings
Roy A. Parisher, Robert A. Rhea, in Pipe Drafting and Design (Third Edition), 2012
Screwed and Socket-Weld Fittings

Screwed and socket-weld fittings perform the same basic functions as butt-weld
fittings. Like butt-weld fittings, elbows, tees, and reducers are manufactured for
screwed and socket-weld applications. There are, however, a few differences that
must be examined. Screwed and socket-weld fittings are normally reserved for
installations where the nominal pipe size is 3″ and smaller. Screwed and socket-
weld fittings are also available in cast iron, malleable iron, or forged steel. Typically,
forged steel fittings are used on high pressure and temperature lines. However,
low pressure and temperature lines, such as air, water, or condensate, are
fabricated using either cast or malleable iron fittings.
Pipe lines containing high pressure and temperature commodities, which are
subject to substantial amounts of movement and vibration, mandate fittings made
of forged steel. For these reasons, forged steel screwed and socket-weld fittings are
manufactured in two pressure classes—3000# and 6000#. The sizing charts, shown
in Appendix A, provide the dimensional measurements for 3000# and 6000#
screwed and socket-weld fittings. Figures 3.54 and 3.55 display a portion of the
screwed and socket-weld fitting dimensioning charts found in Appendix A.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/screwed-fitting 1/47
Figure 3.54. Screwed fittings dimensioning chart.
Figure 3.55. Socket-weld fittings dimensioning chart.
Most screwed fittings are manufactured with internal, or female, threads as defined
by the American Standard and API thread guidelines. As shown in Figure 3.56, of
particular concern to the pipe designer is the amount of pipe length lost during the
assembly of screwed fitting configurations. When screwed fittings and threaded
pipe are assembled, a certain amount of pipe length is lost as a result of the
internal and external, or male, thread connecting process. Each time a threaded
connection, or engagement, is made, the configuration gets shorter. The length of
this engagement varies depending upon the nominal pipe size and pound rating of
the fitting. The procedure to determine the actual center-to-center length of a
threaded configuration is to subtract the total length of all the thread engagements
from the total unassembled length of pipe and fittings. The unassembled length can
be thought of as all the pieces, both fittings and pipe, being laid out end to end.
From this unassembled length, the total of all the thread engagements is then
subtracted to determine the total assembled length. The formula below applies the
values shown in Figure 3.56 to calculate the assembled length.
Figure 3.56. Internal and external thread engagements.
Some fittings, such as plugs and swages, however, are manufactured with external
threads and their assembled lengths are treated differently, as will be explained
later.
The socket-weld fitting has become the fitting of choice for many fabricators
because it offers greater strength at each point of connection. Even though
screwed fittings can be seal-welded if necessary, strength of the fitting is decreased
when the threads are cut during the manufacturing process. Socket-weld fittings
can be easily fitted and welded without the need of special clamps or tack-welds,
which are often required to hold a fitting in place before the final weld is made.
Like screwed fitting configurations, during the assembly of socket-weld
configurations, there is pipe length loss. This lost length is equal to the depth of
the socket, or socket depth, and must be accounted for when calculating overall
lengths of pipe runs. However, there is a slight difference from screwed pipe
assemblies. On socket-weld connections, a gap is factored into each socket-
weld connection. Figure 3.57 provides a sectional view of two socket-weld elbows
and the connecting pipe. Notice two socket depths must be subtracted from the
total unassembled length of the two elbows and the piece of pipe, then ⅝″ is
added back to account for the two gaps, before an assembled configuration
length can be determined. If a formula were applied to calculate the assembled
length using the values shown in Figure 3.57, it would look like
Figure 3.57. Socket-weld fitting connections.
Fittings
Like butt-weld fittings, screwed and socket-weld fittings are used to make similar
routings in the piping system, but only in smaller pipe sizes. Screwed and socket-
weld fittings differ in size and shape, but they achieve the same purpose as butt-
weld fittings. However, there are some differences. Ninety degree elbows are not
available as long-radius or short-radius, and their center-to-end dimension must
be found on a dimensioning chart, as no formula is available for calculating their
radius length. Figure 3.58 provides examples of some screwed and socket-weld
fittings.
Figure 3.58. Screwed and socket-weld fittings.
Screwed and socket-weld fittings are represented differently on drawings than their
butt-weld counterparts. For example, screwed and socket-weld elbows are drawn
with square corners, using short hash marks to represent the connection points of
the fitting and its mating pipe. Some engineering companies even draw short ears
on the hash marks to indicate a difference between screwed and socket-weld
symbols (see Figure 3.59).
Figure 3.59. Screwed and socket-weld drawing symbols.
There are, however, some fittings that are unique to the screwed and socket-weld
family of fittings. These fittings do not lend themselves to butt-weld applications
and are manufactured solely for use in screwed and socket-weld configurations. A
brief discussion of those is as follows.
Unions
The union, shown in Figure 3.60, is a fitting placed within a piping configuration
that will allow the assembly to be disassembled for inspection, repair, or
replacement. Manufactured for screwed and socket-weld applications, the union is
represented on drawings as shown in Figure 3.61. Unions should be positioned in
locations that will facilitate the easy removal of critical pieces of equipment. Figure
3.62 shows how unions are placed in a configuration to allow easy removal of a
valve.
Figure 3.60. Union.
Figure 3.61. Union drawing symbols.
Figure 3.62. Positioning of unions.
Plug
The plug, like a cap, is designed to seal the end of a run of pipe. Plugs are
manufactured for screwed fittings with male threads and are screwed into the end
of a pipe to create a seal. Figure 3.63 shows the drawing symbols for the plug.
Figure 3.63. Plug drawing symbols.
Coupling
Although this fitting is used in butt-welding applications as a branch connection,
its primary use is to connect lengths of screwed and socket-weld pipe together.
Some clients may stipulate, however, that all socket-weld pipe must be connected
with a butt-weld rather than a coupling.
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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123847003000037
Piping material, process terms, and piping codes

Geoff Barker IEng.,MEI., in The Engineer's Guide to Plant Layout and Piping
Design for the Oil and Gas Industries, 2018
Fittings and Flanges
Fig. 2.1.
Fittings
Welded fittings are manufactured to match the companion pipe. But it is not
mandatory that the fitting and the pipe have the same thickness. Pipe is available in
various schedules, but fittings are not stocked for all schedules. Fittings are usually
specified as standard weight, extra strong, schedule 160, and double extra strong. It
is usually advantageous to specify the fitting thickness of the next higher available
weight if the pipe wall thickness is not standard, extra strong, etc.
For pipe sizes 2″ and below, welded fittings are not usually used. For low pressure,
noncritical service, screwed fittings are specified, while for higher pressures and
most process systems, socket weld fittings are specified.
Fig. 2.2.
Fig. 2.3. Screwed fittings.
Table 2.3.
Fig. 2.4.
Table 2.4.
Fig. 2.5. Butt weld fittings.
Table 2.5.
Fittings and flanges
Fig. 2.6.
Flanges
Flanges are manufactured as:
• Screwed
• Weld neck (regular and long weld neck)
• Slip-on
• Lap joint (stub ends)
Flanges are available in the following ratings:
• 150#, 300#, 400#,600#,900# and 1500#
• 2500#, 5000# and 10,000# flanges are also used in wellheads for high-pressure
service
Fig. 2.7. Flange types.
Fig. 2.8.
Insulating Kit for Flanges

When connecting two flanges of dissimilar metals (e.g., stainless steel to carbon
steel), it is necessary to use an insulating kit to isolate metal-to-metal contact
between flanges, this will stop the dielectric effect and thus minimize corrosion.
Flange size and bolt tables
Table 2.6.
Flange Design Conditions
Pressure Flange
Service Class Temp. (°C) Facing Gasket Selection
General hydrocarbon 150 − 196/500⁎ RF Tanged graphite

sheet or
300
Steam/condensate, boiler feed − 196/+500 Spiral wound

water with flexible
graphite or
− 196/350 Spiral wound

with
nongraphite
filter
General utilities − 40/+250 RF Nitrile rubber

based reinforced
sheet
General hydrocarbon, 6oo − 196/+500 RF Spiral wound

steam/condensate, boiler feed with flexible
water graphite
900
General hydrocarbon, steam, 1500 As per RTJ Metal joint ring

boiler feed water flange
material
2500
Hydrogen 150 − 196/+500 RF Spiral wound

with flexible
graphite
300
600
900 As per RTJ Metal joint ring

flange
material
Flange Design Conditions
Pressure Flange
Service Class Temp. (°C) Facing Gasket Selection
1500
2500
Chemical oxidizers/HF acid 150 − 40/+200 RF PTFE (reinforced

or envelope)
150 − 40/+200 RF Spiral wound

PTFE filler
300
600
Flange weights
Rating flanges
Rating, as applied to flanges, may best be defined as the maximum pressure
allowed by the pressure piping code for the specific temperature at which the
flange will be operating. Flanges and nozzles are sized according to pressure
ratings established by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
These pressure ratings sometimes called pound ratings are divided into seven
categories for forged steel flanges. They are 150#, 300#, 400#, 600#, 900#, 1500#,
and 2500#. Cast iron flanges have pound ratings of 25#, 125#, 250#, and 800#.
Pound ratings, when combined with the temperature of the commodity within the
pipe are used to select the appropriate size, rating, and type of flange. This
pressure/temperature relationship will allow any given flange to be used in a
number of different applications.
For example, a 150# forged steel flange is rated to perform at 150# PSIG at 500°F.
If the temperature were decreased to 100°F, this same flange could be used for
275# PSIG. However, if the temperature were increased to 750°F, the flange could
only be used for 100# PSIG.
As you can see, the pressure/temperature relationship is important. When
temperature decreases the allowable pressure increases, and vice versa. Pound
ratings are also used to establish the outside diameter and thickness of a flange.
Typically, as pound ratings increase, so will the flange's diameter and thickness.
Flange facings
The mating surface of a flange, nozzle, or valve is called the face. The face is usually
machined to create a smooth surface. This smooth surface will help assure a leak-
proof seal when two flanges are bolted together with a gasket sandwiched in
between.
Although numerous types of flange faces are produced, we will focus only on the
following three:
• Flat face
• Raised face
• Ring-type joint
Flange types
Flanges have been designed and developed to be used in a myriad of applications.
Each one has its own special characteristics, and should be carefully selected to
meet specific function requirements. The following flanges are discussed:
• weld neck
• threaded
• socket weld
• slip-on
• lap-joint
• reducing
• blind
• orifice
Flat face
As the name implies, flanges with flat faces are those that have a flat, level
connecting surface (as shown above).
Forged steel flanges with a flat face flange are commonly found in 150# and 300#
ratings. Their principal use is to make connections with 125# and 250# cast iron
flanges, respectively.
Attaching steel pipe to the cast iron flanges found on some valves and mechanical
equipment always presents a problem because of the brittle nature of cast iron.
Using a flat face flange will assure full surface contact, thereby reducing the
possibility of cracking the softer cast iron.
Raised face
The most common face type in use, the raised face is available in all seven of the
aforementioned pound ratings. Appropriately named, this flange face has a
prominent raised surface. With shallow grooves etched into the raised surface, this
flange face assures a positive grip with the gasket.
Flanges rated 150# and 300# have a 1/16″ raised face, flanges 400# and above have
a 1/4″ raised face.
It is important to note most dimensioning charts, including the ones provided in
this book, include the 1/16″ raised face thickness in the length dimensions for 150#
and 300# flanges.
For 400# and higher pound ratings, the 1/4″ raised face thickness is not always
included in the length dimensions. To assure accurate dimensioning, always
determine if the dimensioning chart being used includes the 1/4″ raised face
thickness for the larger pound rating flanges. The 1/4″ raised face thickness must
be added to the dimensioning chart measurement to obtain the overall flange
length if the dimensioning chart indicates it has not been added.
Weld neck flange
The weld neck flange is occasionally referred to as the “high-hub” flange. It is

designed to reduce high-stress concentrations at the base of the flange by
transferring stress to the adjoining pipe. Although expensive, the weld neck flange
is the best-designed butt weld flange available because of its inherent structural
value and ease of assembly.
Known for its strength and resistance to dishing, the weld neck flange is
manufactured with a long tapered hub. The tapered hub is created by the gradual
increase in metal thickness from the weld joint to the flange facing.
The symmetrical taper transition is extremely beneficial under conditions of
repeated bending caused by line expansion, contraction, or other external forces.
Weld neck flanges are normally used in severe service applications involving high-
pressures, high-temperatures, or subzero conditions.
Weld neck flanges are bored to match the ID of the adjoining pipe. In other words,
the thinner the wall of the pipe, the larger the bore (hole) through the flange. The
thicker the wall of the pipe, the smaller the bore. Because of these matching IDs,
there is no restriction to the flow.
Turbulence and erosion are therefore eliminated.
Ring-type joint
Also known simply as ring joint, the ring-type joint does not use a gasket to form a
seal between connecting flanges. Instead, a round metallic ring is used that rests in
a deep groove cut into the flange face (as shown above).
The donut-shaped ring can be oval or octagonal in design. As the bolts are
tightened, the metal ring is compressed, creating a tight seal.
Although it is the most expensive, the ring-type joint is considered to be the most
efficient flange used in process piping systems.
The ring and groove design actually uses internal pressures to enhance the sealing
capacity of the connecting flanges. The superiority of this seal can have its
disadvantages, however. When dismantling ring joint connections, the flanges
must be forcibly separated to release the ring from the groove. In crowded
installations, this could cause major problems. Because of this, the ring joint flange
is relegated to applications where space for maintenance and replacement are
adequate.
Although available for all pound ratings, flanges with ring-type joint faces are
normally used in piping systems rated 400# and higher.
Slip-on flange
The slip-on flange shown above has a low hub that allows the pipe to be inserted
into the flange prior to welding. Shorter in length than a weld neck flange, the slip-
on flange is used in areas where short tie-ins are necessary or space limitations
necessitate its use. Two significant disadvantages, however, are the requirements of
two fillet welds, one internal and one external, to provide sufficient strength and
prevent leakage, as well as a life span about one-third that of the weld neck flange.
They are preferred over welding neck flanges by many users because of their lower
initial cost. However, the total cost after installation is not much less than the
welding neck because of the additional welding involved.
Threaded flange
The threaded flange shown above is similar to the slip-on flange, but the bore is
threaded. Its principal value is that it can be assembled without welding. This
feature makes the threaded flange well suited to extreme pressure services that
operate at normal atmospheric temperatures and in highly explosive areas where
welding may create a hazard.
Threaded flanges are not suited, however, for conditions involving temperatures or
bending stresses of any significance, particularly when cyclic conditions exist,
which may cause leakage through the threads. After just a relatively few cycles of
expansion and contraction or movement caused by stress, the threaded flange no
longer performs adequately.
Lap-joint flange
The lap-joint flange shown above is primarily used on carbon or low alloy steel
piping systems. Attachment of the lap-joint flange to the piping system requires a
lap-joint stub end.
The lap-joint flange and stub end assembly are used mainly in piping systems that
necessitate frequent dismantling for inspection or routine maintenance. It is also
used in the erection of large diameter or hard to adjust piping configurations
because of its quick bolt hole alignment.
Reducing flange
Like the reducer fitting, the reducing flange shown above is used to make a
reduction in the diameter of the pipe.
A reducing flange is most frequently used in installations with limited space.
Crowded situations may necessitate the use of the reducing flange because it has a
shorter overall length when compared to a weld neck flange and reducer-fitting
configuration.
Be aware though that the flow should travel from the smaller size to the larger. If
the flow were reversed, severe turbulence could develop.
Blind flange
The blind flange shown above serves as a function similar to that of a plug or cap. It
is used to terminate the end of a piping system. The blind flange is basically a
flange that does not have a hub or a bored center. Blind flanges have the face
thickness of a flange, a matching face type, and similar bolting pattern.
Blind flanges can also be used to seal a nozzle opening on a pressure vessel.
Because it is bolted, the blind flange provides easy access to the interior of a vessel
or pipe, unlike a cap that is welded.
Orifice flange
Of the flanges discussed, the orifice flange (shown above) is the only one that
actually performs a function.
The function of the orifice flange is to measure the rate of the flow of the
commodity through the piping system. Orifice flanges are easy to recognize
because they have a hole drilled through the face of the flange perpendicular to the
pipe. They also have an additional set of bolts called jack screws.
These screws are used to help separate the flanges so inspection and/or
replacement of the orifice plate can be performed.
The orifice flange is a single component of the orifice flange union assembly. The
orifice flange union is composed of two orifice flanges, an orifice plate, bolts, nuts,
jack screws, and two gaskets.
The orifice flange union is used to measure, or meter, the amount of pressure drop
through the orifice plate. The length of pipe within the piping system where orifice
flanges are installed and where these measurements are recorded is known as a
meter run. The illustration above shows the orifice flange union assembly installed
in a meter run.
The orifice plate, which is not typically furnished with the orifice union assembly
package, looks similar to a large ring washer with a handle attached. When fully
assembled, the orifice plate is sandwiched between the orifice flanges. Valve taps
are inserted into pressure holes that allow for the attachment of field monitoring
equipment so accurate measurements can be recorded.
Orifice flanges can be either weld neck, slip-on, or threaded.
The weld neck and threaded orifice flanges are manufactured in 300# and larger
pound ratings. However, the slip-on orifice flange is only available as a 300# raised
face flange.
Gaskets
The primary purpose of any flanged assembly is to connect piping systems in such
a manner as to produce a leak-free environment. Hazardous and combustible
materials and extreme pressures and temperatures require the utmost in safety
precaution.
Creating a leak-proof seal between two connecting metal surfaces in an industrial
setting is almost impossible. Therefore, gaskets perform a vital function in plant
safety. Using a gasket material softer than two adjoining flanges is an excellent way
to eliminate the possibility of a fluid escape. Gaskets can be made of materials such
as asbestos, rubber, neoprene, Teflon, lead, or copper. Although asbestos gaskets
are not used anymore, they still can be found in older piping systems, and when
maintenance is required, these have to be replaced with a non-asbestos material
gasket.
When bolts are tightened and flange faces are drawn together, the gasket material
will conform to any imperfections in the flange faces to create a uniform seal.
The picture above shows three types of gaskets that can be found in piping
systems.
They are full face, flat ring, and metal ring. Full face gaskets are used on flat face
flanges. Flat ring gaskets are used on raised face flanges. Metal rings are used on
ring-type joint flanges.
A gasket's thickness must be accounted for when dimensioning the piping system.
The typical gasket has a thickness of 1/8″ (3.175 mm). At every occurrence of a
flange bolting to a nozzle, two flanges joining one another, two valves joining one
another, or a flange connecting to a valve, a gasket thickness must be added to the
length of the pipe components. Figs. 4.34 and 4.35 show that a flat-ring gasket
does occupy space. Although its only 1/8″ (3.175 mm) thick, a gasket cannot be
ignored, and must be taken into consideration when dimensioning piping spools.
Bolts
Both stud bolts and machine bolts can be used for connecting flanges.
The most commonly used in the petro-chemical, oil, and gas industries are stud
bolts.
Shown next are the dimension and numbers required for the different flange
ratings for stud bolts.
Forged steel flanges—Class 150
NPS (in.) No. of Studs Diameter of Stud (in.) Length of Stud (in.)
1/2 4 1/2 2–1/2
3/4 4 1/2 2–1/2
1 4 1/2 2–3/4
1–1/4 4 1/2 2–3/4
1–1/2 4 1/2 3
2 4 5/8 3–1/2
2–1/2 4 5/8 3–3/4
3 4 5/8 3–3/4
3–1/2 8 5/8 3–3/4
4 8 5/8 3–3/4
5 8 3/4 4
6 8 3/4 4–1/4
8 8 3/4 4–1/2
10 12 7/8 4–3/4
12 12 7/8 5
14 12 1 5–1/2
16 16 1 5–1/2
18 16 1–1/8 6
20 20 1–1/8 6–1/2
24 20 1–1/4 7
1/2 4 1/2 2–3/4
3/4 4 5/8 3–1/4
1 4 5/8 3–1/4
1–1/4 4 5/8 3–1/2
1–1/2 4 3/4 3–3/4
2 8 5/8 3–3/4
2–1/2 8 3/4 4–1/4
3 8 3/4 4–1/2
3–1/2 8 3/4 4–1/2
4 8 3/4 4–3/4
5 8 3/4 5
6 12 3/4 5
8 12 7/8 5–3/4
10 16 1 6–1/2
12 16 1–1/8 7
14 20 1–1/8 7–1/4
16 20 1–1/4 7–3/4
18 24 1–1/4 8
20 24 1–1/4 8–1/4
24 24 1–1/2 9–1/4
1/2 4 1/2 3–1/4
3/4 4 5/8 3–3/4
1 4 5/8 3–3/4
1–1/4 4 5/8 4
1–1/2 4 3/4 4–1/2
2 8 5/8 4–1/2
2–1/2 8 3/4 5
3 8 3/4 5–1/4
3–1/2 8 7/8 5–3/4
4 8 7/8 5–3/4
5 8 7/8 6
6 12 7/8 6–1/4
8 12 1 7
10 16 1–1/8 7–3/4
12 16 1–1/4 8–1/4
14 20 1–1/4 8–1/2
16 20 1–3/8 9
18 24 1–3/8 9–1/4
20 24 1–1/2 9–3/4
24 24 1–3/4 10–3/4
1/2 4 1/2 3–1/4
3/4 4 5/8 3–3/4
1 4 5/8 3–3/4
1–1/4 4 5/8 4
1–1/2 4 3/4 4–1/2
2 8 5/8 4–1/2
2–1/2 8 3/4 5
3 8 3/4 5–1/4
3–1/2 8 7/8 5–3/4
4 8 7/8 6
5 8 1 6–3/4
6 12 1 7
8 12 1–1/8 7–3/4
10 16 1–1/4 8–3/4
12 20 1–1/4 9
14 20 1–3/8 9–1/2
16 20 1–1/2 10–1/4
18 20 1–5/8 11
20 24 1–5/8 11–1/2
24 24 1–7/8 13
1/2 4 3/4 4–1/2
3/4 4 3/4 4–3/4
1 4 7/8 5–1/4
1–1/4 4 7/8 5–1/4
1–1/2 4 1 5–3/4
2 8 7/8 6
2–1/2 8 1 6–1/2
3 8 7/8 6
4 8 1–1/8 7
5 8 1–1/4 7–3/4
6 12 1–1/8 7–3/4
8 12 1–3/8 9
10 16 1–3/8 9–1/2
12 20 1–3/8 10–1/4
14 20 1–1/2 11
16 20 1–5/8 11–1/2
18 20 1–7/8 13
20 20 2 14
24 20 2–1/2 17–1/2
1/2 4 3/4 4–1/2
3/4 4 3/4 4–3/4
1 4 7/8 5–1/4
1–1/4 4 7/8 5–1/4
1–1/2 4 1 5–3/4
2 8 7/8 6
2–1/2 8 1 6–1/2
3 8 1–1/8 7–1/4
4 8 1–1/4 8
5 8 1–1/2 10
6 12 1–3/8 10–1/2
8 12 1–5/8 11–3/4
10 12 1–7/8 13–1/2
12 16 2 15
14 16 2–1/4 16–1/2
16 16 2–1/2 18
18 16 2–3/4 19–1/2
20 16 3 21–1/2
24 16 3–1/2 24–1/2
Read full chapter

Leaks
Trevor Kletz, in What Went Wrong? (Fifth Edition), 2009
Publisher Summary
This chapter opens with the discussion of locations of leaks and their immediate
causes. Major sources of leaks highlighted in this chapter are from tanks, lined
pipes, closed valves, screwed fittings, and other weak spots in pipe work. In the
case of tanks, the major causes of leaks are described such as problems in welding,
plastic material tanks, and material used for lining inside the tanks. Pipes are
mostly damaged by corrosion or rust, so it is necessary that places where corrosion
is likely are listed for inspection, and some other places picked at random should
also be inspected. A major cause of leaks listed in this chapter is surge pressure,
particularly water hammer in steam mains, which has caused many failures and
large leaks of steam and condensate. Some of the important features of surge
pressure are also discussed in this chapter. Essentially in the case of screwed
fittings, pressure tests are carried out to confirm that the equipment can withstand
the test pressure and, therefore, we should assume that failure is possible and keep
everyone out of the way. If we were sure the equipment would not fail, we would
not need to test it. Leaks can be detected by testing at the operating pressure. This
chapter provides various examples of the weakness that penetrates pipe work and is
a reason for failure or major leaks.
Read full chapter

FLUID FLOW
A. Kayode Coker, in Ludwig's Applied Process Design for Chemical and
Petrochemical Plants (Fourth Edition), Volume 1, 2007
4.9 PIPE, FITTINGS, AND VALVES

To ensure proper understanding of terminology, a brief discussion of the “piping”
components of most process systems is appropriate.
The fluids considered in this chapter consist primarily of liquids, vapors, gases, and
slurries. These are transported usually under pressure through circular ducts,
tubes, or pipes (except for low pressure air), and these lengths of pipe are
connected by fittings (screwed or threaded, butt-welded, socket-welded, or
flanged) and the flow is controlled (stopped, started, or throttled) by means of
valves fixed in these line systems. The components of these systems will be briefly
identified in this chapter, because the calculation methods presented are for flows
through these components in a system. These flows always create some degree of
friction loss (pressure drop) (or loss of pressure head) which then dictates the
power required to move the fluids through the piping components (Figure 4-4).
(Pump power may be required for other purposes than just overcoming friction.)
Read full chapter

Steel Pipe
Roy A. Parisher, Robert A. Rhea, in Pipe Drafting and Design (Third Edition), 2012
Screwed or Threaded Connections

Another common means of joining pipe is the threaded end (TE) connection.
Typically used on pipe 3″ and smaller, threaded connections are generally referred
to as screwed pipe. With tapered grooves cut into the ends of a run of pipe, screwed
pipe and screwed fittings can be easily assembled without welding or other
permanent means of attachment. Screwed pipe and its mating fittings will have
threads that are either male or female. Male threads are cut into the outside of a
pipe or fitting, whereas female threads are cut into the inside of the fitting.
As screwed pipe and fittings are assembled, a short length of pipe is drawn into the
fitting. This connection length is called a thread engagement. When drawing and
dimensioning screwed pipe, a piping drafter must be aware of this lost length of
pipe. As the diameter of the pipe increases, so will the length of the thread
engagement. Table 2.2 provides a chart indicating the thread engagements for
small-bore pipe.
Table 2.2. American Standard and API Thread Engagement Dimensions
Dimensions (in inches and millimeters)
Pipe size Thread engagement
(in.) (mm) (in.) (mm)
½″ 13 ½″ 13
¾″ 20 ″ 14
1″ 25.4 ″ 18
1½″ 38 ″ 18
Dimensions (in inches and millimeters)
Pipe size Thread engagement
(in.) (mm) (in.) (mm)
2″ 50.8 ¾″ 20
2½″ 63.5 ″ 24
3″ 76.2 1″ 25.4
Read full chapter

Maintenance-induced accidents and process piping

problems
Roy E. Sanders, in Chemical Process Safety (Fourth Edition), 2015
Beware of other piping issues

In the fifth edition of What Went Wrong? Trevor Kletz listed a number of weak spots
in chemical plant piping systems. Some of his listings are blended with my
experiences as a reminder of weak places in piping systems [28].
• Small diameter connections should not be less than ¾ in. on main pipe lines
(and 1 in. connections are even more desirable to survive the rigors of a plant
atmosphere).
• The smallest nozzle connection to a storage tank or a pressure vessel should be
a welded 1½ in. flanged connection.
• Screwed fittings should generally be avoided except on small diameter lines
containing nonhazardous materials. Every small diameter threaded fitting
should have a flanged block valve upstream.
• Long runs of small bore piping for instruments or of samples must be
adequately supported [28].
• Vents, drains, and other connections that have been abandoned or are no
longer needed should be removed and the plug welded in place (if conditions
allow welding) [28].
• Utility stations and permanent connections to services as utility air, water,
steam, nitrogen, etc., should be equipped with double block and bleeds and
check valves (if there is a remote opportunity for reverse flow) [28].
• Pipelines transporting hazardous materials must have routine inspections via a
well-coordinated mechanical integrity program (see Chapter 12).
• Expansion joints if they cannot be avoided with piping loops, must be regularly
inspected for misalignment, twisting, or missing stay bolts.
• Spring pipe hangers is required must be regularly inspected in a mechanical
integrity program.
• Be aware and inspect for corrosion under pipe supports and corrosion under
insulation. Promptly handle any deficiencies.
Read full chapter
Centrifugal Compressors
Royce N. Brown P. E., in Compressors (Third Edition), 2005
Casing Connections
Casing inlet and outlet nozzles are normally flanged. The general preference in
process service is for all casing connections to be flanged or machined and
studded. On steel-cased machines, this normally is not a problem. On the smaller
refrigeration compressors that are highly standardized, constructed of cast iron,
and originally designed for other than process service, connections will generally
have flanged inlet and outlet nozzles. However, most of the auxiliary connections
on these machines will be screwed fittings. It is desirable to use standard flanges
throughout the connections on the casing. However, for space reasons, on rare
occasions, a nonstandard flange arrangement may become necessary. It is quite
important to have the compressor vendor furnish all mating flanges and associated
hardware.
Forces and moments which the compressor can accept without causing
misalignment to the machine are to be specified by the vendor. Many factors go
into this determination and, as one may guess, the limits are determined quite
arbitrarily in most cases. With all of the many configurations a compressor can
take, a single set of rules cannot fit all. Despite this, NEMA SM-23 [5] for
mechanical-drive steam turbines is used as a basis. API 617 has adopted the NEMA
nozzle criteria to centrifugal compressors. This works on larger steel-cased
multistage compressors, but is not good for the overhung style. Moreover, the user
or piping designers want a higher number to simplify piping design, while the
manufacturer wants a small number to ensure good alignment and fewer
customer complaints. From a user's point of view where long-term reliability is a
must, the vote must go to the manufacturer. Experience shows that the lower the
piping loads on the nozzles, the easier it is to maintain coupling alignment. This
seems reasonable since most compressors are equipped with plates called wobble
feet to provide flexibility for thermal growth. The feet will flex from pipe loads as
well as from the temperature. The piping loads tend not to align themselves as well
with the shaft as the temperature gradients. Even when guides and keys are used,
as is customary on the larger machines, they may bind despite the fact that they are
stout enough to carry the load.
Read full chapter

Screw Threads and Conventional Representations

Colin H. Simmons I.Eng, FIED, ... The Late Dennis E. Maguire CEng, MIMechE,
Mem ASME, REng.Des, MIED, in Manual of Engineering Drawing (Fourth
Edition), 2012
ISO Metric Threads
Figure 17.3 shows the ISO metric thread form for a nut (internal) and for a bolt
(external). In the case of the nut, the root is rounded in practice. For the mating
bolt, the crest of the thread may be rounded within the maximum outline, as
shown, and the root radiused to the given dimension. Both male and female
threads are subject to manufacturing tolerances and for complete information
reference should be made to BS 3643-1.
FIGURE 17.3. ISO metric thread

H = 0.86603 P, H/4 = 0.21651 P, (3/8)H = 0.32476 P, (5/8) H = 0.54127 P, where P is
the pitch of the thread.
BS 3643-2 defines two series of diameters with graded pitches for general use in
nuts, bolts, and screwed fittings: one series with coarse and the other with fine
pitches. The extract given in Table 17.1 from the Standard gives thread sizes from
1.6 to 24 mm diameter. Note that first, second, and third choices of basic
diameters are quoted, to limit the number of sizes within each range.
TABLE 17.1.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Basic major Coarse Fine series with constant pitches

diameters series
choice with
graded
1st 2nd 3rd pitches 6 4 3 2 1.5 1.25 1 0.75 0.5 0.35 0.25 0.2
1.6 – – 0.35 – – – – – – – – – – – 0.2
– 1.8 – 0.35 – – – – – – – – – – – 0.2
2 – – 0.4 – – – – – – – – – – 0.25 –
– 2.2 – 0.45 – – – – – – – – – – 0.25 –
2.5 – – 0.45 – – – – – – – – – 0.35 – –
3 – – 0.5 – – – – – – – – – 0.35 – –
– 3.5 – 0.6 – – – – – – – – – 0.35 – –
4 – – 0.7 – – – – – – – – 0.5 – – –
– 4.5 – 0.75 – – – – – – – – 0.5 – – –
5 – – 8.8 – – – – – – – – 0.5 – – –
– – 5.5 – – – – – – – – – 0.5 – – –
6 – – 1 – – – – – – – 0.75 – – – –
– – 7 1 – – – – – – – 0.75 – – – –
8 – – 1.25 – – – – – – – 0.75 – – – –
– – 9 1.25 – – – – – – 1 0.75 – – – –
10 – – 1.5 – – – – –– 1.25 1 0.75 – – – –
– – 11 1.5 – – – – – – 1 0.75 – – – –
12 – – 1.75 – – – – 1.5 1.25 1 – – – – –
– 14 – 2 – – – – 1.5 1.25 1 – – – – –
∗
– – 15 – – – – – 1.5 – 1 – – – – –
16 – – 2 – – – – 1.5 – 1 – – – – –
– – 17 – – – – – 1.5 – 1 – – – – –
– 18 – 2.5 – – – 2 1.5 – 1 – – – – –
20 – – 2.5 – – – 2 1.5 – 1 – – – – –
– 22 – 2.5 – – – 2 1.5 – 1 – – – – –
24 – – 3 – – – 2 1.5 – 1 – – – – –
∗
The pitch of 1.25 mm for 14 mm diameter is to be used only for sparking
plugs.
On a drawing, a thread will be designated in accordance with BS EN ISO 6410-1,

e.g. the letter M followed by the size of the nominal diameter, the pitch required,
and the thread tolerance class, i.e. M10 × 1 – 6h. The pitch is always preceded by a
multiplication symbol and the tolerance class is always preceded by a short dash.
When dimensioning metric coarse threads it is not necessary to indicate the pitch
as this is the default thread system. Should the reader encounter threads
designated this way, e.g. M10 or M10 – 6H, it can be assumed they are of the
coarse series. However, the authors advise that for completeness the pitch should
always be included.
Any dimension relating to the depth or length of thread refers to the full depth or
length of thread. The direction of a Right Hand thread (RH) is not generally noted;
however Left Hand threads should include abbreviation ‘LH’ after the thread
designation, i.e. M10 × 1 – 6h LH.
BS 3643-2 specifies the tolerances and limits of size for the tolerance classes 4H,
5H, 6H, and 7H for internal threads and 4h, 5h, 6h, and 7h for external threads.
For general use, the tolerance class 6H is suitable for internal threads and tolerance
class 6g for external threads.
Read full chapter

Measurement System Design
James E. Gallagher, in Natural Gas Measurement Handbook, 2006
General
An insulating gasket should be installed at the flange that designates the change in
ownership between the two operating companies. This change in ownership
should be clearly marked in accordance with governmental requirements.
Piping and fittings should be welded and coated in accordance with operator's
approved specifications. Piping should be buried whenever practical to minimize
maintenance costs and increase the ease of access for LACT/ACT operations and
maintenance.
In selecting flowmetering equipment and piping, the owner or designer should
consider any special material requirements or design code practices if the gas
contains corrosive components. Hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide in
sufficiently large concentrations are the most commonly found sour contaminants
in hydrocarbon gases and require special consideration, particularly where the gas
is water wet. While piping codes may require the use of special materials and
control of steel hardness, good-quality standard stainless steels normally suffice for
most instrument internals in sour service. Where components are welded, low-
carbon stainless steels should be selected for sour service.
To minimize the possibility of fatigue failure and emissions, the appropriate
operator's management should approve in writing the use of screwed fittings.
The exceptions are as follows. For instruments and sampling valves, the valve
attached to the piping element shall be welded on the piping side and screwed on
the instrumentation side. For ANSI 400 or less, thermowells or sample probes may
employ a threaded design. The thread-o-let into which the thermowell or sample
probe is inserted should be welded to the piping element. For ANSI 600 class or
higher, all thermowells and sampling probes should employ a flanged design.
All valves, fittings, pipe, and equipment containing gas or liquids should comply
with all requirements of the Federal Gas Pipeline Safety Regulations and all other
applicable codes and standards. All valves, fittings, and pipe shall be based on a
design factor of 0.50 (50% of specified minimum yield strength). All piping should
be API 5L Grade B or higher seamless in accordance with the design requirements.
All fittings should be ASTM A105 or higher yield strength.
Piping between the LACT/ACT and the tie-in point(s) should be designed for a
maximum gas velocity of 50 fps. The exceptions to this criterion are the flowmeter
tube velocity and the control valve piping, which are contained in the appropriate
sections.
The amount of takeoff fittings, drains, vents, and other devices or procedures that
could result in the inadvertent loss of natural gas should be minimized as much as
reasonable. All of the piping, fittings, and take-offs associated with the flowmeters
and the pipeline pigging facilities should be carefully reviewed by all parties to
ensure accurate measurement. If a potential for loss or gain is found, remedial
action should be taken as quickly as practical (bypass of the flowmeter facility).
Read full chapter

Piping
Ian Sutton, in Plant Design and Operations (Second Edition), 2017
Fittings
Fittings make directional changes in a piping system and connect pipes,
sometimes of different sizes. The following are commonly found pipe fittings:
• Elbows—usually either 90° or 45°.
• Caps.
• Saddles—used to form a connection between two pipes when a fitting is not
already present.
• Reducers/Expanders—used to either reduce or increase the pipe diameter. An
expansion may be required if the fluid is a flashing liquid, i.e., one that is
forming vapor as its pressure drops.
The ideal pipe joint is easily assembled, does not introduce weaknesses in the
piping system, and provides a seamless flow path.
The three most typical types of joints in process piping systems are welded,
threaded, and flanged. Other joints used in utility services include groove and
press fit systems. Fittings can be either welded or clamped to the piping.
Welding
Welded joints provide strength equal to original pipe, do not impair flow pattern,
and are resistant to corrosion. Welded joints require precise alignment, require
skilled labor and equipment. Unlike flanges, they cannot be disassembled. Butt-
weld joints, in which portions of pipe of equal dimensions are lined up and welded,
are most common in metallic piping systems. Socket welds are also used.
Threaded Piping
Threaded joints, in which the end of a pipe or fitting is screwed into another pipe
or fitting, are easy to assemble and disassemble. They are most often used in pipes
with diameters of DN 50 (2 in.) or less. The pipe threads are frequently packed with
a filler material referred to as “pipe dope” to prevent leakage. Pipe dope also acts as
a lubricant between meshing tapered threads.
Although convenient, threaded joints have the following drawbacks:
• Stress concentration at the root of the thread create weakness.
• A decrease in effective wall thickness where the threads are cut.
• The potential for thread disengagement if the pipe is exposed to fire.
• Susceptibility to vibration and fatigue failure.
Given these problems screwed fittings should be limited to services such as the
following:
• With pipe that contains only cool nonhazardous fluids.
• Maximum working pressure of 20 bar(g).
• Nominal diameter DN 50 or smaller.
Expansion Loops/Compensators
As the temperature of the fluids in the pipe changes or as the atmospheric
temperature changes, the piping system will expand or contract. The temperature
of piping will also change if it is steamed out or if it is exposed to fire. Changes
such as these, as well as the effect of vibration, can place an unacceptable level of
stress on the piping and its fittings. One way of addressing this problem is to
install expansion loops or joints, sometimes referred to as compensators, in a
section of the pipe.
Broadly speaking there are three types of expansion compensator:
1. Expansion loops
2. Axial joints
3. Bellows.
Expansion loops are generally preferred since they are less vulnerable to
mechanical failure. However, they take up considerable space so axial or bellows
compensators may have to be used.
Expansion joints used in the process industries are generally manufactured from
steel, including stainless and high-grade nickel alloys. Expansion joints can also be
manufactured from rubber or a polymer such as Teflon that will resist corrosion
and aging. The Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association provides detailed
information as to their design and operation in A Practical Guide to Expansion Joints
(EJMA, 2016).
The improper design of a temporary expansion loop was a critical factor in the
1974 Flixborough disaster (BBC, 2010)―an event that was foundational in the
development of process safety management systems.
Expansion loops
Fig. 4.2 is a sketch of an expansion loop. They are generally manufactured from
standard pipe and elbows.
Figure 4.2. Expansion loop.
In general the height of an expansion loop will be twice its width (W in Fig. 4.2).
Guidance as to the values that should be selected for W for different pipe sizes and
different expansion values are provided by Engineering Toolbox (2016c).
Axial joints
Axial joints are typically used in long straight runs of pipe that do not have bends
(e.g., in tunnels, trenches, and below grade). Any nonaxial movement could cause
excessive strain.
Advantages of this type of joint include:
• They are fabricated from the same metals as the pipe.
• They are inherently robust and strong.
• They do not have a catastrophic failure mode, i.e., they can leak but not
rupture.
• Packing can be injected into them while the line is in service.
A disadvantage, in addition to the need for a straight pipe run, is that require
occasional maintenance and packing and so they need to be accessible.
Bellows
Bellows-type joints, as shown in Fig. 4.3, are used if the piping system is subject to
a high level of vibration or earthquake movement. The bellows must be strong
enough to handle the internal pressures of the piping system yet be flexible
enough to accept axial, lateral, and angular deflections.
Figure 4.3. Bellows-type expansion joint.
Bellows-type joints require minimal maintenance. However, if they are damaged or

fail for some other reason they have to be replaced. This involves shutting down
the system of which the piping is a part. They can also fail catastrophically, thus
creating potentially serious environmental and safety consequences. They can also
be improperly used to correct for incorrect alignment of piping sections.
Small Pipe Connections
Small bore connections (less than 2 in. nominal/DN 50) such as threaded gauge
connections, sample points, and nozzles are prone to fatigue failure and
mechanical damage. Therefore their number should be limited, particularly if they
are subject to vibration. Where possible they should be combined into a single
branch using reducing tees and one piece forged fittings.
The following are general requirements for nozzle and instrument connections:
• Connections smaller than 19 mm (¾ in.) should not be used.
• Threaded and socket welded connections should be 6000 lb couplings,
maximum size 38 mm (1½ in.). Threaded connections should not be used for
hydrocarbon (including glycol mixtures), heat transfer oils, or steam service.
• Flanges should be used for sizes 50 mm (2 in.) and larger. Class 150 flanges
should be used, except internal or external displacement liquid level devices
should have Class 300 flanges.
Potential failures are minimized by:
• Installing only those connections actually needed.
• Making the attachments as short as possible.
• Using extra heavy pipe nipples and ¾ in. minimum diameter to the first valve
off the vessel.
• Using socket-weld fittings, especially between a vessel and the first valve.
• Locating small bore connections such that they are protected from mechanical
damage.
Minimizing the length and weight of branch assemblies.
• • Supporting or bracing small bore branches especially in vibrating service.
• Small bore piping should be shown in full detail on the isometric drawings.
• Branches should be avoided downstream of compressors, desuperheaters, and
other items that can create high vibration.
Read full chapter

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Screwed and Socket-Weld Fittings

Figure 3.54. Screwed ﬁttings dimensioning chart.

Figure 3.55. Socket-weld ﬁttings dimensioning chart.

Figure 3.56. Internal and external thread engagements.

Figure 3.57. Socket-weld ﬁtting connections.

Figure 3.58. Screwed and socket-weld ﬁttings.

Figure 3.59. Screwed and socket-weld drawing symbols.

Figure 3.60. Union.

Figure 3.61. Union drawing symbols.

Figure 3.62. Positioning of unions.

Figure 3.63. Plug drawing symbols.

Read full chapter

Piping material, process terms, and piping codes

Fittings and Flanges

Fig. 2.3. Screwed ﬁttings.

Fig. 2.5. Butt weld ﬁttings.

Fittings and ﬂanges

Fig. 2.7. Flange types.

Insulating Kit for Flanges

Flange Design Conditions

General hydrocarbon 150 − 196/500⁎ RF Tanged graphite

Steam/condensate, boiler feed − 196/+500 Spiral wound

− 196/350 Spiral wound

General utilities − 40/+250 RF Nitrile rubber

General hydrocarbon, 6oo − 196/+500 RF Spiral wound

General hydrocarbon, steam, 1500 As per RTJ Metal joint ring

Hydrogen 150 − 196/+500 RF Spiral wound

900 As per RTJ Metal joint ring

Flange Design Conditions

Chemical oxidizers/HF acid 150 − 40/+200 RF PTFE (reinforced

150 − 40/+200 RF Spiral wound

The weld neck ﬂange is occasionally referred to as the “high-hub” ﬂange. It is

Forged steel ﬂanges—Class 150

1/2 4 1/2 2–1/2

3/4 4 1/2 2–1/2

1–1/4 4 1/2 2–3/4

2–1/2 4 5/8 3–3/4

3–1/2 8 5/8 3–3/4

Forged steel ﬂanges—Class 300

1/2 4 1/2 2–3/4

3/4 4 5/8 3–1/4

1–1/4 4 5/8 3–1/2

1–1/2 4 3/4 3–3/4

2–1/2 8 3/4 4–1/4

3–1/2 8 3/4 4–1/2

Forged steel ﬂanges—Class 400

1/2 4 1/2 3–1/4

3/4 4 5/8 3–3/4

1–1/2 4 3/4 4–1/2

3–1/2 8 7/8 5–3/4

Forged steel ﬂanges—Class 600

1/2 4 1/2 3–1/4

3/4 4 5/8 3–3/4

1–1/2 4 3/4 4–1/2

3–1/2 8 7/8 5–3/4

Forged steel ﬂanges—Class 900

1/2 4 3/4 4–1/2

3/4 4 3/4 4–3/4

1–1/4 4 7/8 5–1/4

Forged steel ﬂanges—Class 1500

1/2 4 3/4 4–1/2

3/4 4 3/4 4–3/4