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Let θ(x, t) be the angle between T⃗ (x, t) and ⃗i and θ(x + ∆x, t) be the angle
between T⃗ (x + ∆x, t) and ⃗i. We take these angles to be between 0 and π. Since
we are assuming that we are dealing with small vibrations then either θ is close to
0 or close to π. In Figure 2, θ(x, t) is close is close to π and θ(x + ∆x, t) is close
is close to 0 (for illustration purposes, Figure 2. is out of proportion and does not
convey that the vibrations are small).
The total vertical force acting on the element is
F = T⃗ (x, t) · ⃗j + T⃗ (x + ∆x, t) · ⃗j
(1) = T (sin(θ(x, t)) + sin(θ(x + ∆x, t)))
u(x,t)
String at equilibrium
x x+∆ x
T(x,t)
θ (x,t)
θ (x+∆ x,t)
T(x+∆ x,t)
Remark 3. If for the homogeneous string the damping forces are not neglected,
then the new wave equation might take the form
∂2u ∂u ∂2u
2
(x, t) + α (x, t) = c2 2 (x, t) .
∂t ∂t ∂x
4 THE WAVE EQUATION
A
D
B
C
the membrane implies that the tension T⃗ (x, y, t) has constant magnitude T at each
point of the membrane and that T⃗ is tangent to the surface. Since we are dealing
with small vibrations, then we can assume that at each time t and at each point the
angle θ between the the normal to the surface and the z-axis is close to 0 (which
THE WAVE EQUATION 5
is the same as the angle between the tangent space and the horizontal plane). By
using the linear approximation sin θ ≈ tan θ, similar arguments as those used for
the string, imply that the total (vertical force) F acting on the element ABCD can
be approximated as follows:
[ ( )
∂u ∂u
F ≈ T ∆y (x + ∆x, y, t) − (x, y, t) +
∂x ∂x
( )]
∂u ∂u
(8) + ∆x (x, y + ∆y, t) − (x, y, t)
∂y ∂y
We can also use Newton’s second law to express F as
∂2u ∂2u
(9) F ≈ ∆m 2
(x, y, t) ≈ ρ∆x ∆y 2 (x, y, t),
∂t ∂t
where ∆m ≈ ρ∆x ∆y denotes the mass of the rectangular element ABCD and
with ρ the surface mass density of the membrane. After substituting in (8), the
expression for F given in (9) and dividing by ∆x∆y, we obtain
∂u ∂u
∂2u (x + ∆x, y, t) − (x, y, t)
∂x ∂x
2
(x, y, t) ≈ T +
∂t ∆x
∂u ∂u
(x, y + ∆y, t) − (x, y, t)
∂y ∂y
(10) +
∆y
The approximations in (10) become better and better as ∆x and ∆y become smaller
and smaller. At the limit we obtain the two-dimensional wave equation
( 2 )
∂2u 2 ∂ u ∂2u
(11) (x, y, t) = c (x, y, t) + 2 (x, y, t)
∂t2 ∂x2 ∂y
where c2 = T /ρ is the wave’s speed.
For the two dimensional wave equation utt = c2 ∆u, here are some solutions
√
sin(c ω12 + ω22 t) sin(ω1 x) cos(ω2 y)
with ω1 , ω2 constants. Again we can produce more solutions by interchanging any
sine function with cosine and vice versa and by adding or multiplying solutions by
constants.
0 L
0 L
0 L
Figure 6. String with initial position f (x) and initial velocity g(x)
0 L
Figure 7. String with left end fixed and right end attached to a
mechanical device that allows it to move vertically
slope of the tangent line to the string is 0 at x = L. That is ux (L, t) = 0 for all
time t > 0. The BVP for u becomes
utt (x, t) = c2 uxx (x, t) 0 < x < L, t > 0;
u(x, 0) = f (x) 0 < x < L;
ut (x, 0) = g(x) 0 < x < L;
u(0, t) = 0 t > 0;
ux (L, t) = 0 t > 0;
6.1. The string with infinite length. Consider a long string (for practical pur-
poses, we can assume that the string has an infinite length so that for now we will
not worry about the end points). Suppose that the string is perturbed from its
(horizontal) equilibrium position so that its new shape is that of the graph of the
function F (see figure). Then, at time t = 0, the string is released from rest from
this position. We would like to find the shape of the string at each time t > 0.
Hence we would like to find the solution of the following
and at t = 0, we have
′
t (x, 0) = −cF (x),
u+ u− ′
t (x, 0) = cF (x)
which are not 0 (unless F is constant). To circumvent this, we use the fact that a
linear combination of two solutions of the wave equation is again a solution. The
average u of u+ and u− is again a solution:
u+ (x, t) + u− (x, t)
u(x, t) = .
2
It clearly satisfies the initial position and the initial velocity since
−
u+
t (x, 0) + ut (x, 0) −cF ′ (x) + cF ′ (x)
ut (x, 0) = = = 0.
2 2
We have therefore found the solution of the initial value problem as
F (x − ct) F (x + ct)
u(x, t) = + .
2 2
The function u can be interpreted as the sum of the two waves u+ /2 traveling to
the right with speed c and u− /2 traveling to the left with speed c. Indeed at a any
time t = t0 , the graph of u+ (x, t0 ) is obtained from that of F by a translation to
the right of ct0 units while that of u− (x, t0 ) is just the translation of that of F by
ct0 units to the left.
t=0 D
t=c
t=2c
We take the initial position to be given by a bump function at middle of the string:
{
((x − 10)2 − 1)2 if 9 ≤ x ≤ 11
F (x) =
0 elsewhere
To take advantage of the above ideas, let us think that this real string is a portion
0 9 11 20
Virtual string
Real string
40 to the whole real line as a function F̂ . The graph of F̂ is given below Hence, F is
−10 30
−30 0 10
defined on [0, 20], Fodd on [−20, 20], and F̂ on (−∞ , ∞). The following relations
hold
F̂ (s) = F (s) ∀s ∈ [0, 20]
F̂ (s) = −F̂ (−s) and F̂ (s ± 40) = F̂ (s) ∀s ∈ R.
We know from the previous case that the function û(x, t) defined by
F̂ (x − ct) + F̂ (x + ct)
û(x, t) =
2
solves the initial value problem
ûtt (x, t) = c2 ûxx (x, t) ∀x ∈ R t > 0,
.
û(x, 0) = F̂ (x) and ût (x, 0) = 0 ∀x ∈ R
12 THE WAVE EQUATION
Now consider only the x’s that are on the real string 0 ≤ x ≤ 20, and define u to
be just the restriction of û to those x’s. That is,
F̂ (x − ct) + F̂ (x + ct)
u(x, t) = û(x, t) = x ∈ [0, 20] t > 0.
2
We claim that in addition to the PDE and the two initial condition, this function
u satisfies also the two endpoints conditions. Indeed, at the left end we have
F̂ (−ct) + F̂ (ct)
u(0, t) = =0 (because F̂ is odd).
2
To verify the condition at the right endpoint, we use the periodicity of F̂ and its
oddicity (?).
F̂ (20 − ct) = F̂ (20 − ct − 40) = F̂ (−20 − ct) = −F̂ (20 + ct)
Hence
F̂ (20 − ct) + F̂ (20 + ct)
u(20, t) = = 0.
2
The following figure illustrates the shape of the string at various times and in
particular the periodicity of its vibrations. The period of vibration is
2 × Length of string 2L
T = = .
Wave′ s speed c
In our case, the period is 40/c.
0 10 20
Remark Note how the traveling waves, one to the left the other to the right cancel
the effect of each other at the end points x = 0 and x = 20
7. Exercises
In exercises 1 to 6, write a BVP for the small vertical vibrations of a homogeneous
string. Assume that the wave’s speed is c, the length of the string is L and satisfies
the following conditions:
Exercise 1. Both ends of the string are fixed on the x-axis, the initial position of
the string is given by f (x) = sin(5πx/L) and is released from rest (plucked string).
Take L = 20 and c = .5.
Exercise 2. Same characteristics as in exercise 1 but this time while the string is
siting horizontally at equilibrium, it is struck (at time 0) with an initial velocity
given by g(x) = x(x − 1) sin(πx/L) (struck string).
Exercise 3. Take L = π and c = 2. Both ends of the string are fixed and initially
the string has position given by f (x) = sin x cos 2x and velocity given by g(x) = −1.
Exercise 4. Take L = 2π, c = 2. Suppose that the right end is fixed while the left
end is allowed to move, vertically, in such a way that its vertical displacement at
time t is 0.2 sin(t). The string starts its motion from rest at equilibrium position.
Exercise 5. Same string as in exercise 4. This time suppose that the left end
is fixed while the right end is allowed to move vertically. At the right end, the
displacement at any time t is equal to the slope of the tangent line. Suppose
that the string is set into motion from equilibrium position by a constant velocity
g(x) = 1.
Exercise 6. Same string as in exercise 4. This time suppose that the right end is
fixed while the left end is allowed to move vertically. At the left end, the tangent
line at any time t is horizontal. Suppose that the string is set into motion from rest
with an initial position given by the function f (x) = sin 3x.
Exercises 7 to 10 deal with the small vertical vibrations of a homogeneous mem-
brane. You are asked to write the corresponding BVP.
Exercise 7. The membrane is a square with side π. The boundary is attached in
the (x, y)-plane, the wave’s speed is c = 1. Initially, the membrane position is given
by f (x, y) = e−y sin x sin 2y. The membrane is released from rest.
Exercise 8. The membrane is a rectangle with boundary attached to the (x, y)-
plane. At equilibrium position, the membrane occupies the rectangle [−5, 5] ×
[−3, 3]. Suppose that the membrane is set into motion by striking its center square
[−1, 1]2 by a constant velocity of magnitude 1 (so at time t = 0, each point inside
the small square has velocity 1 while the other points of the membrane outside the
small square have velocity 0). Take c = .5
Exercise 9. The membrane is a circular disk with radius 10 and with boundary
fixed on the (x, y)-plane (take c = 2 here). The initial velocity of the membrane is
0 and its initial position is given in polar coordinates by the (bump) function
{ −r
e (0.1 − r) if 0 ≤ r ≤ 0.1
f (r, θ) =
0 if 0.1 < r ≤ 10.
14 THE WAVE EQUATION
Exercise 10. The membrane is a circular ring with inner radius 1 and outer radius
2 and c = 1. Suppose that the outer radius is fixed in the (x, y)-plane but the inner
radius is allowed to move vertically in such a way that at time t, each point of
the inner radius has a displacement given by the function e−0.001t sin t. The initial
position and velocity are 0 (see figure).
Exercise 11. The vertical displacements of a string were found to be given by the
function u(x, t) = sin 3t cos(x/2). What is the corresponding wave’s speed c?
Exercise 12. The vertical displacements of a membrane were found to be given
by the function
u(x, y, t) = cos(15t) sin(3x) cos(4y).
What is the corresponding wave’s speed c?
Exercise 13. A string of length L = 10 and with fixed end on the horizontal axis
is set into vertical motion by displacing it from its equilibrium position and then
released from rest. The initial displacement is given by the function
{
1 if 4 < x < 6;
f (x) =
0 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 or 6 ≤ x ≤ 10.
√
If c = 2, find the period of oscillations of the string. Use D’Alembert’s method to
find (and graph) the shape of the string at the following times t = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10.
Exercise 14. (D’Alembert’s method for the struck string). Consider the BVP
utt = c2 uxx 0 < x < L, t > 0,
u(0, t) = u(L, t) = 0 t > 0,
u(x, 0) = 0 ut (x, 0) = g(x) 0 < x < L.
We are going to construct a solution for this BVP. First, let godd be the odd
extension of the function g to the interval [−L, L]. Second, let ĝ be the periodic
extension of godd to R. Hence, ĝ has period 2L. Third, let G be an antiderivative
of ĝ. That is, G′ (s) = ĝ(s), for every s ∈ R and in particular, G′ (s) = g(s) if
0 ≤ s ≤ L.
Verify that the function
G(x + ct) − G(x − ct)
u(x, t) =
2c
solves the BVP.
THE WAVE EQUATION 15
Exercise 15. Use the D’Alembert’s method of exercise 15 to illustrate the shape
of the struck string if
g(x) = cos x L = π/2, c = .5
Find (graph) the shape of the string at the following times t = 0, π/4, π/2, π, 2π.