Destructive

Testing,
Sensors,
Transmitters,
Transducer
2015-CH-
Sir Farhan Javed 441

University of Engineering and Technology Lahore

Faisalabad Campus
Destructive Testing:
Prolonged endurance testing under the most severe operating conditions, continued until the
component, equipment, or product specimen fails is broken or destroyed
Types of Destructive Testing:
 Stress Testing
 Crash Testing
 Hardness Testing
Stress Testing:
Stress testing is a form of intense testing used to determine the stability of a given system. It
involves testing beyond normal operational capacity, often to a breaking point, in order to
observe the results. Reasons can include:
 To determine breaking points or safe usage limits
 To confirm mathematical model is accurate
 To determine modes of failure
 To test system outside standard
usage
Crash Testing:
A crash test is a form of destructive testing
usually performed in order to ensure safe
design standards in crash compatibility for
various modes related systems and
components.
Types:
 Frontal-impact tests
 Moderate Overlap tests
 Small Overlap tests
 Side-impact tests

Frontal-impact tests: These are usually impacts upon a solid concrete wall at a specified
speed, but can also be vehicle-vehicle tests.

Moderate Overlap tests: These are important impact forces that remain the same as with a
frontal impact test, but a smaller fraction of the car is required to absorb all of the force. These
tests are often realized by cars turning into oncoming traffic. This type of testing is done by the
U.S.A. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).
Small Overlap tests: This is where only a small portion of the car's structure strikes an object
such as a pole or a tree, or if a car were to clip another. This is the most demanding test as it
loads the most force onto the cars structure at any given speed. These are usually conducted at
15-20% of the front vehicle structure.

Side-impact tests: These forms of accidents have a very significant likelihood of fatality, as
cars do not have a significant crumple zone to absorb the impact forces before an occupant is
injured.

Hardness Testing:
Hardness testing measures a material’s strength by determining resistance to penetration.
Laboratory Testing Inc. near Philadelphia, PA (USA) performs micro hardness and various
hardness test methods and offers the following:
 Tests for metals, plastics and elastomers
 Testing performed to ASTM and other required specifications for the type of material and
application
 Test specimens

THE TEST PROCESSES:

I. BRINELL HARDNESS TEST:
The Brinell Hardness Test can be applied to almost any metallic material and is the method most
commonly used to test castings and forgings that have a grain structure too coarse for other
hardness testing methods. During the test, a carbide ball indenter is pressed into the sample with
accurately controlled force for a specific amount of time.
 II. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST:
In addition to a Rockwell Hardness Test, there is a Superficial Rockwell. For each test, a minor
load is applied to either a diamond cone or a steel ball indenter positioned on the test material’s
surface to establish a zero reference position.
III. KNOOP HARDNESS TEST:
This micro hardness test is used on very small parts and material features that are unable to be
tested by the other methods and employs a test load of 1000 grams or less.
Advantages of destructive Testing:
These tests are generally:
 Much easier to carry out.
 Yield more information.
 Easier to interpret than nondestructive testing.
 Destructive testing is most suitable and economic for objects which will be mass-
produced, as the cost of destroying a small number of specimens is negligible.
 Detecting the failure can be accomplished using a sound detector or stress gauge which
produces a signal to trigger the high-speed camera.

Sensors:
A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and responds with an electrical signal.
What are some quantities that can be sensed?
 Motion, position, displacement
 Velocity and acceleration
  Force, strain
 Pressure
 Flow
 Sound
 Moisture
 Light
 Radiation
 Temperature
 Chemical presence

Any sensor is an energy converter:

This conversion can be direct or it may require transducers.

Example:
A chemical sensor may have a part which converts the energy of a chemical reaction into heat
(transducer) and another part, a thermopile, which converts heat into an electrical signal.

Types of Sensors:
Direct:
A sensor that can convert a non-electrical stimulus into an electrical signal with intermediate
stages.
Example: Thermocouple (temperature to voltage)
Indirect:
A sensor that multiple conversion steps to transform the measured signal into an electrical
signal.
Examples:
 A fiber-optic displacement sensor
 Current photons current

Electronic Sensors: Inductive Proximity Sensor

1. Oscillator
2. Demodulator
3. Triggering Stage
4. Switching
status LED indicator
5. Output Stage with
protective Circuit
6. External Voltage
7. Internal Stabilized
Voltage
8. Active Switching
Zone (Coil)
9. Switching Output

Transducer:
A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Usually a transducer
converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.
Application:
Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement, and control
systems, where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy,
force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.).
Transduction:
The process of converting one form of energy to another is known as transduction.
Types of Transducers:
Active:
Active sensors require an external power source to operate, which is called an excitation signal.
The signal is modulated by the sensor to produce an output signal. For example,
a thermistor does not generate any electrical signal, but by passing an electric current through it,
its resistance can be measured by detecting variations in the current and/or voltage across the
thermistor.
Passive:
Passive sensors generate electric signals in response to an external stimulus without the need of
an additional energy source. Such examples are a photodiode, and
a piezoelectric sensor, thermocouple.
Sensors:
A sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus. Transducer is the other
term that is sometimes interchangeably used instead of the term sensor, although there are subtle
differences. A transducer is a term that can be used for the definition of many devices such as
sensors, actuators, or transistors.
Actuators:
An actuator is a device that is responsible for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It is
operated by a source of energy, which can be mechanical force, electrical current, hydraulic
fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and converts that energy into motion.
Bidirectional:
Bidirectional transducers convert physical phenomena to electrical signals and also convert
electrical signals into physical phenomena. Examples of inherently bidirectional transducers
are antennae, which can convert conducted electrical signals to or from propagating
electromagnetic waves, and voice coils, which convert electrical signals into sound (when used
in a loudspeaker) or sound into electrical signals (when used in a microphone). Likewise, DC
electric motors may be used to generate electrical power if the motor shaft is turned by an
external torque.

Transmitter:
A transmitter can be a separate piece of electronic equipment, or an electrical circuit within
another electronic device. A transmitter and a receiver combined in one unit is called a
transceiver. The term transmitter is often abbreviated "XMTR" or "TX" in technical documents.
The purpose of most transmitters is radio communication of information over a distance.
Transmitter Requirements:
A transmitter must generate a signal with the following criteria:
 The correct modulation type
 Must have sufficient power
 Must generate at the correct carrier frequency
  Should be reasonably efficient

Frequency Agility:
 Frequency agility is the ability to change operating frequency rapidly, without extensive
retuning
 Broadcast transmitters are rarely retuned
 Other services, such as CB, require rapid and accurate retuning to other channels
0

Power Output:
 There are a number of ways to measure transmitter power, depending upon the
modulation scheme employed
 Transmitters for full-carrier AM are rated in terms of carrier power
 Suppressed-carrier AM transmitters are rated by peak-envelope power (PEP)
 FM transmitters are rated by total power output

Transmitter Topology:
 The figure at the right shows the block diagrams of some typical transmitters
 There are many varieties of transmitters but most are based upon these structures

AM Transmitters:
AM transmitters are a “mature” technology, but are still in widespread use
Examples include:
 Standard AM broadcast stations
 CB radio
 VHF aircraft radio

Modern AM technology:
• Solid-state RF power amplifiers
• Pulse-duration modulators
• Digital amplitude modulation

FM Transmitters:
• FM Transmitters typically use the following components and configurations:
– Direct-FM Modulators
– Frequency Multipliers
– Phase-Locked Loop FM Generators
– Indirect-FM Modulators
– Digital FM Modulators