GUARDIAN Vol. 18 No.6 August 1, 1995 Price Rs.10.00 Registered at GPO, Sri Lanka QD/S3NEWS/94 EELAM: A QUASI- STATE? —N. Stanislaus SUU KYI: PROFILE OF COURAGE —Neelan Tiruchelvam WOMEN LEADERS : A MUSLIM VIEW —Jezima Ismail THE REGION GANG RAPE IN KARACHI —M. B. Naqvi RAO: AN INDIAN GORBACHEV ? —K. Katyal RAVANA and HELA NATIONALISM — Sasanka Perera FUNDAMENTALISM: FISH OR FOUCAULT — Bruce Lawrence CAN P. A. FIGAT,ON-TWO FRONTS ? —Mervyn de SilvaWITH THE BEST COMPLIMENTS OF ELEPHANT HOUSE SUPERMARKET QUALITY AT AFFORDABLE PRICES NO. 1 JUSTICE AKBAR MAWATHA COLOMBO 2.BRIEFLY... TULF on the package and the war Mr Sivasitramparam, leader of the moderate Tamil United Libera- tion Front (TULF) has toidtne gove- mment that the Tami people may findit difficult to respond to. apeece packege when it is offered while a war is stil boing conducted in tho Nor, Mr Sivasthamparam said in an interview with the state tun Sun- day Observer nathe had writen to Presiden! Kumaratunga forthe third lime calling for ceasefire and the commencement of negotations. ‘The TULF leadersaid:“Ourpos- tion is that you cannotfind acoluton totheTami prablemthrough miltary action. Itis only by poilical satle- ‘ment that you can bring an end to Is problem and establish peace.” He said that they ask both sides to come fo a ceasefire and re-start egoiictions. SLMC wants a unit Sri Lanka Muslim Conress (SLIVC) has proposed to the Patlia~ mentary Select Commitee on Con- slitutional Reforms a “Predominant Muslim Unit” and a “Predominant Tami Urit"in he North-Eatregion. For the predominant Mustim unit the SLC has suggested the areas: of Kelmunai, Samantnurai and Pot- tuvl inthe Ampara distiic andicen- tiled Muslin ereas intheBatticaloa, Trincomalee and Mannar districts. For the Tamil unit the SLMC has suggested tho cistrects of Jaffna, Kilinochchiand Muilaitvu andiden- tied Tamil areas in Mannar, Trin- comalee and Batticaloa. “Will not give back” *Qur forces wil not give back to the LTTE a foot or an inch of the 78 sq. Klometres of land re-captu- red In the Operation Leap Foard launched inthe North” DoputyDefo- ree Mirister Anuruddna Ratwatio told partament. He was answering (Opposition Leader Ranil Wickrena- singhe. Former minister questioned A former minister of the UNP re: gime has bean questioned by the Permanent Commission on Bribery and Corruption about some foreign ald which has been traced 10 a private London bank eesount. Asked to quit Former MPs stil squatting in go- ‘ernment flats have boon esked to quit, to accomodate new ministers and deputy ministers who have no houses in Colombo, MPs told to be in seats Government MPshave been told by Chief Whip Richard Pathirana (Minister of Education) to bepresent inpariamont curing debates. Landeruisers instead of Intercoolers The state has ordered 3000 co Landeruisers forMembors of Paria= ant in place cf the super luxury Inteccoolers which some had earier clamoured for. “Red Cross a fraud” ‘An erudite and much respecied Budchist monk iold a public gathe- ring in Colombo that the Red Cross movement was a fruad and should be banned from the country. The \VenerebieDr Walpole Rahula, Cha cellar of the Kelaniya University, was speaking atthe launching ofhis biography, ICRC operatives in the island have been accused of taking sides in the on gong ethnic war. CID investigates defence purchases In the course of hvestigating frued and malpracticesin the use of government funds (during the pro- Vious regime) the CID was investi- ‘gating an alleged alscrepency of Fs 24 rrillon in the purchase of high frequency direction finding equi- pment casting Rs 72 milion in fo- reignexchange. Among statemenis recorded was that of former Army Chie! Lt General Cecil Waidyaraine. It is alleged that this equipment failed to function. GUARDIAN Val. 18 No.8 August 1, 1995 Price Re, 10.00 Published fortnightly by Lanka Guardian Publishing Co. Lt. No. 246, Union Place Colombo - 2 Editor. Mervyn de Silva Telephone: 447584 Printed by Ananda Prose 82/5, Si Ratnajoth’ Serevanamutts Mawatha, Colombo 13. Telephone: 435375 CONTENTS News Backorounc 2 ‘Aung San Suu Ky! 3 ‘AModeet Propcee! 5 The Reaion 7 Can Muslin Women BoLeaders ol a Naton u Rediscovering Ravana 15 Islamic Fundementasm (2) 47NEWS BACKGROUND TURNING POINT ? ‘The Fortunes of war suddenly turned in the government's favour when over 300 LTTE fighters were killed ina massive assault on four well-defended Army posts in thenorth-east WELIOYA region —Janakapura, Jayasinghepu- ta, Kokilai and Kokkuttoduvai. (Some official spokesmen said that the casualty figure could be as high as 400), For the Armed Forces, and indirectly for a politically embattled Peoples Alliance, the news from the front was a much-needed morale boost: In the north, the Army had pulled out of the 74 square kilometres it had taken in the much-publicised OPERATION LEAP FORWARD, personally commanded by Deputy Defence Minister, Colonel Anuruddia Ratwatte. In the wake of this “Welicya Waterloo” as the SUNDAY TIMES called it, President Kumaratunga and Constitutional Affairs Minister, G.L. Pierls seem to have decided that this wide-open “window of opportunity” was the ideal moment to present the Constitutional Reforms package. Since the P.A. reforms require a two-thirds majority, the U.N.P. must cooperate with the Kumaratunga administration to introduce “the Union of Regions” that the P.A. has proposed, Despite the major military debacle at Welioya, the LTTE is still a resourcefiul enemy in the field. The P.A. cannot fight the U.N.P. in Parliament and the LTTE on the battleground at the same time. Torn by internal dissension, the P.A. has to re-think its overall strategy soon. Mervyn de SilvaHUMAN RIGHTS Violation of Human Rights in Myanmar Noble Peace Prize Winner Aung San Suu Kyi was released last month Dr. Neelam Tiruchelvam, MP. Mr. Speaker, | move the following Motion: “Thal, whereas the General Assern- bly of the United Nations on the 20th December, 1933 resclved withoutavote thatitis greatly concemed at the conti- nuing Violations of human righis, sum mary and aititrary exculions, torture, forced labour, abuse of women, restic- tions on fundamental jreedoms, the imposition of oppressive mossuros particulartyon ethnic andreligiousminc- tities in Myanmar; And whereas the Government of Myanmar has notimplemeniedits com- mitments to take all necessary steps towards democracy in the light of the results of the elections of 1991 ‘And whereas the Universal Doolara- tion of Human Rights states that the wil of the people shall be the basis of the authority of Goveriment: And whereas the people of Myanmar and Sti Lenka have had strong historical, religious and cultural linkages; ‘And Whereas human rights activists in Sri Lanka made an appeal on Vesak Day in 1892 to all concerned gioups in Myanmar to respect the vercict of the people as expressed in the elections of July, 1990and toworktowardsanimme: ciate transition to demecracy; This House resolves that the Noble Peace Prize Winner, Lauroata Aung San Suu Kyi who isin her sixth year of Complete & Indepedent Insurance Placement with all Insurers Efficient Ciaims Recoveries Risk Management Consultance Insurance Consultancies Financial Advice on Life Assurance Insurance Portfolio Management + + + Ht Industrial & Commercial Insurance Brokers (Pte Limited 90, Union Place (First Floor) Colombo 2. Tel: 328640, 498222, 428226 Telex: 22785 INSINT CE Fax 498134 An Associate Company of FORBES & WALKER LIMITEDRe-discovering Ravana Sasanka Perera Introduction’ In August 19030 my wayto Anuradha pura | came across an orange colored ‘concrete sign on the cutskirts of Wanya- ola. Ac stated in tho’ sign itcolf it was efeciod by the Warlyapola Pradeshiya Sabha. It welcomed vistors to the town and slated the folowing (among other things): "You are entering the Wariyapola city, a which during the reign of King Fa\ served as a landing aroa for tho vet ‘nat travelled et he speed of air Basioaly, the cign roforred to a pre-h= storis international eipor, or in the very least, amiltaryai base itshould be noted that the word Wariyapola, thename of the town, is quite significant in the context of this epoculation, "Wa" meansairinSinha- Ja, and “riya” means vaicle, while "pcla” reletstoa space This the amalgamation ‘of these meanings, in theory could refer toa "place WhereaVehicle whicn traveled by air or at tho cooed of air had landed.” Neadiess to say, | knew what this story ‘was all about, but was nevertheless amazed al tieattemptedpublclegtimize tion or histericization of the Ravana myth. For mo, euch a public attampt with claar politcal sponsorship (eg, the sion was feracted by a UNP-contialled Pradoshiya Sabha) toleaitinize the Ravana myth vies a complelely new phanomenonin Sinhala socioly. As anthropological literature trom around the world has shown, certain enduring myths are sometimes resutre- ¢ted, reinterpreted, histoncized and pli ized at cerlain socic-politeal junctures. What | would ike to attempt in ths brief ‘say is fo try to understand come of tho dynamics Involved in such processes by focusing on how the Ravana myth has eet usedin this mannerby Sinhalas and Ravana is one of the chief prolagonisis inValik's epic Ramayana, Vanous ver sions of the story have also seeped into the folk lore of many peoples, the Sinha- las, tho Thaie, tho Tami, and tho Saline Se einong them. Curtenily appears that both Sinhalas and Tamils claim Ravana as thelr own personal ethric and culture The author teaches sacooay atthe Univershy of Colomoa. Tis eseay appoeredin LIVING WITH TORTURERS, an ICES publication. hero. More precisely, certain sactions wi- thin these two ethnic groups seem to do so, Why? Constructions of the past (through myihs, legends, ristory or what is under- slood 5 history) is essentially a paliical ‘and moral resource thal has become an ‘expedient tcol in tha hands of polticians, nationalists and scholars (sometimes of course these diferent agents are the same), who usethem|or thelr own polical projects involving nationalist, religious or ethnics hegemonic and legitimzation pro- cesses. inthe SriLankan context the past is a highly contentious, contested anc prized commodity that is often used for contradictory purposes by different, and ‘often mutually antegoristic, groups. This Phenomenon is more clearly manifes! among ihe Sinhalas and Tamils when they attempt to justify or legitimize the present on the basis of what ney consider to bo the authentic past, ‘The past is also sacred, Nationatst interpretations of the past idealy should notbe questioned orreassessedby indivi duals within or exeeriorto the group. Such indivduale woudallbobrandedas trators interms ofnatonalistdiscourse and heio- re. This hasaready ccourradin SaLanka, and | belive would continue to occur under simier eondiicns. The possibilty of castigationis oneothemainreesors why meny Sif Lankan scholars have generally been mule regarding key ("sensitive") issues, andi sence is shekingy ev enti tha social ssianeas The legend of Ravana hes been an ‘enduring one. Moreover, it has bean at the centre of quasi-histerical research of ‘the academic ince for some time — at least since the letter part of the 19th century: The question we siiould pose thenis whether in tha ccntext of evolving ‘sociopolitical realities the legend of Flava nahas shifted fromthe obscure academic {ings into the roalm of ethnic poltics and nalionalis! thetoric of Sinhalas and Ta- mils In essence this essay will attempt to provide someinterimanswersto this que- ston, ‘The Metamorphosis of Ravana in Sinhala Socioty | frst came across Ravana as a child {ngrade three or so through a lesson titled "Dandumanaraya” in my Sinhala langua: gereader The lite of thelesson (in Sinha la) referredtothe legendary aircraft Rave nawas reputed to have had. Thiswas my first real introduction to the mytnical king, as | would assume was the case with many 0! those in my generation studying in Sinhala, The lesson and the teacher's elaboralions noted that Ravane ebduciod Sila, he beautful wileo! Remaand imon- sonad horin Lanka. RamainvadedLanka ‘with the help of Hanuman, the monkey general and rescued Sila. Clearly, Fava ne even though he was suposed tohave lived in a place called Lanka (which we ‘were ascured was none other than Sri Lanka), was not an absolute Sinhala hero, 6n the’ model of Dutugemunu or other such kings Atthattime (lato 1960s andoarly 1970s) his characterization was problerratic—at loast in the middle class conscience. On onelevelhe was perczivedas a thug vbo stole someone else's wife, That was con- sideredto be the kindof thing that decent People did not do. At anomnerlevelne wes ‘a hor bocauss of His heroic miliary expos. Aller al he flew in an arrrafl cr) 1 Secret mission long (really long) bafore those two Americans called the Weght brothers invented the airctat. In fact on number of occasiors we were told this, The more Gear heroes however, were Rama and Hanuman. They, afterall, were the folks who rescued Sta and defected Ravana. But in an ara with no television to visually bombard us wih the sleek and airborne exploits of Superman and Bat- ‘man, Ravana’s "Dandumonaraya” surcly Captured our imagination. | think it was precisely for this reason that he did not ‘completely lapse from our collective me- mory. What is clear, however, is that ‘excopt for thosa in the academic iringe Ravana was not an eihic hero for the Sinhalasin general ‘The firstimpetus for resurrecting Rava- 1a in Sei Lanka emerged in the later part Of the 19in century, The emergence of Such interests colndce wih the 1370 e-discovey and excavation of ruins which were claimedito be that of Trey, the febled city of Homer's epic lied. the man responsible for this re-ciscovery was Hei- nich Schlemann, aq amateur German archaeologist. The basio simianiies be- tween Homer's iad and Valmkis Rama- Yana prorpied these early speculations, ‘Amuch moresustained effort was made to resurrect Ravana later in the context of the Hala Movement in the 1940 and 184950s, Here, what Hela actvists such as Kumaratunge wanted was not so much to resurrect the Ravana myth per sa, but to construct a much more ancient and non-Indic genesis for he “true language” of the Sinhalas, which was identified as Hela, Current Sinhala was perceivaoly contaminated with foreign influences such as pall, Sanskil, Tamil and so on. The main aim of the Hala activists was to *putify” Sinhala by pursing these fore’gn influences, and recreate its Hela identi ‘which Was beliovod to have bean lost. As ent of ins endeavour, the Hela actvisis suggesied that the real language cf the Sinhalas (Hele) had a clear Sri Lankan genasis, and thai t was not of Indian origin. ‘These perceptions must be placed 1 ‘the context of tho love-hate relationshp ‘hat the Sinhalas have had with India for a considerable period of time, For insta- nice while many Sinhalas accept certain clearindian influences suchas Sucdnism, they ere at pains to overlook other oes such as the influence of Tai tho Sinhala language. However, as part of the Hela project fl was necessary 10 construct a respectable history for the Sinheles prior to tho perceived arival of Vaya, he mythical ancestorof the Sinha- Jap, Currantnationaliet historiography and popular conventions suggest thal Vijaya arrived in Sri Lanka wilh seven huncred {followers on the day the Buddha attained Nirvana, Thus as far es Sinhala society is concomod, tho resurrection of Ravana came about as an inlegral part of this Overall project Thatis, aspartofthaclaim that there wasa purely SriLankan histori- Cal tradition and civitzation prior to the arrival of Vijaya and later Indian inviuen- ces. Promoters of the Ravana myth have variously, ented Nim asa Yaksha Fakshaking. ln Sinhala myththe Yakshas ‘and Rakshas are recognized as the beings inhabiing the land when the first Sinhala setters landed. They are spocti- caly characterized as norshuman and demor-lke. In fact, h current usage the word Yatshia and Raksha tele to demons ortathermalevolent formso' spiitlife wno devour orharmhumans, Given the nature cf this rather strong popular tredtion, an ‘ettompt has been madi by Hola activists {to humanize the demonic persona of Ra~ vana in parfcular and the Yakshas in general (Seneviratne 1991: 49). ‘The demonic persona of the Yekshas is a strong component of the popular tradition dealing witn pre-Vijayan times. On the cthor hand, whtetheHelatracition suggesisihatFavana was aYaksinaKing, the popular tradition does not always 16 make this connection. However, the de- ionic characterization of the Yakshes, and the perceivably unethical behaviour of Ravana (exerpitied by his abduction (Sila) are Wo main reasons why Ravana and Yakshas havo not becn asitongpart Of the Sinhala heroic tradition, This has been the case irrespective ofthe fact thal certain place nemes (eg. Waryapolaand Sita Ela) allegedly refering to he Hava- fa siory, and coms localized myths can be found in various parts of the island. ‘Thus when | asked the villagers in Wariya: pola to show me where Ravane’s aircraft ad landed, they told me that there was ‘ro such place, and that tho eign roferrod to above was ine work of a group of local poliicians. So much for protisioric airports, not to mention the attempted resurraction of Ravana in Warlyapola. Ravana has been presented as the ‘most famous of these early Hela (or Ya- ha) kings. It hae alco been suggested that Ravan’s mythical capil Lankapura was located within Sri Lanka. One of the main endeavours of ecivists involved in historicizing Ravana has been ihe atterr- ppted location of this capital. While many ames Nave been suggested, by far the most favored is Sigriva, the Sih century ‘AD rock fortress Lelieved to be the works of Kashyara the fist, Itis suggested that Keshyapa buit his fortress among tha tuns 0! Ravana’s Lankapura (Senev- raine 1991; 130-136). Interestingly hou= ‘eye, a colleague from the Universty of Colombo who undertook six months of ficld research in the Sigirya area did not find any references to Ravana in the umercus oral historios and folk stories ‘hathe collected. ‘Tausin practical terms the Hola projoct was Jaunchied by a group of Sinhala edu- cated middle class elites, and its appeal was rather cesticted as a result of iis vehemently antiSanskaitic and ani Indian biac es woll ac a result ofits veho- ment cfiicism of established tracitin. ‘Thus th resurrection of Ravana as part of the language nationalism of the Hela ‘activists Was relatvaly unsuccessiul. Ho- ‘wever, the timing of tho project i impo- lant, Ii emerged at a time that Sinhala ullureand traditiore wore subveriad and avalued in the context of the dorninant olorial culture by both the imperaists ‘and theirlocal agents would suggest that, in general, myths inthe heroicmodel are italy tobe resurro: led at times when a socely ora specific ‘gccup is experiencing sustained stress Thus when the Indian armed foress in: ‘ervened in the Siankan ethnic contic: by sending troops to the Northern and Eastem Provinces o! Sil Lanka, at leas! atewattorrpis were made to resurrectihe Ravana myth. Unde: these circumsta- nces te “hats” component ofthelova-na- fo relationship with India which I raforrod fo above was triggered off, and mary Sinhalas became overly ant-Indian. It ‘vas in iis contextthal Ariyadasa Senevi- falne published his book cn the Ravana Kingdom in 1901. Int he etatos that tho ock was published jo Honour President Ranasinghe Premadasa, He mace a cl- ect association between Ravane’s per ceived ant-lndian sentiment and that of Promadesa. Ho states thal Ravanals ho- roism and sacritos three thousand yeas ‘ago wes essenilly simiar to Premada- ssa’s heroism; “With a war of wordshis Excelency Ranasinghe Premadase chased away the foreign forces (Incian) sent to this country by the modern Incian avatar of lama under ihe false pretext of ushe- rng in peace — (Seneviraine 1991), “The reason for this ellempted tesurre= ciion of the Ravana myth had another sigiifcantdimension, whichisinfact {red io in Seneviratne’s statement above ‘One reason for the Sinhalas’ love - hate felationshio with India is the strong colle clive memory ol numerous and destructi- Vo Indian invasions of Si Lanka in the Islena’s bistorkal and mythicel past Hence Seneviratne’sreference loRama’s avatar. Sinhalas havo aways boon wary (fa possible Indian intervention or history repeating itself, and on this occasion thait fears seamed to have come tus. On the other hand, the conventional olf among Sinhalasihas been that thoy are descendents of Vjeya, the Noth Tacian prince. Atleast to some individuals this Indian conacetion in the origin myth. Che Sinhalas became problematicwhien Indian troops (many of them fiom Noth India) were occupying parts ofthe country. However, this and other attempts at rest ‘reeling the Ravana myth ormodiiying ihe Vijaya nyt was not strong erough in disledging the Viaya mythin the long run, Even at this juncture, when thors was some poltical space for ils possible suc- cess, tha altemp! fo resurectthe Fayana myth bas notbeen successful. The reason clearly is that tha Vijaya myth is 109 strongly etchod in tho popular conscious fess ofthe Sinvelas, end thatthe Ravana ‘myth has never occupied such a preem~ rent postion in the Sinhala conscious. ness of imaginaton. Thus among the Sinhalas the poliics of Ravana is stil predarrinanly an activity ofthe academe ‘tinge and a minute section of he middle lacs. [Noxt: Metamorphosis of Ravana in Tamil Society)PART 2 Tracking Fundamentalists Bruce B. Lawrence there are also two further thematic issues that undercut the rhetorically {reighted butioatcally suspect conclusion to thie otherwise magisterial aricla: one Is gender, the other science, Let us imagine that religious identity is so vatiable that Al-Azm tums out to be correct nhs prediation: eventhough Fro- {estart/Catholis lundamontalsis fall their Islamic counterparts succeed. What would be the components ofthe success of lslamic fundamentalism? At the vory least it would have to confirm gender hiararchy, a cubjecthinledatin the AlAzm anicle buinever developed. Its, however, developed in a companion piece by Vai Moghadem in South Asia Bulletin’ Hers isa esiricteg, country-by-country compa- Tigon of Iran, Pakisian and Afghanistan She provides a wide renge of data to demonstiaie how patriarchy. perssis Underthe quice of devslopmentin allthree Countries, with the result thet all three ortinua inte the 1980s as postcolonial, eo-patriarchal stales opposed alike to the educatonal advancement and occu- ppational opportunity of women ctizens. Yet Moghadam, fike Al-AZmn, stikes a radical nate ofhope inherconclusion. She posits that socoeconome change vill Conlinue apace in all three countries, indeed, "massfemalecducation,theentry of women into the work forca, and the expanded activities of vierian's organiza- tions will be the strongest challenge to ppalnierchy and the neopatriarchal state" (p. 182), Sho labols her utopian conc sion “deteiminist,” pethaps because i vil {um out, 28 Sharabi, whom Moghadam les, has argued, that gender wil prove to be the last recoubt of patrarcny, that insload of marking the success of patria: ‘chal noms veling end sedusion signal theirnear term dissolution, thai the very ‘accent cn women’s (oles is a prelude te ther likely reversal and the consequent ovartnrow of patrarchy. Many would like tobellevethisaigument but isirevitbilly is, af the least, open to question. More impotartly, it i not the argument that ithe: Moghadam or AAzm advances with reference 1o the empirical evidence of their articles, vihether derived trom ‘extant literature’ (AlsAzm) or fiold data (Mochadam). Itmay be thatin his conclu: ‘Son, ALAZm intends to suggest by the mlaphor “bureting through” that the ge- der asyinmetty which now prevals Wil break down, but such a reading, like the ‘uicome it euggests, romaine olusive. Equaly problematic for his sweeping affirmation of a future ‘success for Isla mic fundamentalism s the ambivelentrole that science would have to play. Consi- tent with AL-Aam's project throughout his roductive scholarly careerhas been the firm accent he himsaii puts on science, ie, modern-day science, as a liberating force. The present ertice continues that project. For instance, in commenting on Mandudi's fear of scence, and Shukti Musiaials obsession, or pure phobia, aboutit, Al”Azm adds! For a botter appreciation of this foar, | ‘wouldike to remind he Westem reader here, thai scientific inquiry, knowedge, anclusions,applications,and general- zations sill carry, inthe contaxt of pre- ent day Musiim societies, significant traces of tal intolectually and socially liberative and liberating charge thet once characterized the modem scient= fic enterprise 1 the cays of Rabelais, Gallco, Descartes and the Encyclope- ists; along with the attendant sense of ‘exctemen|, fascination, wonder, curic- sity, discovery, novelty and, above all, empowerment (Pt, p. 119). In other words, science wil always be a challenge to religous certainty, which is the inverse of the same point that he mage In Critique of Religious Thought, namely, that “roligion as itentorsthe core of Our lie and affects our intellectual end sychoogical makeup is in oppostion to ‘science and scienific knowiedge — heart and soul iierlly and figuratively.” But for whom? Not for al fundamonta- listsor Islamists, certainlynot for Ayatollah Mutahhavi, whom Al-Azm treats at length only in one qucte that suggests the Ayatcl- Jan's disparegement of modem science. Buta closer ccading of Mutahhai, and of Shit fundamentalism in ceneral, leads 10 2 diferent conclusion, As | indcatad in ‘Defenders of God,® Mutahher, unike his Sunni counterparts, simultaneousy denies and atfims evolution. Rejecting the Biblical notion of a single act of crea- tion, Mutahhari affirms a conlinuous'evo- lutionary’ process of creation, which he derives as the teaching, the “rrarvalous logic" of the Koran. Ha oven goss so far as to acknowledge cifferent scientific models of evolution, distinguishing the graduaist model of Lamarck end Danwin jrom is successor, the punctuation model formulated by Emst Mayr. In snort, Mutae hharlis not dogmatically egainst evouulicn fr evolutionism, as ALAzm implies Unraveling from this difference are a spate of other diferences that have to be introduced into Al-Azm'e aricla in order tobalance Its clear obiter cicta wit some compaiing datz. There is not a singe Islamist oF integralst or fundamentalist wotld view or World picture, as he cals it, There are rather mutiplo views, and they often compete wih each other, not merely cn the authority of personal lea- dors and their idiosyncratic readirgs of Koran and Prophetic repos (Sunnah), buton tho vary nature ofraligious catego: figs and colective norms. Hence, unlike their Sunni counterparts, Mutahhari and other Shi fundamentalists, embrace Ideology as a useful category. Going beyond the dichotomy of religion/ecionco, they perceive two kinds of ideology. The ‘one, all foo wall known, mabilzas Irited group interests for material gain. Bul the ther, which they clearly favor, aims at thing less than “the salvation of the whole human species”. Islam, in their View, conforms to this secend kind of Ideology, advocating as its ulimate aims “the velory of humanity over animalty, ‘ecionco over ignorance, jusice over in slice, equally over discrimination, virtue Piety avercissipation, tawhid Theissue at stake, of course, concems rnotenly tho distinction between Sunniand ‘Shi fundamentalism but also the factors increasing orlimiting their success. In the ‘uirent debate abou! clobal fundamenta: lism, itis true, as AlAzm has aptly and ‘repeatedly ncted, that America has provi ded tha peracigmaticcase, builis equally true that Iran has provided the drving force for the present upsurge of interest in Islamic fundamentalism. Since the role ‘of Iranhas boon downplayed inthisaticio (tis only hinted atin tne names of a fow Iranian Istamisis), Shii sources need fo berevisited with he semeintenstyas the Sunni Egyptian documents that Al-Azm ‘quotse co fully and adoily, indeed, to beter effect than ary olher scholar to fate”| propose the fellowing acdendum 10 Al-Azm's project. Global fundamentalism is a novelty of the last two decades, ‘Without isamic fundamentalism we must retreat 10 what was supposed iy the 1970's, namely, thet Protestant American fundamentalism stands by itself suigene- fg. From the vantage point of the ‘mld-i¢90s, the role of islamic fundamen: talism can and must bo reascoscod. tis al once pivotal and catalytic: it provides the linchpin, the sine qua non, for the ‘comparative study of fundamentalism, ‘And among all he case instances adcu- ‘eed for Islamism, integralsm, or Islamic fundamenialsm, Iran and the Iranian te olution occupy center stage, Indeed, the debate about Islemic fundamenialism takes shapeasan earthquake Il raverho- rales outward from Iran. It presupposes highlights iran,ang then the Middle East, the Arab world, the Muslim word in expanding concentric citcles. Butthey all ‘come back fo the epicenter. And tho api- ‘conter is Iran. tran outpaces all other Ccontesiants forthe faurel “lagship of isla- fundamentalism’ cthoreareconsde- ted by virtue of thelr ideolagel, which is aso often their geographic, proximity to Iran. Putnegatively, if one excludes Iran, Islamic fundamentalism dissolves. Lotme restate my amicus curiae adde- dum to Al-Azm's article without images 9f metephors. While supporting almost all of Al-Azm's orignal and provocative crii- ue of fundamentalism, | would expand fis thesis ‘0 include iranian evidence as fllows. Globalfundamentalismwes'inve- ned’ after the -anian revolution tisavery recent phenomenon. Eliminalethelranian, ‘evolution and you cannot talk about Isla- micfundamentalism, (Of course, you cant {r/o talk about it, but only as a series of cireumsiantial, unrolatad isolates.) Ei minate isiamic fundamentalism in compa- ring funcamentalisms, and you remove Comparative or global fundamentalism 2s A viable topic of analytical inquiry or aca- demic labor. Equally important to stress, along wih thalinkto ran, is the many colored quality of Islamic fundamentalism. There are se- eral, cften compating notions of loyalty fo.an authentic Islamic praxis. Not are all Muslims who stress praxis intrinsically inescapably fundamentalists. Whie Al-Azin defines Wellthe mast radical core group of Sumifundamentalsts, he is loce clear either abou! their Iranian counter paris or cbout the fringe elements that co not ft well into either a fundamentalist or iniegralst or Islamist profile. For instan- ‘ce, in accaniing cciones as autonomous ‘om faith, he places Sevyed Hossen Nasr in the Islamist camp. But Nast is much morea Muslim modernist in rautio- 18 nalist garb, Despite his effort to teirieve Sscionce fram "its secular and humeniste. matrix,” he firmly believes in the right of ‘science and scents's fo be above the [udgmentof ulammaand lugahawhowould, In the name of Allah, deride all science ‘a5 out cf bounds for the faithfu. Nasr Fepeatedly lifes to argue that in prince thare shouldbe no division betivaen scie- ce end Islam, and that its the effort io Separate olf modem scienoa fram pramo- dom ormedieval acience thathas brought ‘bout the clash of religion and science. One can dispute Nasr’s notion of gcodand bad science, bul ene cannot piace him in the Same cadre of antiscientists as Ma- wdudi, Brohi or Cardinal Bollarmino, al- leo's “adviser. Finally, | want to demonstrate how ALAzms nimble and muli-iered argu- ‘mants would be bolstered by a strongor, deeper probe into the relationship of post- modernism to fundamertalism. Only i Part Two(p. 79) does heallude topostmo- demnism, anc then he brackets itwith the radical antscientiem of Shukn Mustafa, Indeed, in a stroke of onic reversal, ne cradits Mustafa “with alot more credibility, consistency and authenticity than his We- ‘slem deconstructionist counteroaris” (Pt. il,p. 79) While iis fashionable to Jampoon the new critics, and while | would not wan! to attempt their lu thoitled detensen these ages, they dohave more ofacortrbution fomaketo the debate on globalfundame- nalism than Al-Azm allows. Consider the folowing observation by Anthony Appian in the sll fresh arta, “Is the Post- In Posimodemism the Pos In Postecio- nial?” Like Freckio Jameson, the leading Althusseran exponento’ postmodernism, Appian fakes satiously contoxtas well as text, He questions Weber's noticn thet Talicnalization is he cere of Westora civli- zation and Western world control, Appiah stresses the pivolal cifference between tho univereal signifeance of he West, Which is clear, and its universal value, Which isless clesr. Postmodernism, in his \iew, underscores the deyeetowhich tie Weberian vsion has not heen fulillad, There has not been the tiumph of Enlightenment Reason — which would hve entailed exactly the end of clerk sma and the unwerselization of the Secular, There has not even been the entation of a narrower instrumental eason into all sphoros of fo. (Rather) the penetration of a scientlic vision of ‘hings describes at the most tha tiny — and in the United States quite marginal — World of the higher academy and a iv islande of its influence. What we have seen in recentiimesin tne United Slates is not secularization — the end ofreligions — but thelr commodification; and with that commodifeation religions have reached futherand grown —their ‘margets have expanded — rather than die” (p. 344), In other words, all the exponents of an inevitablerarch togiobsl econcmic dave- lopment end with @ universal seculariza. On have proven tobe shor-signtad, That is a major premice of postmodernism. ‘What then bacomas the revised trale- clory of global history? And what are its felgious dimersions likely io be? At the every least, it wil interconncet reigous acio's and movements in vays that seemed prevously unimaginable, and at thesametmeitwilfoster more rater than less expression ol radicaly puslcreligion, i, fundamentalicm, It is on this narrower point, the future of religious fundamenialism, that | think that the new erites and postmodernism hhave a contribution to make that would be especialy helpful for Al-Azm's project Consider the diachranie llew char of Fre ‘rie Jameson. By his reckoning, posto: demsmsucceeds modernism forspactic socio-economic factors thal are linked to the developmentotiate global capitaism. Inz much quotedarticle, Jamoson argues that pastmodernism is precisely the cult. fal logic of late capitalism, dapendent, as itis, on routinized labor, innovative forms Of technology and also expanding mar kets (most recently Easior Europ ang USSR) where consumer appeiite for capl- talist commodities grows unabated." "And ‘even when cepitalism tse seems not io ‘change on a cramatic or ontical scale, the culiural practices linked {6 itin ary given petiod do change, often wih starting Speed, though wihout what Jameson Calls "utopian compensation’. Itis the separation of thepostmodemist project from its modernist antecedents thal paraliels the eftical perception of religious fundamertalism or inlegraism, Integraism, ike pastmademism, must be Felated to nistorncal antecedents but oul side a diachronic patiemn. As Al-Azm has Convincingly shown, the most stron tun damentalists cisavowall history except lor Select moments from the ideal past hat inform andlegtimate their own view-point. In their racical reading of tne divine plan, they relalatothe challongos of ha prasent Father than thegories o' the past. Yettney. cannot escape the cilemme of present- mmindechess: while they may lay claim io ‘transcendent timeless Truths, they in fact Te-aValuate and recast thace same Truths in light of the present or High Tech Era, ‘The God of Hsiory becomes the God ofNow, stipped of the authority of tradition andaiso ts defendrs,, Precisely because reicious fundamen- falism is, in Akzmis words, a counter reformation, Lis very much a product of lobal history inthe twentieth century, as much as aro tho Tterany/artileutural movements called modems and 50s modernism, Far from being an ahistorical mindset or a cyclically recurent pheno- meron, relgoils fundamentalism reacts to the greatest challange of tho present fa, namely, the logic of scientzing ctu: te rom Charles Darwin and Temas Huxiey to Carl Sagan ard £.0. Weson, the advocates of a gouless. cos- mology, by roplacing Genesis, Croaton andthe Creator withine®qBang, Chaos, ard now Infinite Expansion, hava provo- kod the fundamentalist: counteratack, Inegralsmhasbeenshapedbytnetorces of modernization butespecally he ore” gence of thal form of modeiisin which excludes religious auionomy. In that se- nso, fundamentalism is at one with po- stmodetnisn:functionaly they ae nistor- cal produeis of our recent Nistory, avon though in both gic end group tiey refiect that hisioryat near oppasite poles. The functional affinity between post ‘modemism and fundamentalism has not been lost on Fredric Jamocon, Jameson, more than any other theorisl, has re- ‘worked the puzzle of capitals! cuture and global redirection. His stylistic opacity is more than balanced oy his ecumenical ‘grasp. For that reason alone ho bears fruitfl juxtaposition ith Al-Azm in revie= Wing the two-part South Asia Bulletin arici, Butthereis also another senseinwhich Jameson contributes io the same project of situating fundamentalism in a posimo- dam orbit Like AlAzm, he is not merely inlerested in the evidence of religious ‘dala; he also prodes the limt of what ‘actors themselves can tell us about their ‘oWin motives, interests and outecrres. In Jameson's case, the issue of catego- tiles ther namingandinvocation—was piqued by his reading of Robert Balian’s Hebits of the Heart, one of the most ‘celebrated books on American religion in ‘the 1980s." Modern roligion of the kind that Bellah and his coleagues investiga tad, belongs, in Jameson’ view, to the ‘eaiegany of weak religion. It is weak reli- ‘clon because it 1s religion unrelaied to underlying socio-economic structures. It Is religon expressive cf individuaism, yet incividualism itself remains unexamined, Bellah engages in conceplual slippage fom one theoretical model to another, so. that Bisical and Ropubloan moments of individualism become elided. Conversely, the blightedconcopt of community among Bellah ssubjecis sneveraddress2c. Also absen! are what Jamoson cals “genuine leftaiternatives,” withtheresuk thet Beliah and his colaborators tumble “into the ‘confineso! thatiamiliaroldidea, American, exceptionalism.” Bellah never criiques cither late capitalis!socloty ortho powers ‘of contemporary religon. Hisshoricoming is at once systemic and generetioral: he mirrors what right-wing intellectuals want to hear about reicion, namely, tat itis private bolief system, that itis eol- mnisto: Fing thetapy, that tis publicly non-hreale- ring. Jamesonthen goes on to decry the fact that bourgeois American roligonn today is litle more than the simolacrum of reicicn, religion transformed into its shadowy ima: ge lacking both substance and authenti- Giy. in is stead, Jameson would tke te +820 the amergence of religion on the left, religion of the sort that contributed to the Iranian revolution, that informs liberation theology, or even the dynamics of the synchronicity ofthenon-synchronousthat EmstBloch adumbyated but whichhas yei to be ciscovered “in the Anglo-Amercan language zane." in short, Jamason har- bors muted hope for relgon: to be vial actors in the late capitatsi maelstrom, Feligionists must try to reinventaney form ft utopian project, one whichexceecs, and so replaces, the thin, tharapeulic buiding blocks detailed, and commen- dad, in Habits ofthe Heart vameson’s seeming imprimatur of the Iranian revclution — and by implication, Islamic fundamentalism — is qualited in a recent, sill urpublished sesay ‘Moder. nity after Posimodernism.” In this essay he examines religous fundamentalism as a case instance cf that prolferation of ‘micropofties which he had alluded to as a characteristic social feature o! postmo- demism in his 1964 essay, "Pesimmoder- ism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capita- lism.” Citing John Howard Yoder, on of the most sirident ortics of theological mo- ddamism, Jameson dubs him afundamon- talist. Why? Beceuse Yeder, in common with other fundamentalsis, rejacts all the literary critical devices that have sought to explain scripture as remote rather than, immediate jisdirectives fromthepastonly ‘acquiring relevance through modern (ea dings. Aganstsuch interpretive relalivsm Yoder acvocaies a synchronicity of imagi- Nation, intention and wil withthe oricinary Bbbicalaudience Spectically, Yodermai- nilains that one can iterally engage the teachings of Jesus as Gig his frst-century Palestinian contemporarias. Henes dedu ces Jameson: Vihat fundamentalism aeseris ie that there exsis no Great Divide (as Bruno Latourputs t) batween the modem ard the ancient, between the West and the Test, Detween thebourceois era andthe society and culture of the scriptures, Beet in that Great Divide, trat racical break, thatracical Difference, was what authorized figuretive and allegorical Interpretations of the Bible. Buri that bole! or convictions weakens or vari shes, then a literal relationship to Je~ Sus's teachings is no mor impossible forus, the ciizens ofthe superstate and (of multinational capitalism, than for the Nicdle Eastem subjecis o! the Roman Empire, something ike this new relatio= ‘ship to the past would also saent to characterize the other “fundamenta- lisms" ofthe present day, most notable Islam, If fundamentalism then becomes part of postmodemist daterminaiens, it only reinforces the vise-Ike giip of capstalism. For capitalsm lies at the heart of what is meant bythe West, modern tenes, ceason and science. And. ceptalism remains a brutal hegemone force, as ‘the Dood of innumerable colonized peoples atlests, The fact is that postmodernism does not marka break vith the dynamics of capita- ‘ism that once expressed lisell In moder nism (and in modernity andin mockomiza- tion) but rather a restructuraton and ren stfonger form of thal on a now global scale” Roligious —_ fundamontelisrn, insteed of marking new possiililes for a feviiaized utopian project, reinforees tho {ragmentary micropoilical cutcomes of late multinational capkalism. Sillanotherpostmodom ortis whocan: tributes to the detate on religious tunda- mentalism in Stanley Fish. Especially va- lables Fish's notion of interpretive com munities. Witnout confirming rank subjec- tivism and cognitive relativism, Fish main= fans thal (is inlerpreive communities Whadsterminewhattexis mean, Andthey determine meanings not by reading texts objectively but by responcing 10 “ihe bundle of interests, of particular purposes andgoels'"ihatinform averytexi, Yetsuch reacings are not subjective, according {2 Fish, because the meanings, 2s also ihe texts, which interpretive communities pro- ‘duce, reflect ‘public and (often quite) con= ‘Yentional points of view.” [tis this distinctive twist by Fish on tha old debate aboutinterpreting literary texts that makes his approach of value in look ing at eigious fundamentalsis, Precsely because ie refuses to loo al the truth or falsehood of competing claims advar- ‘cod by diftecen! interpretive communities, Fish observes and analyzas the intorosts 19al stake In each protfered reading. itis ironic, therefcre, that an arch seculer- humanist — Fish worships only at the altar of ACC Basketball — can provide fundamentalist roadors @ point of access to the arena of allical academic dis- But Fish goes even further: he notes that determinate reading is one of the principal waye in which one can road a text, especially a scriotural text. Determ nate readingimplies the suspensionofthe vely exercise of crilical judgment since thal very exerese, itis alleged. wil lead inexorably to bias and impeely In his own ay Fish affirms the inerranist reading of Soripture, collapsing, as he does, the chronological space between Sbicaland contemporary history. Hisisamove simi- lar to the one by Howard Yoder that Jameson arialyzed.as posimodemistfun~ @amentalism, To Fish such a move is ‘ebove ether evaluation orcondemnation; it merely exemptties Me pecular nature yrminale reading. As he once re- To scmeone who believes in determi- nate meaning, cisagreement can only be a theological orror. The truth les plainly h view, aveilable to anyone who has the eyes to see: but some readers choose net to see it and perversoly Substtute their own meanings for the ‘mearings that texts obviously bear."* In other words, religious fundamenta- fists by their intrinsic nature can accord no validity to oerreadings, Norcanthey show awarenoss, muchless appreciation, of the new stages in critical theory that have brought parts of the academy to the point of admitting, without confrming, the fundamentalist view of scripture. The re- ull, ironically, fs that "it would be litaraly Impossible for a fundamentalist to credit the theories of a Fish or a Foucault, for in so doing, the fundamontalist would (ease fo be a fundameniaist.""* In other Words, tho ortical enterprise becomes a ‘one-way corridor: Fish or Foucault, Jams- son or Al-Azm can be used to valicate fundamentalist readings but no funcama- nialist woud recognize ther valueas cril- ‘eal obsowers or asiuio analysts. ‘The contrbution of Fish to the debate then becomes a nogative che: it shows the exient to which, as Appiah reminds Us, there is but a minorty of persons who sill believe in a Post-Enlightenrent, post-Modemnist project, and for that very reson the project will novar achiave a Global consensus. The utopian vision announead by Al-Azm, even were it to sucoaed, would never be acknowledged byhis Islamist subjects, yet is article stil 20 seives a valuable purpose, for it dacs finaly make a difference that those altu- ned to the eliemmas and ambiguities of ‘a postmodern wotld of global fundemen- taisis wil listen to all voces, especially When the voices themselves wil notlision foeach other. (Ordo thaylisten withoutacknowladging ‘hat they listen? For one of the indsputae ‘la changes of laie capitalsm has deen the role of mass media, at once much more intrusive and inclusive than ever before in human history. "The mass me da,” Gianni Vattimo reminds us, "have ‘assumed in the life of each individual an, Infinitely more important rcle than in any ‘oherevaoi the past” Hence, those who ‘advooato determinate readings have to share equal space with advocates ofinde- terminate orpluralsireadings. theimelicit message is that readings which tako accourit of oiher readings are fnally more Valuabie then those which do not. That may be the greates! lesson from theirter- face between crilical theory andthe latest lage of global ceptalism: Itzlso helps to understand the miesto- ne that AlAzm achioves in the present atiol, for what he has done is to take fundamentalist logic to ts outer fimits in several traditions, To the extent that any: ‘one in the future wants to depict a funda: mmeniaiict mindset cho wil have toconsult this anicle ard, folowing its several de- {ours into the reading of unknown Islamic texts or obscure peniifical tracts or Proto: slant sectanan treatises, shewillcome out mere aware of how richly varied is the Worldview of te single-minced patriarchs of the Unknown God Future Studies of Fundementalism ‘On the future of scholarship about gio- ‘bal fundamentalism, one can sey, witnout foar of coniraciction, that whal_now passes for scholaiship on Islamic funda- mertalism in particular and comparative fundamentalism in general is doubly fe- wed. Most approaches fall on two aceounis: they ether match their own analysis too closely with the statements of fundamentalist advocates, or elsethey neglect the larger context of both the modern world and the postcolonial nation- state, The major opportuntios for future study le in opposite divestions. One points to gandet-spacifc approaches to the role ofwomen and sexualtyin fundamentalist cadres, lig no accident that the Egyptian joumalist, Faraj el-Fauda, assassinated by modem-day Calrene Khailjies in June: 1982, had exposed the sexual peccadl- Joes of his Islamist countrymen, Further studies of [slamism, or Islamic ‘undamen- telism, will reveal the limits but also the suggestiveness of patiarchal norms for religiously devout women. The other dire- lich for future research is al once cross ‘creedel and crass-cullural. It signals the heed for mare numerous, and also mere nuanced, comparisons. It recures cose readings of the different motivations ano ‘expressions of fundarneniailst protest. I ‘suggests that the optimal strategy would be te bomibard the popular mecia as well as academic booksiores with indeter ale readings of the High Tech era, that {ig 10 Say, Wih more books thet reflect tie scope and depih, the rigor and challenae of A-Azms article on lear fundamen. talism anc its Christian clones 4, Yarn M Moghodom Parieehy and Po fe. Guner hn acerzing Seite tan Pak anand Algpansian, Sou Aea Butein Carpe ‘atve Sides of Sut Asie, Aca andthe Mie aot Vol Mn. 122 (1983), p9 29-105 5. Sah Alam “A Cicem (ek) o Reboos Thought in ovate ane Eepoct ode), Ilan In Transton p18 6, Baier 8 Lawrence Dolondos of Gad Tha Funds rmenalet Revo against ‘he Meder 490 (a Fransisco Hae and Rov, Pubishes, 1880). 7. Monza Mulatian, Fundamertas ol isan Thouaht Goa Manardhe Universe variates by A. Canpool (Barina Moan Press 165) 19 55-54, quoted Bae Lawrence, Deandon of Goa,po. 2-tz, ©. Peas test exten, nt cease mest ‘ortoeri asresement oho mo eecloques ‘ofthe arian Rovolson'sHemdDebesi, Theo {of Dissontan How Vere New You Urversty Fron, £09), Oabact xamines net ny hawt tinge oe eg pnaralnrvers, seas as vol ‘2s cers, who paved th Way 1 reveuton Et Skate parsoel roeesenalanchstnalenet thot shapeaachthm andthe ndenee He Isbeld walt cog! ouneson forge the decades preciing the exouion © 137875, the solace coven othe anon people trou hve bed o cangos! Hoven Ile oy Tnvarapac bs one can esamine bie otecest otis new matin ofcercnousnass anaauort: See ital lrquy 172 Wirer 189) op. 236357 11, Fesne Janeson,"Posracerasm. om Guna [age alta Canale,” NewLet RevewNe. 148 (ona) pp 5 11. Rote, Bolah Hes fhe nating ena Corimontinarrereaile(Goney Uri fay of eaoma Press, 182), evened Fede 12, arnasn, “On Hebi of ne Heart p63 13, Sin Fh © rere 2 Tet the Cass? Te Ahern f hierrratve Conunites (Cantey, MAL HawerdUsbarty Press, 1960) p18 44. Fie lo Thar Tow? 938, 45. Kahleen Soore, The Bol Tals Than So: me Duccurs o Pest Finca (Abany SUNY Press “OED 7. 48. Gla Varin, The nd of Mec (Elinor ot epics Uneraty Piss, 1600), 9.55.S48 exnciine AURAL LiresTE Why there's sound of laughter in this rustic tobacco barn. “Ther ig laugh‘ and ah Eartr among these ‘ral dnesls who oo Gey coring but tobacco Teafina barn It ane af the hundreds of sh ‘uns spread ut in he it and upcouny Intereedre zone wire the arabe nd yeoman flow curs the of sensor. Hora, th coe matirng ccea gos a8» Tobacco i the indict thet brags employe to the socord highest urbe of poeple: And these opi a he also ben owner, the obo STavers and those whe work fe then cm the od andin the bors, For them, te tchscco lef means meen wrk, ‘comforiable fe end a secue ttre. 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