The 

United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a child as "a human being below the
age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.

Social Learning Theory  (A. Bandura)

Overview:

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the
behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states: "Learning would
be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of
their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action." (p22). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal
interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. The component
processes underlying observational learning are: (1) Attention, including modeled events
(distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer
characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2)
Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor
rehearsal), (3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of
reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self
reinforcement.

Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social learning theory spans both
cognitive and behavioral frameworks. Bandura's theory improves upon the strictly behavioral
interpretation of modeling provided by Miller & Dollard (1941).  Bandura’s work is related to
the theories of Vygotsky and Lave which also emphasize the central role of social learning.

Scope/Application:

Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression (Bandura,
1973) and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification (Bandura,
1969). It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is
widely used in training programs. In recent years, Bandura has focused his work on the concept
of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts (e.g., Bandura, 1997).

Example:

The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television
commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair
shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the
component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behavior
shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised.
Principles:

1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the
modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into
words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing.

2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.

3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer
and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.

References:

Operant Conditioning  (B.F. Skinner)

Overview:

The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt
behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that
occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a
ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced
(rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant
conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism (e.g., Thorndike, Hull) is that the
organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased
accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that
results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive
stimuli -- punishment -- which result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention was given
to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and
maintaining behavior.

One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it attempted to provide behavioral
explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. For example, Skinner explained drive
(motivation) in terms of deprivation and reinforcement schedules. Skinner (1957) tried to
account for verbal learning and language within the operant conditioning paradigm, although this
effort was strongly rejected by linguists and psycholinguists. Skinner (1971) deals with the issue
of free will and social control.

Scope/Application:

Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as
well as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed
instruction). Parenthetically, it should be noted that Skinner rejected the idea of theories of
learning (see Skinner, 1950).

Example:

By way of example, consider the implications of reinforcement theory as applied to the

development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968)

1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose
the student to the subject in gradual steps

2. Require that the learner make a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback

3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence a
positive reinforcement

4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal
praise, prizes and good grades.

Principles:

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly

effective

2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced

("shaping")

3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing

secondary conditioning

References:

bloom's taxonomy definitions

Bloom's Taxonomy model is in three parts, or 'overlapping domains'. Again,
Bloom used rather academic language, but the meanings are simple to
understand:

1. Cognitive domain (intellectual capability, ie., knowledge, or 'think')

2. Affective domain (feelings, emotions and behaviour, ie., attitude,
or 'feel')
3. Psychomotor domain (manual and physical skills, ie., skills, or 'do')
 Cognitive Affective Psychomotor

knowledge attitude skills

1. Receive
1. Recall data 1. Imitation (copy)
(awareness)

2. Respond 2. Manipulation
2. Understand
(react) (follow instructions)

3. Value
3. Apply (use) (understand and 3. Develop Precision
act)

4. Organise 4. Articulation
4. Analyse
personal value (combine, integrate
(structure/elements)
system related skills)

5. Internalize
5. Naturalization
5. Synthesize value system
(automate, become
(create/build) (adopt
expert)
behaviour) 

6. Evaluate (assess,
judge in relational    
terms)

Multiple Intelligences (H. Gardner)

Overview:

The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are a number of distinct forms of
intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees. Gardnerproposes seven primary
forms: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g.,
insight, metacognition) and interpersonal (e.g., social skills).

According to Gardner, the implication of the theory is that learning/teaching should focus on the
particular intelligences of each person. For example, if an individual has strong spatial or musical
intelligences, they should be encouraged to develop these abilities. Gardner points out that the
different intelligences represent not only different content domains but also learning modalities.
A further implication of the theory is that assessment of abilities should measure all forms of
intelligence, not just linguistic and logical-mathematical.

Gardner also emphasizes the cultural context of multiple intelligences. Each culture tends to
emphasize particular intelligences. For example, Gardner (1983) discusses the high spatial
abilities of the Puluwat people of the Caroline Islands, who use these skills to navigate their
canoes in the ocean. Gardner also discusses the balance of personal intelligences required in
Japanese society.

The theory of multiple intelligences shares some common ideas with other theories of individual
differences such as Cronbach & Snow, Guilford, and Sternberg .

Scope/Application:

The theory of multiple intelligences has been focused mostly on child development although it
applies to all ages. While there is no direct empirical support for the theory, Gardner (1983)
presents evidence from many domains including biology, anthropology, and the creative arts
and Gardner (1993a) discusses application of the theory to school programs. Gardner (1982,
1993b) explores the implications of the framework for creativity (see also Marks-Tarlow, 1995).

Example:

Gardner (1983, p 390) describes how learning to program a computer might involve multiple
intelligences:

"Logical-mathematical intelligence seems central, because programming depends upon the

deployment of strict procedures to solve a problem or attain a goal in a finite number of steps.
Linguistic intelligence is also relevant, at least as long as manual and computer languages make
use of ordinary language...an individual with a strong musical bent might best be introduced to
programming by attempting to program a simple musical piece (or to master a program that
composes). An individual with strong spatial abilities might be initiated through some form of
computer graphics -- and might be aided in the task of programming through the use of a
flowchart or some other spatial diagram. Personal intelligences can play important roles. The
extensive planning of steps and goals carried out by the individual engaged in programming
relies on intrapersonal forms of thinking, even as the cooperation needed for carrying a complex
task or for learning new computational skills may rely on an individual's ability to work with a
team. Kinesthetic intelligence may play a role in working with the computer itself, by facilitating
skill at the terminal..."

Principles:

1. Individuals should be encouraged to use their preferred intelligences in learning.

2. Instructional activities should appeal to different forms of intelligence.

3. Assessment of learning should measure multiple forms of intelligence.

References:

vak - visual, auditory, kinesthetic - learning styles

model and free self-test
The VAK learning styles model and related VAK learning styles tests offer a
relatively simple methodology. Therefore it is important to remember that
these concepts and tools are aids to understanding overall personality,
preferences and strengths - which is always a mixture in each individual
person.
As with any methodology or tool, use VAK and other learning styles ideas with
care and interpretation according to the needs of the situation. They are
guide as to the mixture of preferences, strengths and learning styles in an
individual, not a basis for deciding on one exclusive preference or approach to
the exclusion of everything else.
In addition to the VAK materials and tests below, further VAK (and VARK and
VACT) explanation is on the page dealing with Multiple Intelligences and VAK.
 
vak learning styles

The Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic learning styles model or 'inventory',

usually abbreviated to VAK, provides a simple way to explain and understand
your own learning style (and learning styles of others).
'Learning style' should be interpreted to mean an individual mixture
of styles. Everyone has a mixture of strengths and preferences. No-one has
exclusively one single style or preference. Please bear this in mind when using
these ideas.
Alternatively the model is referred to as Visual-Auditory-Physical, or Visual-
Auditory-Tactile/Kinesthetic (or Kinaesthetic). The model is also extended by
some people to VARK (Visual-Auditory-Reading-Kinesthetic) or VACT (Visual-
Auditory-Kinesthetic-Tactile), and you can decide yourself about the
usefulness of such adaptations.
The original VAK concepts were first developed by psychologists and teaching
(of children) specialists such as Fernald, Keller, Orton, Gillingham, Stillman
and Montessori, starting in the 1920's. VAK theory is now a favourite of the
accelerated learning community because its principles and benefits extend to
all types of learning and development, far beyond its early applications. See
also Kolb's learning styles model, and Gardner's Multiple Intelligences model,
in which section you'll find more information about VAK, VARK and VACT
learning styles theories. Katherine Benziger's methodology is also useful and
relevant, as is the various material on the Personality Styles section. These
models provide additional perspectives of the way we each think and relate to
the world, and where are natural strengths lie. The Visual-Auditory-Kinesthetic
learning styles model does not overlay Gardner's multiple intelligences,
or Kolb's theory, rather the VAK model provides a different perspective for
understanding and explaining a person's preferred or dominant thinking and
learning style, and strengths. Gardner's theory is one way of looking at
thinking styles; Kolb is another way; VAK is another. The more perspectives
you have, the better you see and understand your own personality and
learning styles, and the learning styles of employees, colleagues and staff.
vak learning styles
learning
description
style

Visual seeing and reading

Auditory listening and speaking 

Kinesthetic touching and doing  

N.B. Kinesthetic style is also referred to as 'Physical', or 'Tactile', or 'Touchy-

Feely'.
 
According to the VAK model, most people possess a dominant or preferred
learning style, however some people have a mixed and evenly balanced blend
of the three styles.
As already mentioned, it is also helpful to look at Kolb's learning styles
model and Gardner's Multiple Intelligences model.
 
 
visual-auditory-kinesthetic learning styles

The VAK learning styles model provides a very easy and quick reference
inventory by which to assess people's preferred learning styles, and then most
importantly, to design learning methods and experiences that match
people's preferences:
Visual learning style involves the use of seen or observed things, including
pictures, diagrams, demonstrations, displays, handouts, films, flip-chart, etc.
Auditory learning style involves the transfer of information through listening:
to the spoken word, of self or others, of sounds and noises.
Kinesthetic learning involves physical experience - touching, feeling,
holding, doing, practical hands-on experiences.
earning styles

(This interpretation was amended and revised March 2006)

Kolb explains that different people naturally prefer a certain single different
learning style. Various factors influence a person's preferred style: notably in
his experiential learning theory model (ELT) Kolb defined three stages of a
person's development, and suggests that our propensity to reconcile and
successfully integrate the four different learning styles improves as we mature
through our development stages. The development stages that Kolb identified
are:

1. Acquisition - birth to adolescence - development of basic abilities and

'cognitive structures'
2. Specialization - schooling, early work and personal experiences of
adulthood - the development of a particular 'specialized learning style'
shaped by 'social, educational, and organizational socialization'
3. Integration - mid-career through to later life - expression of non-
dominant learning style in work and personal life.

Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference itself is
actually the product of two pairs of variables, or two separate 'choices' that
we make, which Kolb presented as lines of axis, each with 'conflicting' modes
at either end:
Concrete Experience - CE (feeling) -----V-----Abstract
Conceptualization - AC (thinking)
Active Experimentation - AE (doing)-----V----- Reflective Observation
- RO (watching)
A typical presentation of Kolb's two continuums is that the east-west axis is
called the Processing Continuum (how we approach a task), and the north-
south axis is called the Perception Continuum (our emotional response, or
how we think or feel about it).
These learning styles are the combination of two lines of axis (continuums)
each formed between what Kolb calls 'dialectically related modes' of 'grasping
experience' (doing or watching), and 'transforming experience' (feeling or
thinking):
 

 
The word 'dialectically' is not widely understood, and yet carries an essential
meaning, namely 'conflicting' (its ancient Greek root means 'debate' - and I
thank P Stern for helping clarify this precise meaning). Kolb meant by this
that we cannot do both at the same time, and to an extent our urge to want
to do both creates conflict, which we resolve through choice when confronted
with a new learning situation. We internally decide whether we wish
to do or watch, and at the same time we decide whether to think or feel.
The result of these two decisions produces (and helps to form throughout our
lives) the preferred learning style, hence the two-by-two matrix below. We
choose a way of 'grasping the experience', which defines our approach to it,
and we choose a way to 'transform the experience' into something meaningful
and usable, which defines our emotional response to the experience. Our
learning style is a product of these two choice decisions:

1. how to approach a task - ie., 'grasping experience' - preferring to

(a) watch or (b) do , and
2. our emotional response to the experience - ie., 'transforming
experience' - preferring to (a)think or (b) feel.

 
In other words we choose our approach to the task or
experience ('grasping the experience') by opting for 1(a) or 1(b):
 1(a) - though watching others involved in the experience and reflecting
on what happens ('reflective observation' - 'watching') or
 1(b) - through 'jumping straight in' and just doing it ('active
experimentation' - 'doing')

And at the same time we choose how to emotionally transform the

experience into something meaningful and useful by opting for 2(a) or 2(b):
 2(a) - through gaining new information by thinking, analyzing, or
planning ('abstract conceptualization' - 'thinking') or
 2(b) - through experiencing the 'concrete, tangible, felt qualities of the
world' ('concrete experience' - 'feeling')

The combination of these two choices produces a preferred learning style. See
the matrix below.
 
kolb's learning styles - matrix view

It's often easier to see the construction of Kolb's learning styles in terms of a
two-by-two matrix. The diagram also highlights Kolb's terminology for the four
learning styles; diverging, assimilating, and converging, accommodating:
 

watching (Reflective Observation -

  doing (Active Experimentation - AE)
RO)

feeling (Concrete
Experience - CE) accommodating (CE/AE) diverging (CE/RO)

thinking (Abstract
Conceptualization - converging (AC/AE) assimilating (AC/RO)
AC)

 
Thus, for example, a person with a dominant learning style of 'doing' rather
than 'watching' the task, and 'feeling' rather than 'thinking' about the
experience, will have a learning style which combines and represents those
processes, namely an 'Accommodating' learning style, in Kolb's
terminology.

emotional intelligence (EQ)

emotional intelligence theory (EQ - Emotional
Quotient)
Emotional Intelligence - EQ - is a relatively recent behavioural model, rising to
prominence with Daniel Goleman's 1995 Book called 'Emotional Intelligence'.
The early Emotional Intelligence theory was originally developed during the
1970s and 80s by the work and writings of psychologists Howard Gardner
(Harvard), Peter Salovey (Yale) and John 'Jack' Mayer (New Hampshire).
Emotional Intelligence is increasingly relevant to organizational development
and developing people, because the EQ principles provide a new way to
understand and assess people's behaviours, management styles, attitudes,
interpersonal skills, and potential. Emotional Intelligence is an important
consideration in human resources planning, job profiling, recruitment
interviewing and selection, management development, customer relations and
customer service, and more.
Emotional Intelligence links strongly with concepts of love and spirituality:
bringing compassion and humanity to work, and also to 'Multiple Intelligence'
theory which illustrates and measures the range of capabilities people
possess, and the fact that everybody has a value.
The EQ concept argues that IQ, or conventional intelligence, is too narrow;
that there are wider areas of Emotional Intelligence that dictate and enable
how successful we are. Success requires more than IQ (Intelligence
Quotient), which has tended to be the traditional measure of intelligence,
ignoring eseential behavioural and character elements. We've all met people
who are academically brilliant and yet are socially and inter-personally inept.
And we know that despite possessing a high IQ rating, success does not
automatically follow.
Different approaches and theoretical models have been developed
for Emotional Intelligence. This summary article focuses chiefly on
the Goleman interpretation. The work of Mayer, Salovey and David
Caruso (Yale) is also very significant in the field of Emotional
Intelligence, and will in due course be summarised here too.
 
emotional intelligence - two aspects

This is the essential premise of EQ: to be successful requires the effective

awareness, control and management of one's own emotions, and those of
other people. EQ embraces two aspects of intelligence:
 Understanding yourself, your goals, intentions, responses,
behaviour and all.
 Understanding others, and their feelings.

emotional intelligence - the five domains

Goleman identified the five 'domains' of EQ as:

 1. Knowing your emotions.
2. Managing your own emotions.
3. Motivating yourself.
4. Recognising and understanding other people's emotions.
5. Managing relationships, ie., managing the emotions of others.

Emotional Intelligence embraces and draws from numerous other branches of

behavioural, emotional and communications theories, such as NLP (Neuro-
Linguistic Programming), Transactional Analysis, and empathy. By developing
our Emotional Intelligence in these areas and the five EQ domains we can
become more productive and successful at what we do, and help others to be
more productive and successful too. The process and outcomes of Emotional
Intelligence development also contain many elements known to reduce stress
for individuals and organizations, by decreasing conflict, improving
relationships and understanding, and increasing stability, continuity and
harmony.
 

The Value of Emotional Intelligence at Work

Martin Seligman has developed a construct that he calls ìlearned optimismî (Schulman,

1995). It refers to the causal attributions people make when confronted with failure or setbacks.

Optimists tend to make specific, temporary, external causal attributions while pessimists make

global, permanent, internal attributions. In research at Met Life, Seligman and his colleagues

found that new salesmen who were optimists sold 37 percent more insurance in their first two

years than did pessimists. When the company hired a special group of individuals who scored

high on optimism but failed the normal screening, they outsold the pessimists by 21 percent in

their first year and 57 percent in the second. They even outsold the average agent by 27 percent

(Schulman, 1995).

In another study of learned optimism, Seligman tested 500 members of the freshman

class at the University of Pennsylvania. He found that their scores on a test of optimism were a

better predictor of actual grades during the freshman year than SAT scores or high school grades
(Schulman, 1995).

The ability to manage feelings and handle stress is another aspect of emotional

intelligence that has been found to be important for success. A study of store managers in a

retail chain found that the ability to handle stress predicted net profits, sales per square foot,

sales per employee, and per dollar of inventory investment (Lusch & Serpkenci, 1990). Consortium for
Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations Emotional Intelligence 7

( www.eiconsortium.org )

Emotional Intelligence: What it is and Why it Matters

Cary Cherniss

Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology

Rutgers University

152 Frelinghuysen Road

Piscataway, NJ 08854

732-445-2187

cherniss@rci.rutgers.edu

www.eiconsortium.org