Beruflich Dokumente
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Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Plasma
membrane
(a) Generalized animal cell
Nuclear envelope
Chromatin
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Nuclear
pores
(b) Nucleus
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Nucleus
Nucleolus
Nucleus contains one or more dark-staining nucleoli
Sites of ribosome assembly
Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm through nuclear
pores to serve as the site of protein synthesis
Chromatin
Composed of DNA wound around histones (proteins)
Scattered throughout the nucleus and present when
the cell is not dividing
Condenses to form dense, rodlike bodies called
chromosomes when the cell divides
Sugar group
Polar heads of
phospholipid
molecules
Bimolecular
lipid layer
containing
proteins
Channel
Role of proteins
Responsible for specialized membrane functions:
Enzymes
Receptors for hormones or other chemical messengers
Transport as channels or carriers
Role of sugars
Glycoproteins are branched sugars attached to
proteins that abut the extracellular space
Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area on the
cell’s surface
Microvilli Tight
(impermeable)
junction
Desmosome
(anchoring
junction)
Plasma
membranes of
adjacent cells
Connexon
Plasma
Smooth endoplasmic membrane
reticulum
Cytosol
Lysosome
Mitochondrion
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Centrioles
Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
Intermediate
filaments
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The Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
“Powerhouses” of the cell
Mitochondrial wall consists of a double membrane with
cristae on the inner membrane
Carry out reactions in which oxygen is used to break
down food into ATP molecules
Ribosomes
Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
Sites of protein synthesis in the cell
Found at two locations:
Free in the cytoplasm
As part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosome
mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
Rough ER it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.
2
1 3 2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
Protein
Protein inside
transport vesicle
Ribosome
mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
Rough ER it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.
Protein
Ribosome
mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
Rough ER it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.
2
1 2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
Protein
Ribosome
mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
Rough ER it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.
2
1 3 2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
Protein
Ribosome
mRNA
1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
Rough ER it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.
2
1 3 2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
Protein
Protein inside
transport vesicle
Golgi apparatus
Appears as a stack of flattened membranes
associated with tiny vesicles
Modifies and packages proteins arriving from the
rough ER via transport vesicles
Produces different types of packages
Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)
In-house proteins and lipids (pathway 2)
Lysosomes (pathway 3)
Lysosomes
Membranous “bags” that contain digestive enzymes
Enzymes can digest worn-out or nonusable cell
structures
House phagocytes that dispose of bacteria and cell
debris
Peroxisomes
Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
Detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol and
formaldehyde
Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)
Free radicals are converted to hydrogen peroxide and
then to water
Replicate by pinching in half or budding from the ER
Cytoskeleton
Network of protein structures that extend throughout
the cytoplasm
Provides the cell with an internal framework that
determines cell shape, supports organelles, and
provides the machinery for intracellular transport
Three different types of elements form the
cytoskeleton:
1. Microfilaments (largest)
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules (smallest)
Tubulin subunits
Fibrous subunits
Actin subunit
7 nm 10 nm 25 nm
Microfilaments form the blue Intermediate filaments form Microtubules appear as gold
batlike network. the purple network surrounding networks surrounding the cells’
the pink nucleus. pink nuclei.
Centrioles
Rod-shaped bodies made of nine triplets of
microtubules
Generate microtubules
Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell
division
Nucleus Flagellum
Sperm
(g) Cell of reproduction
Nucleus
Erythrocytes
(a) Cells that connect body parts
Epithelial Nucleus
cells
Intermediate
filaments
Skeletal
muscle cell Nuclei
Contractile
Smooth
filaments
muscle cells
Nucleus
Lysosomes
Macrophage
Pseudopods
Processes
Rough ER
Nerve cell
Nucleus
Cells of reproduction
Oocyte (female)
Largest cell in the body
Divides to become an embryo upon fertilization
Sperm (male)
Built for swimming to the egg for fertilization
Flagellum acts as a motile whip
Nucleus Flagellum
Sperm
(g) Cell of reproduction
Intracellular fluid
Nucleoplasm and cytosol
Solution containing gases, nutrients, and salts
dissolved in water
Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid)
Fluid on the exterior of the cell
Contains thousands of ingredients, such as nutrients,
hormones, neurotransmitters, salts, waste products
Types of diffusion
Simple diffusion
An unassisted process
Solutes are lipid-soluble or small enough to pass
through membrane pores
Extracellular fluid
Lipid-
soluble
solutes
Cytoplasm
Water
molecules
(b) Osmosis,
diffusion of water
through a specific
channel protein
(aquaporin)
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Membrane Transport
(a) RBC in isotonic solution (b) RBC in hypertonic solution (c) RBC in hypotonic solution
Lipid
bilayer
Passive processes
Filtration
Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by
fluid, or hydrostatic, pressure
A pressure gradient must exist that pushes solute-
containing fluid (filtrate) from a high-pressure area to a
lower-pressure area
Filtration is critical for the kidneys to work properly
Active processes
ATP is used to move substances across a membrane
Active processes are used when:
Substances are too large to travel through membrane
channels
The membrane may lack special protein carriers for the
transport of certain substances
Substances may not be lipid-soluble
Substances may have to move against a concentration
gradient
Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+
Na+
Na+
K+
Pi
Pi
Na+ K+
ATP Na+
1 2 3 K+
ADP
1 Binding of cytoplasmic Na+ 2 The shape change expels 3 Loss of phosphate restores
to the pump protein stimulates Na+ to the outside. Extracellular the original shape of the pump
phosphorylation by ATP, which K+ binds, causing release of the protein. K+ is released to the
causes the pump protein to inorganic phosphate group. cytoplasm, and Na+ sites are
change its shape. ready to bind Na+ again; the
cycle repeats.
Cytoplasm
Extracellular fluid
Na+-K+ pump
Na+
Na+
Pi
ATP Na+
1
ADP
Cytoplasm
Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+
Na+
Na+
K+
Pi
Pi
ATP Na+
1 2
ADP
Cytoplasm
Extracellular fluid
Na+
Na+ K+
Na+
Na+
K+
Pi
Pi
Na+ K+
ATP Na+
1 2 3 K+
ADP
1 Binding of cytoplasmic Na+ 2 The shape change expels 3 Loss of phosphate restores
to the pump protein stimulates Na+ to the outside. Extracellular the original shape of the pump
phosphorylation by ATP, which K+ binds, causing release of the protein. K+ is released to the
causes the pump protein to inorganic phosphate group. cytoplasm, and Na+ sites are
change its shape. ready to bind Na+ again; the
cycle repeats.
Cytoplasm
Exocytosis
Mechanism cells use to actively secrete hormones,
mucus, and other products
Material is carried in a membranous sac called a
vesicle that migrates to and combines with the plasma
membrane
Contents of vesicle are emptied to the outside
Refer to pathway 1 in Figure 3.6
Exocytosis (continued)
Exocytosis docking process
Docking proteins on the vesicles recognize plasma
membrane proteins and bind with them
Membranes corkscrew and fuse together
Extracellular Plasma
fluid membrane
docking
protein
1 The membrane-
bound vesicle
Vesicle
migrates to the
docking plasma membrane.
protein
Molecule
to be
secreted
Secretory
vesicle Cytoplasm
3 Vesicle contents
are released to the
cell exterior.
Endocytosis
Extracellular substances are enclosed (engulfed) in a
membranous vesicle
Vesicle detaches from the plasma membrane and
moves into the cell
Once in the cell, the vesicle typically fuses with a
lysosome
Contents are digested by lysosomal enzymes
In some cases, the vesicle is released by exocytosis
on the opposite side of the cell
Extracellular
fluid Cytoplasm Plasma
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
with lysosome Release of
for digestion. 2A contents to
cytosol
2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
2B
Ingested
substance
Extracellular
fluid Plasma
membrane
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
with lysosome
for digestion.
Extracellular
fluid Cytoplasm Plasma
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
with lysosome
for digestion.
2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
Extracellular
fluid Cytoplasm Plasma
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
with lysosome Release of
for digestion. 2A contents to
cytosol
2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
Extracellular
fluid Cytoplasm Plasma
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
with lysosome Release of
for digestion. 2A contents to
cytosol
2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
2B
Extracellular
fluid Cytoplasm Plasma
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
with lysosome Release of
for digestion. 2A contents to
cytosol
2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
2B
Ingested
substance
Types of endocytosis
1. Phagocytosis—“cell eating”
Cell engulfs large particles such as bacteria or dead
body cells
Pseudopods are cytoplasmic extensions that separate
substances (such as bacteria or dead body cells) from
external environment
Phagocytosis is a protective mechanism, not a means
of getting nutrients
Cytoplasm
Extracellular
fluid
Bacterium
or other
particle
Pseudopod
(b) Phagocytosis
Extracellular
fluid Cytoplasm Plasma
membrane
Vesicle
Lysosome
1 Vesicle
forms and fuses
with lysosome Release of
for digestion. 2A contents to
cytosol
2 Transport to plasma
membrane and exocytosis
of vesicle contents
Detached vesicle
2B
Ingested
substance
Membrane
receptor
Target molecule
(c) Receptor-mediated
endocytosis
KEY:
Adenine
Thymine
Cytosine
Guanine
New
Old Newly strand Old (template)
(template) synthesized forming strand
strand strand
DNA of one sister chromatid
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Cell Division
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm
Begins during late anaphase and completes during
telophase
A cleavage furrow (contractile ring of microfilaments)
forms to pinch the cells into two parts
Two daughter cells exist
Forming
mitotic
spindle
Centromere
Metaphase Nucleolus
plate forming
Cleavage
furrow
Nuclear
Mitotic Sister Daughter envelope
spindle chromatids chromosomes forming
Centrioles Chromatin
Plasma Nuclear
membrane envelope
Nucleolus
Interphase
Centrioles
Forming
mitotic
spindle
Centromere
Chromosome,
consisting of two
sister chromatids
Early prophase
Spindle Centromere
microtubules
Fragments of
nuclear envelope
Late prophase
Metaphase
plate
Mitotic Sister
spindle chromatids
Metaphase
Daughter
chromosomes
Anaphase
Nucleolus
forming
Cleavage
furrow
Nuclear
envelope
forming
Transcription
Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to
the complementary base sequence of mRNA
DNA is the template for transcription; mRNA is the
product
Each DNA triplet corresponds to an mRNA codon
If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-TCG, then the mRNA
corresponding codons are UUA-GCA-AGC
1 mRNA specifying
one polypeptide is
made from a gene on
the DNA template by an
enzyme (not shown).
Nuclear pore
Translation
Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an
amino acid sequence; amino acids are the building
blocks of proteins
Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three major
varieties of RNA
Translation (continued)
Steps correspond to Figure 3.16 (step 1 covers
transcription)
Step 2: mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to
ribosome, and translation begins
Step 3: incoming tRNA recognizes a complementary
mRNA codon calling for its amino acid by temporarily
binding its anticodon to the codon
1 mRNA specifying
one polypeptide is
made from a gene on
the DNA template by an
enzyme (not shown).
Nuclear pore
5 Released tRNA
reenters the cytoplasmic
pool, ready to be recharged Large ribosomal subunit
with a new amino acid.
Codon
Direction of ribosome
Small ribosomal subunit reading; ribosome
Portion of moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.
1 mRNA specifying
one polypeptide is
made from a gene on
the DNA template by an
enzyme (not shown).
Amino
mRNA acids
Nuclear pore
1 mRNA specifying
one polypeptide is
made from a gene on
the DNA template by an
enzyme (not shown).
2 mRNA leaves
Amino nucleus and attaches to
mRNA acids ribosome, and
translation begins.
Nuclear pore
tRNA “head”
bearing anticodon
Codon
Direction of ribosome
Small ribosomal subunit reading; ribosome
Portion of moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.
Translation (continued)
Steps correspond to Figure 3.16
Step 4: as the ribosome moves along the mRNA, a new
amino acid is added to the growing protein chain
Step 5: released tRNA reenters the cytoplasmic pool,
ready to be recharged with a new amino acid
Codon
Direction of ribosome
Small ribosomal subunit reading; ribosome
Portion of moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.
5 Released tRNA
reenters the cytoplasmic
pool, ready to be recharged Large ribosomal subunit
with a new amino acid.
Codon
Direction of ribosome
Small ribosomal subunit reading; ribosome
Portion of moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.
1 mRNA specifying
one polypeptide is
made from a gene on
the DNA template by an
enzyme (not shown).
Nuclear pore
5 Released tRNA
reenters the cytoplasmic
pool, ready to be recharged Large ribosomal subunit
with a new amino acid.
Codon
Direction of ribosome
Small ribosomal subunit reading; ribosome
Portion of moves the mRNA strand
mRNA already along sequentially
translated as each codon is read.
Tissues
Groups of cells with similar structure and function
Four primary types:
1. Epithelial tissue (epithelium)
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue
Locations:
Body coverings
Body linings
Glandular tissue
Functions:
Protection
Absorption
Filtration
Secretion
Classification of epithelia
Number of cell layers
Simple—one layer
Stratified—more than one layer
Shape of cells
Squamous—flattened, like fish scales
Cuboidal—cube-shaped, like dice
Columnar—shaped like columns
Apical surface
Basal Simple
surface
Apical surface
Basal
surface Stratified
(a) Classification based on number
of cell layers
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Figure 3.17b Classification and functions of epithelia.
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
(b) Classification based on
cell shape
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Figure 3.17c Classification and functions of epithelia.
Number of layers
Cell shape One layer: simple epithelial More than one layer: stratified
tissues epithelial tissues
Squamous Diffusion and filtration Secretion in Protection
serous membranes
Cuboidal Secretion and absorption; ciliated types Protection; these tissue types are rare
propel mucus or reproductive cells in humans
Columnar Secretion and absorption; ciliated types
propel mucus or reproductive cells
Simple epithelia
Functions in absorption, secretion, and filtration
Very thin (so not suited for protection)
Air sacs of
lungs
Nucleus of Nuclei of
squamous squamous
epithelial cell epithelial
cells
Basement
membrane Photomicrograph: Simple squamous
epithelium forming part of the alveolar
(a) Diagram: Simple squamous (air sac) walls (275×).
Nucleus of Simple
simple cuboidal
cuboidal epithelial
epithelial cells
cell
Basement
Basement membrane
membrane
Connective
tissue
Simple columnar
epithelial cell
Basement
Basement membrane
membrane
Pseudo-
stratified Cilia
epithelial
layer
Pseudostratified
Basement epithelial layer
membrane
Basement
Nuclei of membrane
pseudostratified
cells do not line up Connective tissue
Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified
(d) Diagram: Pseudostratified (ciliated) ciliated columnar epithelium lining
columnar the human trachea (560×).
Stratified epithelia
Consist of two or more cell layers
Function primarily in protection
Nuclei
Stratified
squamous
epithelium Stratified
squamous
epithelium
Basement Basement
membrane membrane
Connective
Photomicrograph: Stratified tissue
squamous epithelium lining of
(e) Diagram: Stratified squamous the esophagus (140×).
Transitional epithelium
Composed of modified stratified squamous epithelium
Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching
Functions in stretching and the ability to return to
normal shape
Location: lining of urinary system organs
Basement
membrane
Transi-
tional
epithelium
Transitional
Basement epithelium
membrane
Connective
tissue
Glandular epithelia
One or more cells responsible for secreting a particular
product
Secretions contain protein molecules in an aqueous
(water-based) fluid
Secretion is an active process
Osteocytes
(bone cells)
in lacunae Central canal
Lacunae
Cartilage
Less hard and more flexible than bone
Found in only a few places in the body
Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the major cell type
Types
Hyaline cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Elastic cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
Most widespread type of cartilage
Abundant collagen fibers hidden by a glassy, rubbery
matrix
Locations
Trachea
Attaches ribs to the breastbone
Covers ends of long bones
Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long bones
Chondrocyte
(cartilage cell)
Chondrocyte
in lacuna
Lacunae Matrix
Chondrocytes
in lacunae
Chondro-
cytes in
lacunae Collagen fiber
Collagen
fibers
Ligament
Tendon
Collagen
fibers
Collagen
fibers
Nuclei of
Nuclei of fibroblasts
fibroblasts
Mucosal
epithelium
Lamina Elastic
propria fibers
Collagen
fibers
Elastic Fibroblast
fibers of nuclei
matrix
Nuclei of
fibroblasts
Collagen
fibers
(e) Diagram: Areolar Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue, a
soft packaging tissue of the body (270×).
Nuclei of
fat cells
Vacuole
containing
fat droplet
Nuclei of
fat cells
Vacuole
containing
fat droplet
Spleen
Blood cells
in capillary Plasma (fluid
matrix)
Neutrophil
(white blood
cell)
Monocyte
Red (white blood
blood cells cell)
(h) Diagram: Blood Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1290×)
Striations
Multiple nuclei
per fiber
Part of muscle
fiber
Intercalated
discs
Nucleus
Nuclei
Smooth
muscle cell
Brain
Nuclei of
Spinal neuroglia
cord (supporting
cells)
Neuron
processes
Diagram: Nervous tissue Photomicrograph: Neurons (320×)