1.Language and speech, their levels 4.
4. Grammatical meaning
Language is a system of signs, a system of means of
expression in the textbooks (grammar), dictionaries,
reference books. Language is a means of forming and storing
ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the
process of human intercourse. Speech is understood as the
manifestation of the system of the language in the process of
intercourse (communication). Produced by the means of
language – in writing and orally. The system of language
comprises lexemes (words), phonemes (sounds), morphemes
and phrasemes. The second part of language is the rules of
the usage of the language units. The units of the speech are:
the sentences (written speech) and the utterances (oral
speech). Levels of the language and speech. 1.Phonemic (the
lowest) (Language) – unit (phoneme) – has no meaning.
Function: word differentiating (back, bag); form
differentiation (men, man). 2.Morphemic (morphological)
(Language) – unit (morpheme) – M.: abstract. F.: significative
(load, reload). 3.Lexemic – unit (lexeme) (Language) – M. And
F.: nominative/naming (nouns – names, verbs – name of
actions, states). 4.Phrasemic – unit (phraseme) (Language) –
M. And F.: nominative/naming (polynomination), (wooden
desk). 5.Proposemic (Speech) – unit (proposeme) – M. And F.:
predication, forming predicative relations. 6.Supra-
proposemic (Speech) – unit (texteme, dicteme (paragraph)) –
M. And F.: forming textual unity.
2.Morpheme, its definition and classifications. Allomorphs
Morpheme – is one of the principal notions of morphology. It
is defined as a set of morphs having the same meaning
(grammatical meaning) and standing in relations of
complementary distribution. The morphs are the smallest
meaningful successions of phonemes into which words can be
broken up. (Ex. Paint – paints – painting – painted – painter).
Morpheme is a set of general abstract notion while the
morph is the particular notion. (Ex. Past Simple morpheme:
stopped – morph; ran – internal flexion; went – suppletive;) 4
classifications of morphs: • according to semantics; •
according to form; • according to distribution; • according to
linear characteristics; 1.There are 2 big groups of morphs: •
lexical (roots) are mainly the domain of lexicology, are
obligatory character because there are no notional words
without roots; • grammatical (affixes) – derivational (they are
word-building morphs, belonging to different word classes
(parts of speech); they are of optional character); (Ex. -ment, -
er, -ess, -able, -ing, -lal); and inflectional (they are word-form-
building ones. They serve to derive new grammatical forms of
the same word. There may be found a synonymous and
homonymous aspect.) (Ex. –s, ‘s, s’; -ed, -ing, -s). 2.Can be:
free (can function independently) and bound (affixes –
prefixes, suffixes, inflections). Prefixes. There are 3 prefixes,
which are capable of turning one part of speech into another
(en- (in-), im-, be-). Suffixes. Can be homonymous – the same
form but different meaning (-al-, -ly, -ful-, -fy-, etc). Inflections
are used to change the form of the word. (Ex. Pl., sg., ‘s,
tenses, gerund). 3.(applied only to phonemically and
morphemically conditioned morphs). Three types of
distribution: • non-contrastive (learned vs. Learnt, M/F=the
same); • contrastive (‘export vs. Ex’port, M/F=are different); •
complementary (child – children; illiterate, irrelevant). While
having the same M/F they cannot be used one instead of
another. 4.On the basis of this approach we may distinguish
continuous (linear) or discontinuous (non-linear) morphs.
Continuous/linear morphs are uninterruptedly used in
speech which means that they can form one unit with a stem
of the word (Ex. Plays (because it forms one word)).
Discontinuous/non-linear morphs ate two-element
grammatical units including an auxiliary word + inflectional
morpheme. (Ex. Be + V + ing, ed). They are also used in
Passive Voice. Classification of allomorphs: • replacive (men,
stood, feet, mice (internal inflection, sound interchange)). •
phonemically-conditioned (plays[z], teaches [iz], stops[s]). •
morphemically-conditioned (ox+en, child+r+en, fox+es). •
zero (one sheep – many sheep□, one deer – two deer□, cut –
cut – cut; • amalgamated – combine 2 meanings in one form
(cats’ paws); combines plurality and possessive
3. Word forms and their types
Continuous (linear) – one word changes speak → speaks∙
Discontinuous – two or more words change is speaking There
are two basic types of means with the help of which
grammatical forms are built: synthetical and analytical.
Synthetical (synthetic) grammatical forms are built by means
of the morphemic composition of the word. Synthetical word-
forms: 1. Inflectional – outer inflexion with the help of adding
grammatical suffixes to the stems of the words.
Played/plays/playing; boys/boy’s/boys’; 2. Sound interchange
(alternation) – inner inflexion, or vowel interchange inside the
root. feel – felt; fall – fell; man – men; 3. Suppletive
(complete) – when different roots are combined within the
same paradigm.
I – me; good – better; go – went; Analytical grammatical
forms are built by the combination of the notional word with
auxiliary words; analytical forms consist of two words which
together express one grammatical meaning. Analytical word-
forms: – Auxiliary + notion verb (e.g. has invited, is invited, is
inviting, does not invite) – Degrees of comparison (e.g.
beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful).
the names of the branches of professional activity {chemistry,
The word combines in its semantic structure two meanings –
lexical and grammatical. Lexical meaning is the individual
meaning of the word (e.g. table). Grammatical meaning is the
meaning of the whole class or a subclass. For example, the
class of nouns has the grammatical meaning of thingness. If
we take a noun (table) we may say that it possesses its
individual lexical meaning (it corresponds to a definite piece
of furniture) and the grammatical meaning of thingness (this
is the meaning of the whole class). Besides, the noun ‘table’
has the grammatical meaning of a subclass – countableness.
1st type – generalized Word class: is found in form classes and
is usually expressed implicitly. - Generalized meaning of
adjective – quality character. - Generalized meaning of noun –
thingness (parts of speech) → objects, people, professions…-
Generalized meaning of verb – action or state - Generalized
meaning of numerals – quantity/order. 2nd type – particular.
Word form: expressed explicitly by some formal marker (or
combination of markers).e.g. cats – the grammatical meaning
of plurality is shown in the form of the noun with –s; cat’s –
the grammatical meaning of progressiveness id shown by the
form ‘s; is asked – shows the explicit grammatical meaning of
passiveness.
5. Grammatical category.
If particular grammatical meaning is regularly expressed in the
language by grammatical means we can speak about the
existence of grammatical category. (Ex. Cat vs. Cats, fox vs.
Foxes, ox vs. Oxen, sheep vs. Sheep, goose vs. Geese =>
category of number). Grammatical category is an expression of
some general grammatical idea, is a kind of abstraction, some
logical category. Gr. Category may be defined as the unity of
grammatical form and grammatical meaning. Grammatical
category is an organized set of grammatical forms
(grammemes). The set of self-exclusive form classes of the
same lexemes including different in meaning inflectional
morphemes. (Ex. Cat – cat => the same lexemes, but different
flexions). All grammatical categories are distinguished on the
basis of oppositions or opposemes. Opposition – is a set of
word forms (form classes) opposed to one another in one
respect). Tense oppositions=> play – played (respect here is
tense)). Majority of oppositions are 2-member (binary)=> the
first opposite (member) is weak, and the second is strong.
Weak doesn’t have a formal marker, strong has a marker. (Ex.
Play vs. Played => weak – strong). Binary oppositions are often
privative. Privative (the strong member of the opposition has
positive sign of category, and weak – negative sign). Besides
binary there are ternary and gradual => (Ex. Good vs. Better vs.
Best). 4-member of opposition is called quaternary and
equipollent (Ex. Do – did – should do – would do).
6. Definition of the noun.
The Noun may be defined as a part of speech characterized by
following features: the generalized (lexico-grammatical)
meaning of thingness or substance; by the grammatical
categories (number and case); the typical stem-building
morphemes (lexico-grammatical, derivational). (Ex. –ship, -
dom, -er, -ist, -hood, -th, -ate, -tion); left-hand connections
(left-hand valence) with articles, adj., possessive pronouns,
numerals, prepositions, other nouns; right-hand connection is
a verb; the functions in the sentence: a subject, object,
predicative, adverbial modifier.
7. Classes of nouns.
There are several ways to classify the types of nouns that exist
in the English language. A first major distinction among nouns
is that between proper nouns and common nouns. Simply put,
proper nouns are nouns that functions as names of people,
cities, countries, etc. Typical examples are: Bill, Stockholm, and
Denmark. All other nouns are common nouns, e.g. car, water,
and democracy. They always start with a capital letter.
Common nouns refer to general, unspecific categories of
entities. So, while Nebraska is a proper noun because it names
a specific state, state is a common noun because it can refer to
any state. While Harvard refers to a particular institution of
higher learning, the common noun university can refer to any
such institution. Common nouns may be divided into countable
and uncountable nouns. As the terminology suggests,
countable nouns can combine with numerals like one, two,
three, etc., whereas uncountable nouns cannot. Moreover,
uncountable nouns are always singular, whereas most
countable nouns may be either singular or plural. According to
extra-linguistic factors there are abstract and concrete nouns.
Concrete nouns are nouns that refer to things that exist
physically and can be touched, seen, smelled, felt, or tasted.
Here are some examples: Can I pet your dog? Please pass the
salt. Concrete nouns can be perceived by at least one of our
senses. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or general
idea. Examples: blackness, freshness, smoothness, weight,
height, length, depth, strength, health, honesty, beauty,
liberty, eternity. A collective noun is the name of a group, class
or multitude and not of a single person, place or thing.
Examples: crowd, group, legislature, squadron, sheaf,
battalion, squad, Associated Press. A compound noun contains
two or more words that join together to make a single noun.
Compound nouns can be two words written as one (closed
form) such as softball and toothpaste, words that are
hyphenated (hyphenated form) such as six-pack and son-in-
law, or separate words (open form) such as post office and
upper class that go together by meaning. The two subclasses
of uncountable nouns are usually referred to, respectively, as
singularia tantum (only singular) and pluralia tantum (only
plural). The absolute singular (ST) is characteristic of the names
of abstract notions {peace, love, joy, courage, friendship, etc.),
Combinations with different prepositions are too numerous
architecture, mathematics, linguistics, etc.), the names of to be interpreted as oppositions of the category of case. 3.
mass-materials {water, snow, steel, hair, etc.), the names of They say that prepositional constructions (phrases) can be
collective inanimate objects {foliage, fruit, furniture, used side by side with synthetic cases. If we accepted the
machinery, etc.). Among the PT are the nouns: trousers,
theory of analytical cases then we would have to regard the
scissors, etc unit a friend of John’s as double Possessive which again
.
contradicts a linguistic reality since there are no double Tense
8. The category of number: the system of the opposemes of
forms, no double Aspect forms, Perfect, Passive forms.
the category of case.
The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the
plural form of the noun to the singular form of the noun. It is
the system of opposites (opposemes) (such as girl – girls, foot
– feet, etc.) showing whether the noun stands for one object
or more than one, in other words, whether its grammatical
meaning is 'oneness' or 'more-than-oneness' of objects. While
speaking about the category of number we may also consider
the nouns which have no usual two numbered forms, but mav
be found in one of them. The nouns which have only the plural
form are termed Pluralia Tantum, while the nouns which have
only the singular form are called Singularia Tantum. The system
of opposemes. The category of case is the system of
oppositions such as boy – boy’s. An English noun may contain
2 case opposemes at most. Some lexemes have but one
opposition like England – England’s, cattle – cattle’s and quite
a number of nouns have no oppositions at all. With regard to
the category of case English nouns fall under 2 lexico-
grammatical subclasses: declinables (those have case
12. The peculiarities of the “–‘s” morpheme
opposites) and indeclinables (having no case opposites). The
The case morpheme ’s in many respects differs from other
subclass of declinables is comparatively limited and includes
mostly nouns denoting:- living-beings, - geographical names grammatical morphemes (inflections) of the English language
(mainly denoting country, city, settlements), - common nouns as well as from the case morphemes in other languages. •The
(country, city, village, state, etc. – locative nouns), - collective use of ’s is optional (e.g. the bike of my brother); •It’s used
nouns (team (e.g. the team’s victory)), - nouns denoting time with a limited number of nouns outside of which it’s found
and place (e.g. a day’s wait, five kilometers’ distance), - nouns very seldom; •’s is used both with sg. and some pl. nouns like
denoting measure (e.g. 500 kilograms’ load). Indeclinables child’s and children’s which is not characteristic of case
have only a potential meaning of the Common case since they morphemes in other languages; *It occurs in very few pl-s
don’t form case oppositions (bob, iron, care, friendship, etc.) namely those with irregular formation of the pl-s (oxen’s); •’s
doesn’t make an inseparable part of the structure of the
word, it may be placed at some distance from the head-noun
of an attributive group.
13. Relational meanings expressed by the Genetive. There are
8 relational meanings: 1) Genitive of possessivity (possessional
relations): Christine’s living-room; 2) Genitive of “organic
possession” (portative relations): John’s leg. The hotel’s lobby;
9. Singularia and pluralia tantum. 3) Subjective Genitive expressing subject-predicate relation:
A pluralia tantum is a noun that appears only in the plural the President’s arrival, Champion’s win (implies an active
form and does not have a singular variant for referring to a doer); 4) Genitive of patient expressing the recipient of the
single object. In a less strict usage of the term, it can also action or process denoted by the head noun: the champion’s
refer to nouns whose singular form is rarely used. In English,
great defeat (the noun in Genitive is the recipient of the
pluralia tantum are often words which denote objects that
action); 5) Genitive of destination (functional relations):
occur or function as pairs or sets, such as spectacles, trousers,
women’s footwear, children’s literature; 6) Genitive of
pants, scissors, clothes, or genitals. Other examples are for
dispensed qualification, denoting some characteristic of
collections which, like alms and feces, cannot conceivably be
singular. Other examples include suds, entrails, electronics, qualification: woman’s voice (expresses some characteristic of
outskirts, odds, tropics, riches, surroundings, thanks, and the noun); 7) Genitive of adverbial expressing time and place
heroics. Some nouns have only their singular forms. of the event: today’s newspaper, yesterday’s newspaper,
Therefore, they are declined in singular according to common
tomorrow’s meeting (+Absolute genitive - a kind of the latter
patterns. They can be divided depending on what they
when the head word is missing: St. Paul’s cathedral – St.
express: •collective wholes. •actions: a piece of advice(news),
an item of news, a word of advice. •substance or material: Paul’s); 8) Genitive of quantity denoting the measure of
iron, sand, coal, bread, cheese, wine, tea, water, fruit, money, quantity: three miles’ distance, a day’s trip.
hair, coffee, butter, furniture.
14. General characteristics of the verb. As a part of speech the
10. Declinables and indeclinables
The classical parts of speech theory goes back to ancient verb is characterized by the following features: 1) Its lexico-
times. It is based on Latin grammar. According to the Latin grammatical meaning of action, process and state; 2) Certain
classification of the parts of speech all words were divided typical stem-building elements such as - suffixes: -ize
dichotomically into declinable and indeclinable parts of
(organize), -en (widen), -ify (clarify), -ate (communicate) etc, -
speech. This system was reproduced in the earliest English
lexico-grammatical word-morphemes: up (bring up), in (give
grammars. The first of these groups, declinable words,
included nouns, pronouns, verbs and participles, the second – in), off (put off), down (touch down), out (give out), on (switch
indeclinable words – adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and on) etc. 3) Grammatical categories: 8 categories altogether –
interjections. The logical-inflectional classification is quite tense, aspect, order, voice, mood, person, number, finitude.
successful for Latin or other languages with developed Three out of 8 categories are found not only in finites but also
morphology and synthetic paradigms but it cannot be applied in the verbals as well: voice, order and aspect. Non-finite forms
to the English language because the principle of – participle, gerund and infinitive. Gerund and participle – no
declinability/indeclinability is not relevant for analytical
category of aspect. Voice: to ask – to be asked, asking – being
languages. There are four approaches to the problem:
•Classical (logical-inflectional) •Functional •Distributional aksed. Order: asks – has asked, to ask – to have asked, asking –
having asked. Aspect: to ask – to be asking. 4) Combinability –
•Complex. H.Sweet, the author of the first scientific grammar
verbs can be associated with nouns denoting the doer/ agent
of the English language, divides the parts of speech into two
main groups – the declinables and the indeclinables. That or recipient of the action. It’s usually modified by adverbs. 5)
means that he considers morphological properties to be the Syntactical functions – the predicate. According to stem
main principle of classification. He took into account the structure verbs fall into the following groups: - simple verbs (to
peculiarities of the English language. Inside the group of the
write, know, maintain), - derived – with affix (to organize,
declinables he kept to the traditional division into nouns,
adjectives and verbs. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and rewrite, waterpool), - compound – 2 stems (to broadcast,
interjections are united into the group of the indeclinables. whitewash), - composite (give up, give away, give out etc).
11.The problem of analytical cases in Modern English
15. Semantic classifications of the verb.
Since not only cases but also prepositions show relations of
According to different semantic and lexico grammatical
substances (nominal parts of speech) some linguists speak of
features: 1. Distinguished by the function: notional, semi-
analytical cases in the English language (M. Deutschbein, J. notional, functional: - auxiliary verbs - modal verbs- semi-
Meshchaninov). These scholars regard phrases like to the notional verbs (to seen, to appear, to happen) - link verbs ( to
student as analytical Dative, of the student – as analytical
be, to become, to get, to go) 2. According to subject-procces
Genitive, by the student as analytical Instrumental. There are relation: actional (dynamic, statal (stative ( to be, to sleep, to
also points of view which contradict this theory. Their love )) 3. Based on the aspective verbal semantics: durative
reasonings are as follows: 1. Prepositions in the above (non-terminate) continual ( to move, to to live, to look for);
mentioned examples cannot be regarded as grammatical terminative: terminate concluded (to come, to stop, to start,
to drop) 4. Based on the power to take compliments:
word morphemes because grammatical word morphemes like
Transative, Intransative (cannot take direct objects)
will, shall, have have no lexical meaning, but prepositions
Subjective (can take no object at all: to sit, to go, to run);
retain their lexical meaning in speech and in language.
Objective (to interfere with, to look at, to speak about)
Besides sometimes one and the same preposition has
different meanings. E.g. to speak of the student, the speech of
the student, because of the student – different meanings. 2.
Any grammatical category is known to be represented by the
oppositions with some definite limited number of opposites.
16. The category of tense, its correlation with the objective
category of time.
The category of tense is a system of 3-member opposites,
such as does-did-will do, is doing-was doing-will be doing
which shows the relation of the action denoted by the V to
the moment of speech. Unlike the category of order, aspect &
voice found in the verbals, the category of tense is
characteristic only of finite form. |The difference between the
lexical & grammatical expression of time is as follows: a)
lexically it is possible to name a definite moment, period or
point of time (in 1985, currently); gram. meaning is abstract &
is related only to 3 particular tenses (the present, the past &
the future); b) lexically a period of time is named directly (at 7
o’clock); the gram. meaning of time is indirect; c) gram.
meaning of time isn’t absolute but related. There are some
words which may be conveyed as present & past (can-could)
or only present (must). |The correlation of time & tense is
connected with the problem of absolute and relative use of
gram. tenses. Some tenses may be not only absolute (showing
the time of the action in relation to the present moment).
That’s reflecting time and action not with regard of the
moment of speech but with some other tense of the V.
Therefore, a present tense V in Eng. may be used only if the
time of the action it expresses includes the moment of
speech. It occurs, for instance, in the subordinate clauses
expressing general statements. |Similarly, a future tense V
may be used if the action it expresses refers to some time
following the moment of speech: Yesterday I heard some
remarks about the plan we shall discuss tomorrow.
17. The problem of “perfect” in English. Category of order.
Meanings rendered by the perfect forms.
The category of order - is a system of binary, privative
oppositions – write, has written, is writing, to write.
It shows whether the action is viewed or prior (perfect) or
irrespective (non-perfect) other action and situations.The
perfect forms in Modern English present a great problem as
far as the interpretation of their content is concerned. The
fundamental content of the Perfect Forms has been
interpreted in linguistic literature in 4 different ways. 1. As a
specific tense-form – (was represented by H.Sweet,
M.Gashnina,N.M.Vasilevskaya) the perfect is approached to
as denoting a secondary temporal //////. It shows that action
precedes in time some other action.2. As a peculiar Aspective
Form (A.S.West, M.Deutchbein) The adherents of this point of
view put an emphases on the resultative meaning of the
Perfect forms.3. Tense-aspect – as a form of double-aspective
character (similarly to the Continuous Forms) 4. The
categorical indivisibility of the Perfect was shown by the
eminent linguist A.I.Smirnitsky. As it was the time-correlation
view, content of the Perfect Forms cannot be reduced.
Perfect Forms – an individual grammatical category, closely
connected with both categories.This category is based on a
binary opposition of the non-perfect forms to the perfect
forms and expresses correlation of two actions in time. The
functional content of the category of time was defined as an
expression of priority. The Present, Past and Future forms,
expressed by the Perfect forms, contrasted against the Non-
expression of priority by the non-perfect forms
18. The category of aspect. Aspect and manner of action.
Neutralization of continuous forms.
The category of aspect – is a linguistic representation of the
objective category of Manner of Action. It is realized through
the opposition Cont – non-Cont. The realization of the
category of aspect is closely connected with the lexical
meaning of the verb. There are some verbs in English that do
not normally occur with the progressive aspect. Non-
progressive: think, know, hate, love, own. Stative –refer to a
state of affairs, rather than the action, event or process. They
also take the progressive aspect under same sircumstens.
Now I’m knowing you. Continuous form has 2 semantic
features: Duration – the action is always in progress.
Definiteness – the action is always limited to a definite point
or period of time. The purpose of Continuous form is to serve
as a frame, which makes the process of the action more
concrete and isolated. The opposition between the
continuous and non-cont. forms may be mutualized with so-
called durative (non-terminative) verbs (sit,stand,eat) I saw
that she sat in an armchair, her hands on the knees = she was
sitting in an armvchair.
19. The category of voice. Morphologo-syntactic nature of
the voice category.
The category of voice is a verbal category showing whether
the person or thing, denoted by the grammatical subject, is
the doer or the sufferer of the action, denoted by the
grammatical predicate. In Modern English there are two
grammatical voices: the active voice and the passive
voice. The active voice shows that the action is directed from
the subject to the object and the subject itself is the doer of
an action. The passive voice is used to show that the action is
directed to the subject and not from it. Some grammarians
hold that the number of voices is more than two. Some of
them count even five voices in Modern English, namely: the
Active voice, the Passive voice, the Reflexive voice, the Middle
voice, and the Reciprocal voice. The category of voice is based
on a binary opposition as a so-called active form of the verb
to the passive form. It is strongly marked. The big problem
concerning the category of voice is the problem of existence
of the so-called Medical voices that is voices other than the
Active voice and Passive. The cited reflexive and reciprocal
uses of verbs are open to the consideration as special
grammatical voices, called respectively the Reflexive and
Reciprocal voice. If we recognize such forms at the forms of
Reflexive and Reciprocal voice then we must treat the
Reflexive and Reciprocal pronouns here voice auxiliaries. They
can hardly be treated as voice auxiliaries because they still
remain positional members of the sentence namely: direct
objects preserving their lexical meanings. The same problem
concerns the existence or non-existence of the so-called
Middle voice in modern English. The meaning of the verbs in
the examples is not active since the actions, expressed by
them, do not pass from the subject to an object - on the
contrary, these action are confined only to the referents of
the grammatical subjects which are at the same time their
own objects of the actions, in other words the action are
represented here as if going on of their own accord within
themselves.
20. Syntax as a part of grammar
Syntax is a part of grammar which deals with the structure
classification and combinability of sentences. Phrase like a
word has a function which is called nominative but the
function of the phrase is polynomination. Sentence is based
on predication (actual connection between the subject and
the predicate. Predication is linguistically expressed by the
category of predicativity which in its turn includes the
category of modality, temporality and personality. Text Supra
proposimic level comprises separate sentences forming a
textual unity. These unities are connected by the syntactic
processes called cumulation. It is based on the connection of
thoughts in the communicative process. Syntax, which is
based on the grammatical teaching of the sentence, give
analysis of the sentence, its constituent parts and the
language units the sentences formst of grammar.
21. Basic syntactic notions: syntactic unit, syntactic form,
syntactic meaning, syntactic function, syntactic relations,
syntactic position, syntactic valency.
Syntactic unit is always a combination that has at least two
constituents. The basic syntactic units are a word-group, a
clause, a sentence, and a text. Their main features are: a) they
are hierarchical units – the units of a lower level serve the
building material for the units of a higher level; b) as all
language units the syntactic units are of two-fold nature; c)
they are of communicative and non-communicative nature –
word-groups and clauses are of non-communicative nature
while sentences and texts are of communicative nature.
Syntactic meaning is the way in which separate word meanings
are combined to produce meaningful word-groups and
sentences. Green ideas sleep furiously.This sentence is quite
correct grammatically. However it makes no sense as it lacks
syntactic meaning. Syntactic form may be described as the
distributional formula of the unit (pattern). John hits the ball –
N1 + V + N2. Syntactic function is the function of a unit on the
basis of which it is included to a larger unit: in the word-group
a smart studentthe word ‘smart’ is in subordinate attributive
relations to the head element. In traditional terms it is used to
denote syntactic function of a unit within the sentence
(subject, predicate, etc.). Syntactic position is the position of
an element. The order of constituents in syntactic units is of
principal importance in analytical languages. The syntactic
position of an element may determine its relationship with the
other elements of the same unit: his broad back, a back district,
to go back, to back sm. Syntactic relations are syntagmatic
relations observed between syntactic units. They can be of
three types – coordination, subordination and predication.
Syntactic valency is pretty straightforward: it's basically the
number of complements (arguments) that a verb takes. So a
monovalent verb takes one complement: a subject. A bivalent
verb takes two: a subject and a DO or predicative complement.
A trivalent takes three: a subject, a DO, and an IO or PP or PC.
22. Phrases (word-combinations), word groups, syntactic
constructions (complexes), clauses, sentences, supra-
syntactic units, texts as units of syntax.
A phrase is a combination of 2 or more words which is a
gram. unit, i.e. there exists definite syntagmatic & syntactic
relation between the words and the phrase is not supposed
to be an analytical form of some word. The constituent
elements of the phrase may belong to diff. parts of speech. If
there is no semantic, syntactic relation, then it’s not a phrase:
He took it badly (phrase), He took it bad (not a phrase). There
is a specific type of phrase called syntactic construction.
Syntactic constructions are those word-combinations which
serve as a separate part of the sentence usually represented
by 1 word. It is supposed to display some kind of predicative
relation. We saw him cross the street (We saw – predicative
relation, him cross – syntactic construction. The difference
between a sentence & a phrase is: 1) they have different
functions; 2) a phrase can undergo grammatical changes
without destroying itself. Sentence is a predicative unit, its
function is predication. It’s a minimum synt. unit used in the
communicative speech acts, built up according to some
definite structural & intonational patterns & possessing some
properties (categories) of the sentence, such as predicativity,
modality, temporality, communicativity. Structurally
sentences fall into two major groups: 1) simple; 2) composite.
Simple have only one predicative relation. Composite may be
compound & complex. Compound consist of clauses,
minimum two coordinate clauses; in complex sent-s first
clause is principal, another one – subordinate. In the speech
sent-s do not occur separately, they’re supposed to be
connected both semantically-topically & syntactically. These
groups of words form textual unities & the process is called
cumulation. Units of speech are cumulemes. These groups
may also be called complex syntactic unities or supra-phrasal
unities. In the written speech they’re called paragraphs which
have their own internal organization, they’re characterized by
predicativity & modality. Paragraphs are connected into
bigger units – texts. Paragraph groupings are cumulated into
whole texts.
23. Syntagmatic relations in syntax. Syntactic relations and
syntactic connections
Syntagmas are parts which the sentence may be broken into.
Syntactic relations may be of two kinds: 1) equipotent
(between words related to one another on equal
basis)=coordinate; 2) dominational (between syntactically
unequal words)=subordinate. In the case of equipotent
relation the words in the phrase aren’t modified with one
another, but the second word is modifier of the other.
According to the nature of the headword in the dominational
word-combinations phrases can be subdivided into: noun
phrases (good friend), verb phrases (to go quickly),
pronominal phrases (for him to go), adjectival phrases (very
nice), adverbial phrases (very well). Synt.relations have their
own connections. Equipotent relations have two types of
connections: 1) syndetic (deals with conjunctions and, but,
or); 2) asyndetic (realised through comma: no moon, no
stars). Dominational have four types: 1) agreement (concord)
– the headword & the adjunct must have the same grm.form:
this girl – these girls; 2) government – subordinate word is
used in the form required by the headword but not coinciding
to it: We invited him to the party (not he); 3) attachment
(adjoinment) – there must exist some syntactic relations
between words: to run quickly (not brightly); 4) enclosure –
one element of the phrase is enclosed between the elements
of the other which is usually headword.
24 Classifications of subordinate word-combinations
according to their heads.
Subordinate phrases are structures in which one of the
members is syntactically the leading element of the phrase.
This dominating element is called the head-word, or the
kernel, and can be expressed by different parts of speech.
Subordinate relation, 4 types of syntactic connections:-
Agreement takes place when the subordinate word assumes
a form similar to that of the word to which it is subordinate,
that is formal correspondences are established between parts
of the phrase. The sphere of agreement in Modern English is
extremely small: it is found in the pronouns this and that,
which agree in number with their head word (that chair –
those chairs).- Government takes place when the subordinate
word is used in a certain form required by its head word, the
form of the subordinate word not coinciding with the form of
the head word. Government can be observed between the
verb and its object expressed either by a personal pronoun or
by the pronoun who, the verb being the governing element
(to rely on him, to be proud of her)- Attachment is described
as absence both of agreement and of government. Combined
elements build syntactic groups without changing their forms.
A typical example is a combination of an adverb with a head
word (to nod silently, to act cautiously, go fast).- Enclosure is
use of an attribute between the article (determiner) and the
head-noun (a pretty face, your perfect man, one good essay).
E.g. on-the-spot
25. Predicative word combinations, primary and secondary
predication
Predicative word combinations are distinguished on the basis
of secondary predication. Like sentences, predicative word-
groups are binary in their structure but actually differ
essentially in their organization. The sentence is an
independent communicative unit based on primary
predication while the predicative word-group is a dependent
syntactic unit that makes up a part of the sentence. The
predicative word-group consists of a nominal element and a
non-finite form of the verb: N + V non-fin. Predication–
syntagmatic relations of interdependence. Predication may be
of two kinds – primary (sentence level) and secondary (phrase
level). Primary predication is observed between the subject
and the predicate of the sentence while secondary
predication is observed between non-finite forms of the verb
and nominal elements within the sentence. Secondary
predication serves the basis for gerundial, infinitive and
participial word-groups (predicative complexes).
26. Nexus and its types.
Nexus was introduced by the Danish Philologist Otto
Jespersen for every predicative grouping of words no matter
by what grammatical means it’s realized. Jespersen
distinguished between two notions:A junction which isn’t a
predicative group of words : I found(Primary nexus) him
ill(Secondary nexus) Nexus of deprecation. In this nexus the
connection between two members of an ordinary affirmative
sentence may be brushed aside as unnecessary by intonation
which is the same as in questions, often in exaggerative form
We surrender? Never!
27. Syntactic processes of extension, expansion,
replacement, representation, complication, substitution,
and ellipsis.
Syntactic processes are those which serve to make an
unexpanded simple sentence that is a monopredicative
sentence formed only by obligatory notional parts into
expanded simple sentence which includes some optional
parts. The main syntactic processes are extension, expansion,
replacement, representation, complication, substitution and
ellipsis. Expansion consists in addition of the same parts of
the sentence to existing ones. It is not obligatory from point
of view of the sentence structure. Any part of the sentence
can undergo expansion. It produces homogeneous parts of
the sentence. He pushed me suddenly and with energy.
Extension is a modification of one member of the sentence by
another standing in the subordinate position to the former.
This process produces syntactic groups like verbal, nominal,
adjectival, adverbial groups He did his work efficiently.
Replacement occurs only in the system of the predicate and
produces the so-called double predicate. My daughter sat
silent Representation is the use of a part of some syntactic
unit for the whole of this unit. Capable of performing the
function of representative are: auxiliaries (-Have you been
through my flat –No, I haven’t) Modal verbs (– can you speak
English? –Yes, I can) Infinitive or particle to ( I couldn’t find
him though I tried to.) Complication is a change of a syntactic
unit structure (a member of a sentence) from a simple one
into complex or compound one. Different parts of the
sentence can undergo complication: Complication of the
predicate they drive in the country every weekend.
Complication of the object he pushed the door. He pushed the
door open. Substitution is the use of words with generalized
structural meaning instead of those with concrete meaning
mentioned earlier in the text. This function can be performed
by word substitutes. I bet you get married before I do.
Ellipsis is making some element of the construction implied
on the basis of its obligatory combinability. This element can
always be easily reconstructed from the context. Do you
know him? - Of course, and his wife
28. Sentence, its categories and aspects.
Sentence is a minimal syntactic unit, used in the
communicative speech acts, characterized by predicativity
and formed by definite structural patterns. Every sentence is
based on so-called proposition which shows that there exists
some kind of relation of the denoted event to the reality. The
category of modality between the subject and the predicate
is described by the use of modal verbs. The relation of the
speaker towards the content of the utterance, the degree of
the speaker’s certainty is expressed by modal verbs in the
secondary function and modal words. Temporality means
each sentence belongs to the past, present, future tense.
Personality shows the relation of the speaker to the subject
of the sentence. There’re 3 aspects of the sentence:
structural, semantic, pragmatic. Structural aspect includes
the form of the sentence (affirmative, negative, interrogative,
imperative) and the structure proper(two-member, one-
member, simple, composite). Semantic aspect deals with the
generalized meaning of the sentence on the whole
(proposition) and its main and secondary parts. Pragmatic
aspect characterizes the sentence as unit of speech
communication. From this point of view sentences may be
divided: statements, questions, orders, requests, promises,
wishes. The sentences are called utterances and usually are
produced by the speaker, directed on listener are called
communicative utterances, they constitute the major group.
29. Different approaches to the study of sentence (traditional
analysis, distributional analysis, transformational analysis, IC-
analysis)
Traditional analysis includes division of sentences into simple
and composite (complex, compound, but there may be 2
intermediate types-complex-compound: I know that Frank
studies French & Gerry studies German. compound-complex my
friend, who came to see me, was watching TV and I was making
coffee). From point of view of this approach each sentence is
divided in principle parts (subject, predicate) and secondary
(attributes, objects, adv. modifiers). communicative types:
declarative (affirmative, negative), interrogative, imperative.
Also can be characterized from structural point of view: two-
member and one-member, extended, unextended.
Distributional analysis, its goal is to study the units of the
language in relation to their textual environment, which may
be either left-hand or right-hand. The distribution of any unit
in the sentence may be defined as the total of its environments
.Distributional analysis may be done on the lexemic and
phrasemic levels: I got to take care of myself. – got opens one
syntactic valence for I(subject) and other for to take care. It is
the finite part of the compound verbal aspect predicate.
Transformational analysis serves to establish the syntactic
paradigm of the sentence on the whole, i.e. to find the base –
pattern or kernel (nucleus) sentence and their transforms. A
question may be described as transformationally produced
from a statement. Negation may be described as transformed
from affirmation. Similarly, complex structures (composite
sentences) in sentences with different infinitival, gerundial,
participial constructions may be presented as derived from two
or more simple sentences. E.g. I saw him come. – I saw him. He
came. IC-analysis (immediate constituents) is based on group-
parsing, i.e. dividing the whole of the sentence in two groups:
group of the subject, group of the predicate, which in its turn
are divided into their subgroups (constituents) according to the
successive subordinate order of the latter.
31. Functional sentence perspective (actual division of
30. Communicative classifications of sentences. sentences).
The sentence is above all a communicative unit; therefore, The linguists have established each sentence contains old
the primary classification of sentences is based on the information to new information. Functional sentence
communicative principle, traditionally defined as “the perspective shows the role of different parts of the sentence in
purpose of communication”. According to the purpose of conveying these two types of information. According to this
communication, sentences are subdivided into declarative,
approach, the part of the sentence, containing all the
interrogative and imperative. Declarative sentences are
information is called the theme (T). The part of the sentence,
traditionally defined as those expressing statements, either
affirmative or negative. Imperative sentences express containing new information is called the rheme (R). Between
inducements of various kinds (orders or requests); they may the T and the R there is a transitional part of the actual division,
also be either affirmative or negative. Interrogative sentences called transition. The T is placed at the beginning of the
express questions, or requests for information. Charles Fries sentence (coincides with the subject). The R is placed at the
suggested classifying all the utterances not on the basis of second half of the sentence (coincides with the predicate). E.g.
their own semantics, but on the kind of responses which they The book is interesting. Guides (the ways showing to the T or
elicit, or according to their external characteristics. to the R): Emphatic constructions (it is, it was, who, that); The
1)utterances which are followed by oral responses (greetings, use of definite and indefinite articles; Words like alone, only,
calls, questions, etc.) 2)utterances followed by action even, just also show to the R (Even now we don’t know the
responses (requests or commands) 3)utterances which elicit truth); Detached parts of the sentence show to the T (His likes,
signals of attention to further conversation (statements)
his dislikes – no one knew them better than he did). At the
4)additionally, he distinguished a minor group of utterances,
beginning of the text in its first opening sentence the T doesn’t
which are not directed to any interlocutor in particular and
represent something already familiar but it’s simply a starting
presuppose no response (“non-communicative utterances”,
e.g., interjectional outcries). Fries’s classification does not point of the text.
refute the traditional classification of communicative
sentence types, but rather confirms and specifies it.
Problems: the exclamatory sentence: whether it is a separate
com. Type or whether it is not, cause any other type can
become exclamatory (intonation). Smirnitskiy: emotional (
exclamatory sentences), non emotional ( all other types),
Ilyish: declarative ( emotional/non emotional), interrogative (
emotional/non emotional), exclamatory ( don’t refer to any
other com.type), Affirmative/negative sentences are gram.
Varieties of the declarative sentences, or a negative s-s is a
variety of an affirmative s-ce. No special com.type for a
negative sentence. Blokh: intermediary communicative types.