Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525 – 545

www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeorev

Gold and sulphide minerals in Tertiary quartz pebble conglomerate

gold placers, Southland, New Zealand
D.M. Falconer a,*, D. Craw a, J.H. Youngson b, K. Faure c
a
Department of Geology, University of Otago, P. O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand
b
Placer Solutions (2004) Ltd, P. O. Box 5284, Dunedin, New Zealand
c
Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Ltd, P. O. Box 31312, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
Received 15 February 2004; received in revised form 2 May 2004; accepted 14 March 2005
Available online 9 January 2006

Abstract

Auriferous quartz pebble conglomerates (QPC) formed during Tertiary sedimentary recycling in the Waimumu district,
Southland, New Zealand. These sediments contain fine-grained gold of detrital origin with abundant surface textures and gold-
forms associated with authigenic gold remobilisation. Most authigenic gold contains no detectable silver and occurs as overgrowths
on detrital Au–Ag and Au–Ag–Hg alloys that contain up to 13 wt.% Ag, and 9 wt.% Hg. Fine-grained Au–Ag and Au–Ag–Hg
alloys are compositionally heterogeneous, exhibiting both well-defined silver-depleted and silver-enriched rims. Rare coarse Au–
Ag alloy is intergrown with quartz and is homogenous. Discrete grains of authigenic, porous, sheet-like gold occur in carbonaceous
mudstone within a QPC sequence. Some QPC contain abundant sulphide minerals. Some of these sulphides (pyrite and
arsenopyrite) are of long-distance detrital origin, presumably from the Otago Schist, whereas the bulk of the sulphide suite is
marcasite of variably transported diagenetic origin, derived from the erosion of QPC and underlying Tertiary sediments. There has
also been authigenic deposition of sulphide minerals in the QPC themselves. These diagenetic sulphides include framboidal and
anhedral marcasite, and framboidal and euhedral pyrite. Sulphur isotope data for the sulphide minerals range from 45x to + 18x
(relative to VCDT). Sulphur isotope data for euhedral detrital pyrite and arsenopyrite range from 9x to 1x and are most likely
derived from the Otago Schist to the north. Both framboidal and anhedral marcasite have lower values (b 20x) reflecting
microbial sulphate reduction as a source for the precursor hydrogen sulphide. Anhedral marcasite contains elevated concentrations
of Ni, Co, As and Cr, commonly with compositional banding of these metals.
Both the gold and diagenetic sulphides from the Belle-Brook QPC are compositionally similar to gold and sulphides from
Archaean QPC. Porous, sheet-like authigenic gold is morphologically similar to gold associated with carbonaceous material in the
Witwatersrand. In addition, Southland marcasite textures resemble the rounded and banded pyrite in Witwatersrand QPC placers.
There is abundant evidence from these Tertiary QPC in southern New Zealand for sedimentary transport of sulphide minerals and
post-depositional sulphide mineralisation in the surficial environment despite an oxygen-rich atmosphere. These young deposits
thus provide an example of authigenic gold and sulphide textures formed during diagenesis in unmetamorphosed placers. Many of
these textures are similar to those commonly ascribed to metamorphic processes in Archaean auriferous QPC.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Quartz pebble conglomerate; Authigenic gold; Sulphidation; Marcasite; Framboidal pyrite; Colloform pyrite

* Corresponding author. Fax: +64 3 4821175.

E-mail address: falconer.dm@clear.net.nz (D.M. Falconer).

0169-1368/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2005.03.009
526 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545

1. Introduction 2000, equating to nearly 40% of all gold produced

Gold deposits hosted by quartz pebble conglomer-
ates are a significant source of gold worldwide. The
most important are the Archaean QPC gold deposits of
the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa, which have
produced about 48,670 t of gold between 1886 and
worldwide (Frimmel and Minter, 2002). The well-docu-
mented Witwatersrand orebodies are characterised by
gold and sulphide minerals that feature both detrital and
authigenic textures (see reviews by Phillips and Law,
2000; Frimmel and Minter, 2002). However, the gene-
sis of QPC-hosted gold and sulphide mineralisation

Fig. 1. (A) Relief map of eastern Otago and Southland showing low relief areas dominated by Tertiary non-marine sequences that contain QPC.
Provincial boundary between Otago and Southland indicated. (B) Schematic geological map of Waimumu area showing location of selected sites.
 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545
from the Witwatersrand orebodies are the focus of
considerable debate because of the distinction, or lack
thereof, between detrital and authigenic textures
(MacLean and Fleet, 1989; Phillips and Myers, 1989;
Robb and Meyer, 1990; Minter et al., 1993; Myers et
al., 1993; Barnicoat et al., 1997, 2001; Phillips and
Law, 1997; Fleet, 1998; Minter, 1999; England et al.,
2002). Specifically, one of the central issues in these
debates is the lack of criteria to distinguish between
diagenetic sulphide or gold textures and those resulting
from low-grade regional metamorphism or hydrother-
mal mineralisation. In the absence of well-constrained
unmetamorphosed diagenetic assemblages, it is inevi-
table that a variety of diagenetic textures and geochem-
ical signatures could be erroneously attributed to
metamorphic processes. In particular, gold-grain tex-
tures in the Witwatersrand deposits are ambiguous
because of potential effects of metamorphic recrystalli-
sation (Minter et al., 1993; Barnicoat et al., 1997,
2001).
One approach to resolving such controversies is to
examine gold and sulphide textures in younger unme-
tamorphosed QPC that feature gold and sulphide miner-
alisation, as potential analogues for Witwatersrand-style
gold deposits. Such QPC occur in southern New Zeal-
and where both sedimentary and diagenetic processes
are able to be better constrained, and therefore more
easily understood than those of Archaean QPC (Young-
son et al., 2006-this volume). Although some workers
claim that the Archaean environment was unique in the
Earth’s history with respect to the occurrence of sul-
phide minerals in sediments (Phillips and Myers, 1989;
Phillips et al., 2001), there is abundant evidence for
detrital and diagenetic sulphide mineral occurrences in
young non-marine sediments (Clough and Craw, 1989;
Fig. 2. Generalised stratigraphic sequence for the Waimumu area (modified after Isaac and Lindqvist, 1990).
527
Youngson, 1995; Craw and Chappell, 1999; Brown et
al., 1999, 2000; Paktunc and Davé, 2002; Falconer,
2003). Despite such occurrences, the search for Witwa-
tersrand analogues remains focussed on similar Archae-
an terranes (Fox, 2002) rather than expanding this
approach to include much younger QPC.
This paper documents some aspects of the gold and
sulphide mineralogy in QPC gold placers from South-
land, New Zealand, especially aspects that might be
relevant to interpretation of mineralised Archaean
deposits. Thus, despite their economic insignificance,
young QPC gold placers such as those in southern New
Zealand (Fig. 1A) are a potential analogue for Witwa-
tersrand-style gold mineralisation.
2. Regional geology
The QPC described in this study occur in non-ma-
rine, fluvial and colluvial sedimentary units of late
Oligocene to Pliocene age (Fig. 2). The non-marine
strata are commonly underlain by Oligocene marine
sedimentary rocks, and the Tertiary sedimentary se-
quence rests on Permian to Jurassic greywacke base-
ment (Wood, 1956; Isaac and Lindqvist, 1990; Turnbull
and Allibone, 2003). The Tertiary non-marine strata are
dominated by the Gore Lignite Measures of late Oligo-
cene–Miocene age, deposited by a large meandering
fluvial system (Isaac and Lindqvist, 1990). Basal del-
taic beds are overlain by extensive, generally fine-
grained lower-delta plain beds and lignites, which are
in turn overlain by extensive upper-delta plain con-
glomerates and mudstones (Isaac and Lindqvist, 1990;
Fig. 2). These sediments are at least 500 m thick,
although late Tertiary uplift has caused significant ero-
sion of parts of the section (Isaac and Lindqvist, 1990).
528 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545
The upper part of this non-marine sequence is domi-
nated by conglomerates with abundant basement grey-
wacke clasts, and ca. 30 vol.% quartz pebbles derived
from the Otago Schist belt to the north (Fig. 1A). This
schist belt contains numerous mesothermal vein sys-
tems (Craw and Norris, 1991) that have shed gold to
form placer accumulations throughout Otago and
Southland (Youngson et al., 2006-this volume).
Recycling of Tertiary non-marine conglomerates
during late Cenozoic uplift resulted in local redeposi-
tion of variably quartz-rich QPC (N 80 vol.% quartz
pebbles) during the late Miocene and Pliocene (Wai-
mumu and Waikaka Quartz Gravels; MacPherson,
1937; Wood, 1956; Falconer, 2003). Pliocene to Pleis-
tocene immature fluvial conglomerates (Gore Piedmont
Gravels; Wood, 1956) were derived from uplifting
basement ridges and the pre-existing Tertiary sedimen-
tary sequence, and locally overlie the QPC described
above (Fig. 2). Pleistocene fluvio-glacial gravels are
restricted to the present major drainage systems. In
both Otago and Southland, many of these middle–late
Tertiary QPC host economically significant gold pla-
cers (Youngson et al., 2006-this volume).
2.1. Mining history
In the Waimumu area (Fig. 1B), alluvial gold was
historically dredged from several of the principal
streams, with 30,000 oz produced before 1904. Hydrau-
lic sluicing was practiced intermittently from the 1930s,
with hydraulic excavators and gravity recovery systems
utilised until the late 1990s. Numerous small under-
ground workings throughout the district followed rela-
tively rich gold leads in the Waimumu–Waikaka Quartz
Gravels. The Belle-Brook placer, 5 km south of the
historic gold workings, was not discovered until the late
1970s, and has been sporadically mined on a small
scale since 1980. The Parker Road QPC have been
sporadically mined as a source of road-building aggre-
gate, with gold recovery from this deposit about to
commence. The Waimumu area also contains signifi-
cant economic lignite deposits in the Tertiary non-ma-
rine sequence (Isaac and Lindqvist, 1990; Fig. 2).
2.2. Geology of the study area
This study focuses on sediments in the Waimumu
area (Fig. 1B). Structurally, this area is dominated by
the Dunsdale Fault System, a series of north- to north-
east-striking reverse faults that dip steeply to the west,
and trend for at least 50 km. Some of these faults have
uplifts of 400 to 500 m, exposing Murihiku basement
that comprises the nearby Hokonui Hills (Fig. 1B).
Belle-Brook, one of the principal localities for this
study, is in a structural basin within this fault system,
on the downthrown side of the Hedgehope Fault. A
second site at Parker Road (Fig. 1B) is similarly located
adjacent the Hedgehope Fault. Marcasite for this study
was also collected from Hedgehope Stream (Fig. 1B),
where the stream is eroding through a section of faulted
Gore Lignite Measures (Isaac and Lindqvist, 1990).
The upper part of the Tertiary non-marine sequence
(Gore Lignite Measures) exposed at Belle-Brook is
typically a coarse (up to 15 cm clasts), clast-supported
fluvial conglomerate, with poorly defined stratification.
Minor stratified sandstone of similar mineralogical
composition is interbedded with these conglomerates.
Unaltered Gore Lignite Measures conglomerates are
bluish in colour and composed of approximately
70 vol.% greywacke cobbles and 30 vol.% quartz
clasts. However, most of the Gore Lignite Measures
conglomerates at Belle-Brook exhibit moderate to
strong kaolinisation of the greywacke component,
resulting from the alteration of labile minerals. The
heavy-mineral suite is dominated by marcasite, zircon,
and garnet, with minor pyrite, arsenopyrite, chromite,
rutile, magnetite, and rare gold. Gore Lignite Measures
conglomerates at Belle-Brook are unconformably over-
lain by thin (ca. 1 m) QPC of inferred Pliocene age that
have been formed by the erosion and recycling of
underlying conglomerates (Clough and Craw, 1989;
Falconer, 2003; Youngson et al., 2006-this volume).
The quartz component is higher (ca. 95 vol.%) in
these recycled sediments, as the altered greywacke
clasts disaggregated during erosion and transport. The
heavy-mineral suite in these recycled QPC includes
zircon, garnet, gold, framboidal and coarse anhedral
marcasite, and, less commonly, framboidal pyrite, euhe-
dral pyrite and arsenopyrite. Magnetite is notably rare.
Localised deposits of mature Pliocene QPC consist-
ing of 99 vol.% quartz cobbles occur in the non-marine
sequence. One such QPC, at Parker Road (Fig. 1B), is
at least 5 m thick and overlain by a thin (b 2 m)
carbonaceous mudstone. Palynology on the Parker
Road carbonaceous mudstone indicates that the envi-
ronment was an acid swamp, and the climate was
temperate to sub-tropical. Pollens and spores from the
carbonaceous mudstone indicate an age of 5 to 3.1 Ma
which is consistent with deposition following QPC
formation. The heavy-mineral suite in the Parker
Road QPC is dominated by unaltered chlorite, zircon
and garnet, with rare gold and magnetite. However, in
rare well-defined channels, comparatively less mature
QPC have abundant gold and magnetite. The QPC at
 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545
Parker Road and QPC elsewhere in the Waimumu
district do not contain framboidal or anhedral sulphides
in the heavy mineral fraction (Craw, 1992; Falconer,
2003).
3. Methods
Heavy mineral concentrates from the QPC were
collected by panning disaggregated material from out-
crops, and from a gold concentration plant at Belle-
Brook. Mineral concentration did not involve the use of
mercury. Sulphide and gold grains for all analytical
procedures were handpicked under a stereomicroscope
to ensure contamination-free phases were selected.
Bulk samples of sulphide material for trace element
analyses were selected by hand and analysed by X-
ray fluorescence in the Geology Department, University
of Otago. Analysis followed standard methods and used
international rock standards. Follow-up trace element
analysis using ICP-MS was carried out by Australian
Laboratory Services, Brisbane, Australia. Particular
care was taken during bulk sample preparation to
avoid cross-contamination between samples. Quartz
blanks were routinely prepared in the same way as
the sulphide samples, and analysed by the same tech-
niques. Sulphide phases were confirmed optically
(using reflected light, oil immersion), and by X-ray
diffraction and Gandolfi camera powder patterns.
Electron-probe microanalysis (EPMA) of gold and
some sulphide minerals were carried out on carbon
coated samples with a JEOL JXA 8600 instrument
(operated at 25 kV, 20 nA (2  10 8A) beam current,
with a 2 Am beam diameter). A procedure documented
by Youngson et al. (2002) was used to correct for peak
interference between Au and Hg. EPMA detection
limits were approximately: As, 0.4%; Cu, 0.1%; Zn,
0.1%; Ni, 0.1%; Co, 0.1%; Fe, 0.1%; S, 0.1%; Au,
0.4%; Ag, 0.2%; Te, 0.5% and Hg, 0.4%. Pure metal
standards were used for As, Bi, Sb, Te, Cu, Ni, Co, Fe,
Au and Ag, crystalline cinnabar was used for the Hg
standard, and sphalerite for Zn and S standards. Core
and rim compositions of gold grains were obtained
separately. dCoreT analyses refer to the central part of
the grain in polished section. Element maps were
obtained over a 450  500 Am grid with a semi-quan-
titative analysis every 1 Am. Scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM) examination of grains was carried out
using a Cambridge S-360 instrument, in which operat-
ing conditions varied from 15 to 35 kV, and a JEOL
6700F Field Emission SEM operated at 2.5 to 5 kV.
Samples were not etched or cleaned in any way prior to
mounting on SEM stubs using a fine paintbrush under a
529
Zeiss stereomicroscope. Although the Cambridge SEM
did not have an EDS detector, micron-sized dgoldT
forms are inferred based on back scatter response, the
use of uncoated samples (i.e., less stable minerals read-
ily alter, and/or, vaporise under high kilovolts), along
with similarities to macroscopic gold forms or surface
textures that are known to be gold.
Sulphur isotope analysis of sulphide minerals was
analysed by conventional methods at the Institute of
Geological and Nuclear Sciences Stable Isotope Labo-
ratory, Lower Hutt, New Zealand. Sulphur for isotope
measurement was liberated from the sulphide minerals
(single crystals) using the Robinson and Kusakabe
(1975) and Kiba et al. (1955) methods, respectively.
Results are expressed in the familiar d 34S notation as
per mil (x) relative to Canon Diablo troilite (VCDT)
standard with a variability of F0.2 per mil (x).
4. Gold
4.1. Morphology
Four gold sub-types are identified based on their
gross morphology: 1. fine-grained gold; 2. coarse nug-
get gold with intergrown quartz; 3. jagged-edged gold;
and 4. porous, sheet-like gold. At least 95% of the gold
occurs as fine-grained gold, with minor coarse gold (ca.
4%) and rare jagged-edged and porous gold (b 1%).
Fine-grained gold occurs predominantly as flattened,
rounded platy particles that range from 300 to 800 Am
in length (Fig. 3A). Most grains are multiply refolded
and flattened to a thickness of ca. 15 Am. Grain edges
are variably thickened, but not to the extent of the
well-developed toroids reported from elsewhere (e.g.,
Giusti and Smith, 1984; Minter, 1999). Other gold
forms that are included in the fine-grained category
include variously ball-like, stubby, and elongated
cigar-shaped particles. Stubby particles are short (typ-
ically 100 Am wide by 300 Am long) and although
multiply refolded, they are not flattened (Fig. 3B).
Stubby particles are a common component of the
fine-grained gold that occurs at Parker Road. These
stubby particles typically have deep cavities between
refolded and rolled particle limbs, in which a variety of
spheroidal, bud-like protrusions and spongy gold forms
are well preserved within parts of such cavities (Fig.
3C). Surface textures of rounded plate-like gold parti-
cles are characterised by a variety of gold forms that
occur either in protected cavities or on open surfaces:
spheroidal forms and bud-like protrusions (Fig. 3D),
chain and ring structures (Fig. 3E, F); and, rarely,
euhedral gold forms (Fig. 3G). All of these inferred
530 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545

gold forms are well preserved with no physical defor-
mation. Iron oxide coatings are rare on the fine-grained
gold particles.
Coarse nugget gold (2 to 6 mm in length), generally
with intergrown quartz, is less common than fine-
grained gold, and occurs only at Belle-Brook (Fig.
3H). This variety is chunky and irregular in shape
and has not been flattened. Most particles have com-
plex, and or, branched forms (see Knight et al., 1994)
and are variably crystalline in appearance (Clough and
Craw, 1989; Falconer, 2003; Falconer and Craw, sub-
mitted for publication). Many particles exhibit cavities

Fig. 3. SEM photomicrographs illustrating morphological features of alluvial gold from Parker Road and Belle-Brook. (A) Typical example of fine-
grained refolded platy gold. (B) Fine-grained gold from Parker Road featuring deep cavities with authigenic gold as shown in C. (C) Authigenic
gold forms occurring as chain structures within cavities (scale pertains to left hand image). (D) Spheroidal and bud-like gold forms occurring within
shallow cavity on surface of fine-grained gold from Parker Road. (E) Stepped chain structure illustrating polygonal development of individual gold
forms (steps) protruding from general gold surface. (F) Variously developed polygonisation of bud-like gold forms and chain structure occurring on
general gold surface. (G) Triangular plate gold forms occurring on gold surface. (H) Coarsely crystalline gold from Belle-Brook showing intergrown
quartz in bottom right of grain. (I) Jagged-edged gold from Belle-Brook showing thin jagged edges. (J) Close-up of I, showing smooth, clean,
striated gold surface that resembles a slickensided surface.
 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545
Fig. 3 (continued).
or large smooth faces reminiscent of sites from which
euhedral quartz crystals have been plucked. Irregular
grain edges and protrusions are typically rounded and
variably infolded. The margins of such infolded rims
have not been flattened, except in cases where the
infolded protrusion is thin (b100 Am). Euhedral pyrite
containing micron-sized gold blebs has been found
within some euhedral quartz crystals and occurring
within host gold grains (Falconer, 1987).
Very small (b 150 Am), thin (1 to 20 Am), jagged-
edged particles (Fig. 3I) have been observed from one
specific sandy-gravel lithofacies within the QPC at
Belle-Brook. A notable feature of these particles is
the gouged and striated nature of the particularly
clean (contamination-free) surface that resembles slick-
ensides (Fig. 3J).
Porous, irregular sheet-like particles of gold occur
within a carbonaceous horizon at Parker Road (Fig.
4A, B). Such gold particles are extremely thin (b10 Am),
up to 4 mm in length, very delicate, and easily
damaged even by careful handling. Despite the irreg-
ular and pseudocrystalline appearance of these grains,
SEM examination shows that well-formed crystals are
absent (Fig. 4C). The porous sheet-like gold has a
531
lacy appearance and abundant delicate protrusions that
are generally ca. 5 Am across, many of which are
either interconnected or joined to form dchainsT (Fig.
4C, D, E). Most of the delicate features and protru-
sions that make up the surface of the grains are
smooth and lack planar faces. The protrusions show
no obvious crystallographic alignment or control, but
there is a subtle orthogonal association similar to that
exhibited by authigenic gold forms on fine-grained
gold (Falconer, 2003). Grain edges are very irregular
and thin, with a typical thickness ca. 5 Am. There is
no deformation of any of the delicate features on the
grain edges, and grain surfaces show no indications of
abrasion and little evidence of chemical modification
(dissolution along grain boundaries) (Fig. 4E). Crys-
talline stepped-chain structures are common on the
gold surface (Fig. 4F).
4.2. Gold composition
Fine-grained gold is predominantly Au–Ag alloy
(72%), with lesser Au–Ag–Hg alloy (25%) and minor
pure gold (3%) (Table 1). These different gold types are
optically indistinguishable and do not appear to be
532 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545

Fig. 4. SEM photomicrographs illustrating morphology and surface texture of authigenic porous sheet-like gold from carbonaceous material at
Parker Road. (A) Porous, sheet-like gold grain. (B) Portion of grain showing irregular and delicate nature of grain exterior margins. (C and D)
Interior of grain illustrating porous nature of interconnected gold forms and bud-like protrusions. (E) Close-up of smooth bud-like gold protrusions
that shows no physical deformation. (F) Close-up of crystalline stepped gold forms on porous sheet-like gold surface.

characterised by specific morphological forms or sur-
face textures. Less than 1% of fine-grained gold parti-
cles are compositionally homogeneous (Table 1). An
element map of one coarse gold grain showed that
silver-depleted rims are not developed on either the
grain surface or the interior quartz–gold grain bound-
aries. Compositional analysis has not been undertaken
for either jagged-edged or porous sheet-like gold, how-
ever, the latter has been examined by EDS to confirm
suspected gold forms.
The silver content of Au–Ag alloy ranges from 0.2
(detection limit) to 10.2 wt.% in grain cores, with an
average of 3.5 wt.% Ag. However, a single electrum
grain contained between 27 and 32 wt.% Ag. Au–Ag
 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545 533

Table 1 rims. Gold alloys that were observed to have Ag-

Summary of compositional data for fine-grained gold from Belle- enriched rims were indistinguishable from grains
Brook and Parker Road, Waimumu
with Ag-depleted rims in terms or morphology. Gen-
Au–Ag alloy Au–Ag–Hg alloy
erally, enrichment of 0.3 to 2 wt.% Ag occurs,
Fine-grained gold (n = 200) 72% 25% although up to 5% Ag-enrichment relative to core
Range Ag (wt.%) 0.24–10.2 1.32–13.85
composition is exhibited by a single electrum grain.
Av. Ag (wt.%) 3.48 6.55
Rim silver content cf. core In contrast to the steep compositional gradients typ-
Enrichment 28% 6% ically associated with Ag-depletion, the Ag-enriched
Depletion 52% 72% rim from this electrum grain shows a more gradual
Absent (i.e. gold rim) 19% 22% increase in Ag content. With the exception of the
Range Hg (wt.%) 0.43–9.06
electrum grain data were not collected to establish
Av. Hg (wt.%) 2.17
Rim mercury content cf. core the nature of the core-rim contact for Ag-enriched
Enrichment 9% gold alloys.
Depletion 16% The distribution of Hg in Au–Ag–Hg alloy gener-
Absent (i.e. gold rim) 75% ally mimics that of Ag, whereby Hg is depleted in
Coarse nugget gold with
rims relative to the core. However, there are subtle
intergrown quartz (n = 1)
Av. Ag (wt.%) 2.3 differences in the distribution of Ag and Hg within
depleted rims, with Hg forming more extensive and
wider zones of depletion than Ag. Also, Hg was not
alloy grains were free from quartz and primary sulphide detected in 75% of grain rims, whereas Ag is com-
inclusions. The single sample of coarse gold with inter- pletely absent in only 22% of Au–Ag–Hg alloy rims
grown quartz that was analysed is an Au–Ag alloy grain (Table 1).
containing 2.3 wt.% Ag. Trace amounts of Cu were Approximately 20% of all fine-grained gold ana-
detected in only two samples (ca. 0.1 wt.%). No other lysed exhibits a pure gold rim (i.e., N99.9% Au).
trace elements were detected (i.e., As, Bi, Zn, Sb, Fe, S, These pure gold rims occur in conjunction with more
Te; detection limits listed above). Silver content in Au– extensive Ag-depleted rims (FHg), as well as on grains
Ag–Hg alloys is typically higher than in Au–Ag alloys, that do not have Ag-depleted rims (FHg) (Table 1).
and ranges between 1.3 and 13.9 wt.% in grain cores, Unlike Ag-depleted rims, the pure Au rims are com-
with an average of 6.6 wt.% Ag. Mercury ranges from monly discontinuous around a grain margin, and are of
0.4 to 9.1 wt.% in grain cores, with an average of varying width.
2.2 wt.% Hg. The Au–Ag–Hg alloys do not contain
inclusions of quartz or primary sulphide. Mineralogi- 5. Sulphide minerals
cally, Au–Ag–Hg alloys at Belle-Brook are á-phase
alloys of hydrothermal origin, rather than secondary The sulphide suite at Belle-Brook is predominantly
Au–Ag–Hg alloys that contain N 17 wt.% Hg (Young- marcasite (ca. 97 vol.%) that occurs both as fine-
son, submitted for publication). grained (b 1 mm) framboidal marcasite (Fig. 5A) or
Many Au–Ag alloys and Au–Ag–Hg alloys exhibit anhedral dlumpT marcasite (Fig. 5B) that ranges from
well-defined Ag-depleted rims that, in polished sec- 1 mm to 25 cm. Both fine-grained framboidal marca-
tions, are either conformable with the grain margin or site and dlumpT marcasite are ubiquitous throughout
irregular in appearance. These two contrasting styles of the matrix of QPC about the Belle-Brook site. Fram-
Ag-depletion are clearly defined by electron micro- boidal pyrite (Fig. 5C) is rare in comparison to fram-
probe element mapping. Both styles of Ag-depleted boidal marcasite and comprises ca. 1 vol.% of the
rims show a sharply defined and steep gradient sepa- sulphide suite. In contrast to framboidal marcasite
rating the bulk of the grain from the depleted rim, and which is widely dispersed throughout the QPC, fram-
typically contain less than 0.5 wt.% Ag. Element map- boidal pyrite is observed rarely, and generally con-
ping also shows that, in both styles of Ag-depletion, the fined to specific settings within the QPC, such as in
rim is commonly made up of an extensive inner zone narrow (10 cm) horizons above the water table. In
that is Ag-depleted, and a minor outer zone of pure gold outcrop, the occurrence of framboidal marcasite and
on grain margins. framboidal pyrite is almost mutually exclusive, with
Silver enrichment in the rims of gold alloys is only rare framboidal marcasite found in a framboidal
less common, with 28% of the Au–Ag alloys and pyrite-bearing locality. Lump marcasite and framboidal
6% of the Au–Ag–Hg alloys showing Ag-enriched pyrite are mutually exclusive. Euhedral pyrite and
534 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545
 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545 535

Fig. 5. Morphological features of sulphides from Belle-Brook. (A) Irregular cluster of framboidal marcasite composed of individual framboids made
up of microcrystalline marcasite. (B) Variation of anhedral lump marcasite masses (centimeter scale bar). (C) Framboidal pyrite mass, made up of
pyrite framboids. (D) Predominantly euhedral sulphide concentrate, illustrating euhedral and rounded pyrite morphologies (py). Dark sooty rounded
grains are small anhedral marcasite masses (mc). Well-preserved euhedral arsenopyrite crystals are relatively rare (aspy) (characteristic grains
notated for reference). (E) Cubic pyrite in altered marcasite groundmass on anhedral marcasite. (F) Intergrown pyrite cubes illustrating lack of
modification to some euhedral pyrite. (G) Abraded and etched pyrite cube with minor patches of Fe-oxide overgrowths. (H) Euhedral arsenopyrite
illustrating lack of physical abrasion and well-preserved cleavages. (I) Close-up of microcrystalline marcasite faces (that make up a marcasite
framboid) that is undergoing dissolution resulting in a dwool-ballT texture. (J) Close-up of I illustrating aligned octahedral microcrysts. (K) Marcasite
cemented QPC (centimeter scale bar). (L) SEM photomicrograph of polished-section surface showing recrystallised marcasite mass with
incorporated quartz grains (black) displaying marcasite veining and angular grain boundaries indicating dissolution. Quartz detritus also occurs
along former framboidal marcasite grain boundaries.

arsenopyrite are common in heavy mineral concen-
trates (Fig. 5D) from the mining operation at Belle-
Brook. Rare euhedral pyrite is found intergrown with
anhedral lump marcasite (Fig. 5E). Variably modified
euhedral pyrite (Fig. 5F, G) comprises ca. 1 vol.%, of
the total sulphide fraction, whilst arsenopyrite (Fig.
5H) makes up less than 1 vol.% of the sulphide
fraction. There is no evidence for Fe-oxide replace-
ment of sulphides, although minor Fe-oxide over-
growths do occur on some pyrite grains (Fig. 5G).
Lump marcasite (2 to 25 cm) was also collected from
a raised gravel bar at a second site at Hedgehope Stream.
At this locality, goethite pseudomorphing marcasite is a
notable feature. Marcasite has not been observed from
other QPC in the Waimumu district, despite other large
QPC exposures (commercial aggregate quarries) exist-
ing within 3 km of Belle-Brook at Parker Road.
5.1. Framboidal and anhedral iron sulphides:
morphology and textures
Framboidal marcasite is composed of aggregates of
framboids that commonly have irregular (Fig. 5A)
and more rarely branched forms. The mineralogy of
the framboidal masses was confirmed optically, and
that of individual framboids by XRD analyses (Gan-
dolfi camera). Individual spheroidal framboids range
from 50 to 150 Am in diameter and are composed of
interpenetrating marcasite crystals ranging in size
from 10 to 40 Am. Crystal faces are generally well
536 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545

developed and well preserved, and are usually free of
alteration products such as gypsum. Although marca-
site microcrysts are generally well preserved, they
commonly show various degrees of surface dissolu-
tion that affects crystal edges and corners. This dis-
solution of marcasite microcryst faces has the
appearance of a wool-ball texture (Fig. 5I) that
reveals individual marcasite microcrysts are composed
of yet smaller octahedral microcrysts 0.3 to 1 Am
across (Fig. 5J). In polished section, individual mar-
casite framboids consist of finely divided fibrous to
radial marcasite crystals. Marcasite framboids rarely
have a discrete core, although pyrite microcrysts
making up a single pyrite framboid are found as a
core in rare cases.
Aggregates of framboidal marcasite form anhedral
masses, ranging from 0.5 mm up to 20 cm in length,
in samples from Belle-Brook (Fig. 5B), and up to
25 cm in length from Hedgehope Stream. Regardless
of size, anhedral masses are generally sub-rounded to
rounded in appearance. In hand specimen, anhedral
dlumpT marcasite has a variety of surface textures

Fig. 6. Anhedral dlumpT marcasite textures as viewed under reflected light (oil immersion). (A) Coarsely bladed marcasite, outer zoning reflects
elevated Ni and As. (B) Radiating finely divided marcasite showing fan-shaped plumose texture. (C) Finely divided radial marcasite with multiple
concentric bands truncated by adjacent quartz grain(s). Note development of polygonisation of banding. (D) Cluster of recrystallising radial
marcasite spheroids that are colloform banded. Note framboidal pyrite core in more coarsely bladed marcasite spheroid. (E) Concentric,
crystallographically zoned marcasite with swallow-tail marcasite twins. (F) General texture of lump marcasite undergoing recrystallisation showing
variably deformed individual marcasite framboids. Replacement of cellular structures occurs in the centre of field of view.
 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545 537

ranging from smooth to finely or coarsely crystalline, 5.2. Euhedral sulphides: morphology
to knobbly. Variably recrystallised marcasite over-
growths are common on quartz clasts. These marca- Euhedral pyrite cubes range in size from 0.5 to 4
site overgrowths reach 2 to 3 cm in length, and 1 to mm, with an average size of ca. 2 mm (Fig. 5F, G).
2 mm in thickness. Rarely, some horizons in QPC Pyrite occurs predominantly as single cubes, less com-
outcrops are cemented with marcasite on the cm scale monly as intergrown cubes, and rarely, as pyritohedra
(Fig. 5K). Quartz grains (up to 1 mm across) consis- or pyritohedral clusters. Octahedral forms were not
tent with those from the QPC matrix are commonly observed. Crystal faces and edges generally show
observed occurring on anhedral lump marcasite sur- very little, if any, physical degradation such as abrad-
faces. Although quartz grains on the surface are ed edges or corners, and striations are well preserved.
rounded, in section quartz grains incorporated are Pyrite faces are untarnished and typically free of
typically angular (Fig. 5L). Veinlets of recrystallised visible alteration products such as sulphates or Fe-
framboidal marcasite (micron-to-millimeter scale) ex- oxides, although rare marcasite overgrowths do occur
tend through adjacent quartz grains along fractures, on the faces of some crystals. Despite a lack of
and some such quartz grains have become disaggre- significant physical modification and abrasion of crys-
gated and brecciated by veinlet emplacement. These tals, heavily etched and pitted crystals are common
quartz grains are commonly characterised by angular (Fig. 5G). Euhedral pyrite associated with anhedral
or irregular grain boundaries that feature concave marcasite is observed with relatively significant etch-
embayments (Fig. 5L). ing along corners and edges despite a physically
In polished section, lump marcasite typically con- protected setting (Fig. 5E).
sists of a wide range of variably recrystallised tex- Arsenopyrite is rare in the sediments studied and
tures as the sulphide develops a foam texture and occurs as well-preserved prismatic crystals up to 4 mm
becomes increasingly massive during recrystallisation. in length with minor abrasion (Fig. 5H). Striations and
Variably recrystallised lump marcasite include the cleavage surfaces are well preserved. Crystals are typ-
following textures: finely divided (2 to 20 Am) acic- ically untarnished and free from visible alteration pro-
ular needles; medium-grained lath-like marcasite; ducts. Some euhedral arsenopyrite has overgrowths of
coarse-grained bladed marcasite (Fig. 6A); coarse- anhedral pyrite.
grained prismatic marcasite; plumose fans of fine-
grained acicular marcasite (Fig. 6B); coarse-grained 5.3. Sulphide composition
polygranular marcasite; marcasite that has replaced
cellular structures in plant material; as well as foam All of the recrystallised anhedral lump marcasite
textured and massive marcasite. Concentric banding analysed during this study contained elevated Ni, Co,
defined by differences in reflectance and incorpora- As, Cr and, to a lesser extent, Cu, Zn, Pb and W (Table
tion of impurities also occurs (Fig. 6C, D). Concen- 2). Element mapping shows that Ni F Co occur in
tric banding may consist of either widely spaced concentric bands (Fig. 7) that correspond with relatively
single bands, or, closely spaced multiple bands.
Well-defined crystallographically zoned marcasite fea-
tures prominent swallow-tail contact twins, common Table 2
Summary of selected trace element concentrations (ppm) for anhedral
on {101} faces (Fig. 6E). More rarely, clusters of
lump marcasite from Belle-Brook and Hedgehope Stream
framboids that are variably modified by polygonisa-
Sample Cr Ni Cu Zn As Pb Coa Wa
tion are preserved (Fig. 6F).
Framboidal pyrite (Fig. 5C) is composed of sub- Belle-Brook marcasite
Minimum 34 180 12 17 219 6 195 16.4
spherical to irregular aggregates of framboids typically Maximum 1449 20 157 129 260 6861 27 7010 139
200 to 600 Am in length. Individual framboids are Average 412 5753 70 78 1624 15 3527 60.6
compact and form well-constrained spherical to sub- Number 29 29 29 29 29 29 9 9
spherical masses, ranging from 10 to 40 Am in diameter. Hedgehope marcasite
Framboids are characteristically composed of unor- Minimum 49 449 15 16 1494 6 295 214
Maximum 402 5195 108 40 2666 12 3360 442
dered uniformly sized octahedral pyrite microcrysts Average 185 2291 26 30 1844 8 1628 312
up to 1 Am across. Microcrysts, framboids and fram- Number 11 11 11 11 11 11 3 3
boidal masses are well preserved, with little develop- Samples analysed by XRF, with the exception of ICP-MS for W and
ment of alteration products, evidence of dissolution, or Cr.
a
overall physical degradation. ICP-MS.
538 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545

Fig. 7. Electron microprobe element maps of marcasite from Belle-Brook. (A) Nickel map illustrating elevated Ni in marcasite framboids. (B) Lump
marcasite that is variably recrystallised showing elevated Ni bands that correspond with concentric bands observed under reflected light. (C) Lump
marcasite showing large-scale depletion and enrichment of elevated nickel-rich bands. (D) Massive marcasite featuring colloform style banding of
elevated Ni-rich marcasite. All element maps are 500 Am across, darker colours indicate more elevated Ni concentration.

rare, but well defined, concentric bands observed under
reflected light. Simple concentric compositional bands
occur in individual framboidal marcasite grains (Fig.
7A), whereas complex truncated bands are characteris-
tic of the variably recrystallised lump marcasite (Fig.
7B–D). Nickel-rich bands are 1 to 3 Am wide and
contain up to 12 wt.% Ni (EPMA) as Ni-bearing mar-
casite, with subordinate Co enrichment. Bands contain-
ing both Ni and Co have an average Co : Ni ratio of 0.6
(EPMA analysis, n = 80). Elevated Ni occurs rarely as a
compositionally zoned, crystallographically controlled
overgrowth within some anhedral lump marcasite. Ar-
senic distribution in both fine-grained and anhedral
lump marcasite is less clearly defined, as As is gener-
ally present at, or below, the detection limit of the
microprobe. However, compositionally zoned As-rich
marcasite is observed in rare samples.
Microprobe analysis of euhedral pyrite indicates the
occurrence of rare arsenian pyrite containing up to
1.3 wt.% As. Compositionally distinct overgrowths
were not apparent in the arsenian pyrite, but a Ni-
bearing (6 wt.% Ni) alteration rim was observed for
one euhedral detrital pyrite crystal.
5.4. Sulphur isotope data
Sulphur isotope analysis was carried out on fram-
boidal marcasite (b400 Am in diameter), rounded
framboidal masses (2 to 3 mm in diameter), anhedral
lump marcasite, euhedral pyrite, and euhedral arseno-
pyrite from Belle-Brook. One sample of anhedral
lump marcasite from Hedgehope Stream was also
analysed. Analyses of sulphide minerals show a
wide range in d 34S values, between 45x and
 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545 539

Fig. 8. Distribution of sulphur isotope values for marcasite, pyrite and arsenopyrite from Belle-Brook.

+ 18x (Fig. 8, Table 3). Marcasite samples generally deposits (Youngson and Craw, 1993; Youngson et al.,
have the lowest values (typically less than about 2002; MacKenzie and Craw, 2005). Relatively high-
20x), pyrite samples the heaviest (N 0%) and arse- silver (N 10 wt.% Ag) Au–Ag–Hg alloy occurs sporad-
nopyrite has values in-between. ically in many placers throughout the region, but the
electrum observed from Parker Road contains the most
6. Discussion Ag-rich electrum yet documented in the South Island.
The textures of the coarse nuggetty gold from Belle-
6.1. Gold morphology and composition Brook are ambiguous. Many grains show little or no
transport-induced modification. However, there are no
The morphology of the fine-grained gold at Belle- known auriferous primary sources proximal to Belle-
Brook and Parker Road clearly shows that it is detrital Brook.
(Fig. 3A, B). The gold composition is consistent with Authigenic gold mobilisation and deposition has
derivation from the Otago Schist, where low-silver Au– been inferred for gold particles from many Southland
Ag and Au–Ag–Hg alloys occur in primary and placer and Otago QPC placers (Falconer, 1987; Clough and
Craw, 1989; Craw, 1992; Craw and Youngson, 1993;
Table 3 Youngson and Craw, 1993; Falconer, 2003; Falconer
Sulphur isotope compositions (x) for detrital and diagenetic sul- and Craw, submitted for publication). Authigenic gold
phides from Belle-Brook and Hedgehope Stream in these deposits typically has a low Ag content, and is
Sample number Sulphide description d 34S commonly confined to irregular overgrowths on detrital
Belle-Brook grains. In this study the authigenic addition of gold is
BS-1 Framboidal marcasite 28.6 inferred for silver-free gold rims on the exterior of
B4-17 Anhedral lump marcasite 28.6 approximately 20% of both gold alloy types (Table
B4-1 Anhedral lump marcasite 21.5 1). The porous, sheet-like gold grains from Parker
B4-4 Anhedral lump marcasite 12.1
B4-8 Anhedral lump marcasite 27.4
Road (Fig. 4) are inferred to be entirely authigenic
BFG-1 Fine-grained (b3 mm) lump marcasite 45.4 based on their extremely delicate textures which
B4-20 Recrystallised diagenetic pyrite 2.0 could not survive sedimentary transport. Such discrete
BP-1 Pyrite (detrital) +13.3 grains of authigenic gold have not previously been
BP-2 Pyrite (detrital) 0.9 documented from Southland, although they have been
BP-3 Pyrite (detrital) +16
BP-4 Pyrite (detrital) 8.8
reported from Quaternary eluvial sediments in Central
BA-1 Arsenopyrite (detrital) 9.9 Otago (Craw and Youngson, 1993; their Fig. 4). As
BA-2 Arsenopyrite (detrital) 1.3 with the porous, sheet-like authigenic gold, many of the
Hedgehope smaller inferred authigenic gold forms of this study are
H2-1 Lump marcasite 18.2 of a more spheroidal rather than crystalline nature.
540 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545
However, they commonly have a poorly developed
polygonal appearance and subtle crystallographic con-
trol (Fig. 3E, F).
Jagged-edged particles (Fig. 3I) have been found at
only one locality. Despite their small size, they are
conspicuous in samples because of their particularly
bright and shiny appearance. Rare coarse gold with
intergrown quartz and abundant framboidal pyrite (no
marcasite) are also features of this specific locality.
Although there is no surface expression, faulting is
suspected at this locality based on ground conditions
and groundwater activity (spring) in the sandy–gravely
sediments.
6.2. Origin of sulphide minerals
Approximately 97% of the sulphide minerals exam-
ined in this study are marcasite. This marcasite occurs
in a variety of forms that are considered to be diagenetic
in origin, and formed as an authigenic phase in pore
spaces in the Tertiary non-marine sediments and their
recycled derivatives (QPC). This diagenetic interpreta-
tion is based on morphology (framboidal), together
with the lack of primary or basement source, and is
supported by sulphur isotope data. Both lump and fine-
grained marcasite from Belle-Brook and Hedgehope
that contain Ni and Co enriched bands, had an average
Co : Ni ratio of 0.6, which is consistent with the as-
sumption that Co : Ni values less than one are often
associated with a sedimentary (diagenetic) origin (Lof-
tus-Hills and Solomon, 1967). Use of Co : Ni ratios to
discriminate between different formation environments
is questioned by some workers (Utter, 1978; Raiswell
and Plant, 1980; Meyer et al., 1990). The broad spread
of Co : Ni ratios between 0.1 and 2.9 in this study shows
that the assertions of Loftus-Hills and Solomon (1967)
may be an oversimplification.
There are three main probable inputs of sulphur into
the sediments: (1) atmospheric deposition, (2) weather-
ing of parent material and; (3) plant residue. Atmo-
spheric sulphur reaches soil via sulphate aerosols from
volcanoes and sea spray. Volcanoes are not considered
to be a likely source of sulphur in Southland. High d 34S
values (+ 15x to + 21x) of soluble, adsorbed sulphate
in New Zealand soils (including those in Southland) are
attributed to addition of modern sea spray or precipita-
tion high in marine sulphate (Kusakabe et al., 1976).
This appears to be the case even for sites distant from
the sea with low rainfall. Plant residues have similar
values (about 1x to 3x less) as the soils.
The most significant source of sulphur in most soils
is from minerals, usually locally derived (Krouse et al.,
1996). Some of these minerals will be detrital sulphides
from local formations or they may be authigenic sul-
phides precipitated from dissolved sulphate. Euhedral
pyrite that occurs at Belle-Brook may be from the
Otago Schist, however, Tertiary marine sediments of
Otago and Southland commonly contain pyrite as cubes
and granular masses, and these may also constitute a
source of detrital sulphide in the Southland QPC. In the
Waimumu district, Chatton Marine Formation sedi-
ments are exposed along the northern extension of the
Hedgehope Fault, thus providing a local source of
euhedral diagenetic pyrite. It is also possible that dia-
genetic euhedral sulphides were derived from deltaic
and lower delta plain sediment of the Gore Lignite
Measures overlying the marine strata. Euhedral pyrite
grains from these different sources (Otago Schist, Gore
Lignite Measures and Chatton Marine Formation) are
apparently indistinguishable in terms of morphology.
The wide range of d 34S values ( 45x to +18x)
for sulphides in the Southland QPC suggests varied
sources for sulphur and fractionation effects during
sulphide mineral formation. Possible sources of detrital
sulphides (euhedral pyrite and euhedral arsenopyrite) or
sulphur from weathering of these minerals are: (1) the
Otago Schists (d 34S values 5x to + 1x; Ashley and
Craw, 1995; Craw et al., 1995); (2) pyrite in the Gore
Lignite Measures (d 34S values about 6x; Table 3)
and; (3) the Chatton Marine Formation which is a
potential source of sulphur with values similar to
those in the adsorbed soil sulphate (+ 15x to +21x;
Kusakabe et al., 1976).
Inorganic and microbial sulphate reduction (MSR)
are two important controls on isotope fractionation of
sulphur during diagenesis. Both these processes yield
34
S-depleted sulphide. The sulphur isotope fraction-
ation between sulphate and sulphide is approximately
+22x during inorganic sulphate reduction (Harrison
and Thode, 1958), but laboratory studies have shown
that fractionations are variable and larger during MSR
(up to ca. 45x; Kaplan and Rittenberg, 1964). Still,
larger fractionations (N+ 70x; Canfield and Teske,
1996) have been documented in nature. An enrichment
of the lighter 32S in the hydrogen sulphide as a conse-
quence of MSR during diagenesis results in a
corresponding accumulation of the heavy isotope
(34S) in the residual water. MSR can take place as
long as; organic matter is present to be metabolised
by bacteria; reactive iron is present to neutralise H2S
and; sulphate is available as a reactant.
The low d 34S values of the marcasite in this study
are consistent with a diagenetic or authigenic origin.
The d 34S value of dissolved sulphate from which the
 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545
marcasite would have formed is not known, but the
presence of marine formations (Chatton Marine For-
mation) and the likelihood that sea spray may have
been a source for sulphur, suggest that values would
have been relatively elevated (between +10x and
+ 20x). This indicates sulphate–sulphide fractiona-
tions between + 20x and +60x and that microbial
sulphate reduction was probably the dominant control.
Euhedral pyrite and arsenopyrite, which occur only in
minor quantities (ca. 2 vol.%) in the QPC, have
relatively elevated values ( 10x to + 13x) that
may reflect a detrital or possibly diagenetic/authigenic
from either microbial or inorganic sulphate reduction
of 34S-enriched residual sulphate.
In Otago and Southland, sulphide deposition is part
of the widespread diagenetic processes that occur in
non-marine sediments (Craw, 1994; Youngson, 1995;
Youngson et al., 2006-this volume). These processes
are also responsible for kaolinisation of greywacke
clasts and mobilisation of gold (Clough and Craw,
1989; Craw, 1994). It is likely that the most spectacular
marcasite from Belle-Brook formed by post-Pliocene
authigenic deposition from groundwater in the Pliocene
QPC (Clough and Craw, 1989; Falconer, 2003). A
similar occurrence of authigenic pyrite and marcasite
formation during shallow diagenesis is documented
from Pleistocene sediments within localised sulphate
reducing zones associated with lignite in the Mogothy
aquifer, Long Island, New York (Brown et al., 1999,
2000). Similarly, authigenic framboidal pyrite occurs at
Elliot Lake, Canada, in 30-year old partially saturated
tailings dumps that previously did not contain framboi-
dal pyrite (Paktunc and Davé, 2002).
6.3. Gold textures resembling Witwatersrand gold
textures
Fibrous gold (Utter, 1979) and filamentous gold
(Hallbauer and van Warmelo, 1974; Hallbauer, 1975,
1981; Hallbauer and Barton, 1987) extracted from car-
bonaceous matter (kerogen) is similar to the porous,
sheet-like gold from carbonaceous mudstone at Parker
Road (Fig. 4). The Witwatersrand samples were derived
from ashing carbonaceous material at 500 8C. In con-
trast, the Parker Road gold was hand-panned from
moderately lithified near-surface carbonaceous mud-
stone. However, the gold forms themselves are strik-
ingly similar. A biomineralisation origin involving
prokaryotic communities (i.e., algal and fungal mats)
has been suggested for the Witwatersrand (Grosovsky,
1983; Mossman and Dexter-Dyer, 1985; Mossman et
al., 1999). Li and Sieradzki (1992) document similar,
541
but not sheet-like, porous gold derived as a result of
silver dissolution from Au–Ag alloy.
Some authigenic gold textures described from Belle-
Brook resemble Witwatersrand secondary gold textures
ascribed to metamorphic processes. Linked crystalline
and stepped structures from the Witwatersrand (Minter
et al., 1993) are similar to chain structures and crystal-
line gold forms from this study (Fig. 3E, F and 4F).
Irregular grains with jagged edges are commonly
reported from the Witwatersrand (Hallbauer and Utter,
1977; Utter, 1979; Minter et al., 1993). Although sim-
ilar grains are generally absent from the QPC in this
study, rare very small jagged-edged grains do occur at
Belle-Brook (Fig. 3I).
Compositionally, the gold of this study is similar to
that from the Witwatersrand (Feather and Koen, 1975;
Hallbauer and Utter, 1977; Utter, 1979; Von Gehlen,
1983; Oberthür and Saager, 1986; Reid et al., 1988;
Frimmel et al., 1993; Frimmel and Gartz, 1997). Fine-
grained gold from this study is heterogeneous, in con-
trast to the generally homogeneous Witwatersrand gold.
Limited data from the Belle-Brook coarse-grained gold
indicate that it may be homogeneous.
6.4. Marcasite textures resembling Witwatersrand
pyrite textures
The resemblance of concretionary Witwatersrand
pyrite textures to those commonly exhibited by marca-
site has been noted by a number of workers (Dimroth,
1979; Hallbauer and von Gehlen, 1983; Barton and
Hallbauer, 1996; England et al., 2002). Marcasite tex-
tures resembling oolitic-colloform pyrite documented
by England et al. (2002) are ubiquitous at Belle-
Brook (Fig. 6C–F). England et al. (2002) inferred that
such grains may result from the pyritization of carbon-
ate or evaporite ooids. Similarly, England et al. (2002)
inferred chevron and swallow-tail pyrites to be pseudo-
morphs after gypsum. The occurrence of these styles of
replacement in some places is not disputed. However, at
Belle-Brook, there is no evidence for pseudomorphic
replacement of carbonate, evaporite, or Fe-oxides for
these natural marcasite textures. Many of these
bpseudomorphic replacementQ forms are similar to a
variety of bladed marcasite textures that occur at a
range of scales in recrystallised lump marcasite from
Belle-Brook (Fig. 6A, E). Porous pyrite surrounded by
a pyritic cement, and concretionary pyrite with euhe-
dral-to-subhedral microcryst cores documented by Eng-
land et al. (2002) are similar to the common pyrite–
marcasite association in which pyrite framboids are
surrounded by variously massive to radial marcasite.
542 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545
Witwatersrand pyrite with concentric banding is com-
monly ordered into hexagonal arrays similar to those
observed in Belle-Brook framboidal and anhedral mar-
casite (Figs. 6C, D and 7A). Hence, it is suggested that
at least some of the sulphide textures seen in Witwa-
tersrand sulphides were initially the result of diagenetic
marcasite formation. Although sulphur isotope signa-
tures are probably preserved, it is not known whether
marcasite textures as observed at Belle-Brook could
survive solid state transformation to pyrite at tempera-
tures N160 8C during metamorphism. However, diage-
netic pyrite textures that have survived greenschist
facies metamorphism are commonly reported, and col-
loform banding in diagenetic pyrite has reputedly even
survived granulite facies metamorphism (Park, 1994).
Belle-Brook marcasite is compositionally similar to
porous round pyrite grains from the Witwatersrand in
terms of its elevated Ni and Co levels and Co : Ni ratios
(Meyer et al., 1990). Oscillatory-zoned pyrite from
Witwatersrand orebodies (MacLean and Fleet, 1989)
is similar to the less-common compositional style of
As zoning at Belle-Brook.
6.5. Sulphide stability in a fluvial environment
The detrital nature of rounded Witwatersrand sul-
phides has received much attention, particularly re-
garding their stability during transportation in an
oxygen-poor atmosphere (Krupp et al., 1994; Fleet,
1998; Phillips et al., 2001; England et al., 2002). The
Southland placer environment shows that both marca-
site and pyrite can form by diagenetic processes with-
in millimeter to meter of the surface under an
oxygenated atmosphere (Youngson, 1995; Craw and
Chappell, 1999; Falconer, 2003). Furthermore, these
sulphides can survive erosion and transport in surface
streams, to be reburied in younger sediments. Marca-
site can be transported for at least short distances
under oxic, but acid, conditions and remain stable
without alteration to Fe-oxide. Pyrite and arsenopyrite
can be transported for tens of kilometers in fluvial
systems (Craw et al., 2003).
6.6. Sulphidation textures
The role of sulphidation remains a central issue in
the Witwatersrand debate (Phillips and Myers, 1989;
Reimer and Mossman, 1990; Myers et al., 1993; Phil-
lips and Law, 2000; Phillips et al., 2001). Magnetite,
ilmenite and hematite are generally absent from the
Witwatersrand orebodies (Feather and Koen, 1975).
These Fe and Ti oxides are also rare at Belle-Brook,
but are present elsewhere in Otago and Southland QPC.
Notably, Fe and Ti oxides are abundant in some QPC
material recycled from Gore Lignite Measures at Parker
Road, some 3 km north of Belle-Brook. There is no
textural evidence to support replacement of these miss-
ing Fe and Ti oxides by sulphides at Belle-Brook, or
elsewhere in Otago and Southland placers where they
are scarce (Falconer, 2003; Youngson et al., 2006-this
volume). Consequently, it is considered unnecessary to
invoke a sulphidation process to account for their scar-
city or absence. Although the replacement of Fe and Ti
oxides by leucoxene is suggested by some in the Wit-
watersrand (Feather and Koen, 1975; Reimer and
Mossman, 1990), the lack of leucoxene precludes this
interpretation at Belle-Brook. The resemblance of
bmud-ballQ pyrite to pisolites both in terms of morphol-
ogy and trace element composition has been noted
(Phillips and Myers, 1989; Phillips et al., 2001) but
as suggested in this study, such textures and composi-
tions are common in diagenetic marcasite.
Belle-Brook anhedral marcasite with truncated con-
centric bands occurs as authigenic grains adjacent to
detrital quartz grains (Fig. 6C). Thus, truncated bands
in diagenetic sulphides are not necessarily associated
with transportation, but rather, may be the result of
dissolution processes occurring amongst the precipi-
tating sulphides, detrital quartz and the pore fluid.
However, minor transportation and abrasion of con-
centrically banded sulphides at Belle-Brook would
also result in truncated banding similar to that docu-
mented from the Witwatersrand (MacLean and Fleet,
1989; Fleet, 1998; Phillips et al., 2001; England et al.,
2002).
7. Conclusions
The Belle-Brook and Parker Road gold placers are
characterised by detrital gold and diagenetic sulphides
exposed by small-scale alluvial gold mining in Tertiary
to recent non-marine QPC. At Waimumu the QPC are
unmetamorphosed, poorly lithified, relatively unde-
formed, and are unlikely to have been buried more
than 100 m since deposition. Well-preserved, porous,
sheet-like gold and microscopic gold overgrowths at
Belle-Brook and Parker Road localities suggest authi-
genic gold mobility at the micron and individual-grain
scales. Sulphur isotope data support an authigenic or
early diagenetic origin for marcasite ( 45x to
20x), as it most likely formed from hydrogen sul-
phide produced by microbial sulphate reduction. Pyrite
and arsenopyrite d 34S values ( 1x to + 16x) are
consistent with a detrital origin from the Otago Schist,
 D.M. Falconer et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 28 (2006) 525–545
the Gore Lignite Measures, or formation by inorganic
sulphate reduction from waters with elevated d 34S
values. The sulphide suite at Belle-Brook is dominated
by variably rounded and transported diagenetic marca-
site that features a range of concentric banded textures
locally enriched in Ni F Co. This diagenetic marcasite
is compositionally and texturally similar to the rounded,
concentrically banded pyrite commonly reported from
Witwatersrand QPC. Therefore, the QPC placer envi-
ronment at Belle-Brook, in particular, can be used to
constrain the continuum of sulphide mineral deposition
and transformations that probably also occurred during
diagenesis in ancient fluvial environments.
Acknowledgements
The findings documented are from the first author’s
MSc thesis. Financial support was provided by Univer-
sity of Otago Geology Department research funds.
Expert assistance with SEM analysis was provided by
the South Campus Electron Microscopy Unit, in par-
ticular, M. Gould, S. Johnstone and L. Girvan. Acqui-
sition of microprobe data was facilitated by D. Chappell
and L. Patterson. D. Walls expertly assisted with XRF,
XRD and Gandolfi camera work. B. Pooley, M. Trinder
and S. Read provided technical assistance. We appreci-
ate the assistance of P. Warnes (GNS, Lower Hutt) who
provided analyses of sulphur isotopes. J. Smith is
thanked for access to mine sites and general assistance
in the field. Useful discussions with J. Knight are
gratefully acknowledged. Prompt and constructive
reviews by J. Mauk and G. Els significantly clarified
the manuscript.
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