Basic Functions and Identities

A1 Graphs of the Parent Functions

Identity Square Square Root

f (x) f (x) f (x)

y=x 4 y = x2 4 y= 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
x x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1 –1 –1
–2 –2 –2
–3 –3 –3
–4 –4 –4

Domain: (−∞, ∞) Domain: (−∞, ∞) Domain: [0, ∞)

Range: (−∞, ∞) Range: [0, ∞) Range: [0, ∞)
Figure A1

Cubic Cube Root Reciprocal

f (x) f (x) f (x)

y = 1x
4 3 4 4
y = x3 y=
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
x x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1 –1 –1
–2 –2 –2
–3 –3 –3
–4 –4 –4

Domain: (−∞, ∞) Domain: (−∞, ∞) Domain: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)

Range: (−∞, ∞) Range: (−∞, ∞) Range: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)

Figure A2

Absolute Value Exponential Natural Logarithm

f (x) f (x) f (x)
y= x y = ex y = ln(x)
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
x x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1 –1 –1
–2 –2 –2
–3 –3 –3
–4 –4 –4

Domain: (−∞, ∞) Domain: (−∞, ∞) Domain: (0, ∞)

Range: [0, ∞) Range: [0, ∞) Range: (−∞, ∞)

Figure A3

A-1
A-2 APPENDIX

A2 Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions

Sine Cosine Tangent
y y y
y = sin x y = cos x y = tan x
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
π π
x π π
x π π
x
2π 3π π π 3π 2π 2π 3π π π 3π 2π 2π 3π π π 3π 2π
2 2 –1 2 2 2 2 –1 2 2 2 2 –1 2 2
–2 –2 –2
–3 –3 –3
–4 –4 –4

Domain: (−∞, ∞) Domain: (−∞, ∞) Domain: x ≠ π2 k where k is an odd integer

Range: (−1, 1) Range: (−1, 1) Range: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
Figure A4

Cosecant Secant Cotangent

y = csc x y y = sec x y y = cot x y
8 8 20
6 6 15
4 4 10
2 2 5
x x x
2π 3π π π π π 3π 2π 2π 3π π π π π 3π 2π 2π 3π π π π π 3π 2π
2 2 –2 2 2 2 2 –2 2 2 2 2 –5 2 2
–4 –4 –10
–6 –6 –15
–8 –8 – 20

Domain: x ≠ πk where k is an integer Domain: x ≠ π2 k where k is an odd integer Domain: x ≠ πk where k is an integer
Range: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) Range: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) Range: (−∞, ∞)
Figure A5

Inverse Sine Inverse Cosine Inverse Tangent

y y y
y = sin x −1
y = cos x −1
y = tan−1 x
π π π
2 2
3π 3π 3π
8 2 8
π π π
4 2 4
π π π
8 4 8
3 1 1 3
x 3 1 1 3
x 3 1 1 3
x
2 2 1 2 π 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 π 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 π 2 1 2 2
8 4 8
π π π
4 2 4
3π 3π 3π
8 2 8
π π π
2 2

Domain: [−1, 1] Domain: [−1, 1] Domain: (−∞, ∞)

Range: Range: [0, π) Range:
Figure A6

Inverse Cosecant Inverse Secant Inverse Cotangent

y y y
y = csc x −1
y = sec x −1
y = cot−1 x
3π 3π 3π
2 2 2
π π π
π π π
2 2 2
x x x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
π π π
2 2 2
π π π
3π 3π 3π
2 2 2

Domain: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) Domain: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) Domain: (−∞, ∞)
Range: Range: Range:
Figure A7
 APPENDIX A-3

A3 Trigonometric Identities
Identities Equations
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
Pythagorean Identities 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ
cos(−θ) = cos θ
sec(−θ) = sec θ
Even-odd Identities sin(−θ) = −sin θ
tan(−θ) = −tan θ
csc(−θ) = −csc θ
cot(−θ) = −cot θ
π
sin θ = cos​ ​  _ ​    − θ ​
2
π
cos θ = sin​ ​  _ ​    − θ ​
2
π
tan θ = cot​ ​  _ ​    − θ ​
Cofunction identities 2
π
cot θ = tan​ ​   ​    − θ ​
_
2
π
sec θ = csc​ ​   ​    − θ ​
_
2
π
csc θ = sec​ ​   ​    − θ ​
_
2
sin θ
tan θ = ​​  _    ​​
cos θ
1
sec θ = ​​  _     ​​
Fundamental Identities cos θ
1
csc θ = ​​  _    ​​
sin θ
1 cos θ
cot θ = ​​  _     ​​ = ​​  _ ​​   
tan θ sin θ

cos (α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β

cos (α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
sin (α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
sin (α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
Sum and Difference Identities
tan α + tan β
__
tan (α + β) =  ​​   
    ​​
1 − tan α tan β
tan α − tan β
__
    ​​
tan (α − β) =  ​​   
1 + tan α tan β

Double-Angle Formulas
sin(2θ) = 2sin θ cos θ
cos(2θ) = cos2 θ − sin2 θ
cos(2θ) = 1 − 2sin2 θ
cos(2θ) = 2cos2 θ − 1
2tan θ
tan(2θ) = ​ ________    ​
1 − tan2 θ

Table A1
A-4 APPENDIX

Identities Equations
_________

√​   2 ​ ​  
α 1 − cos α
s in ​  _ ​    = ±​ _______  
2
_________
cos ​   ​    = ±​ ​  
α 1 + cos α
_
2 √ 2 ​ ​  
_______ 

_________

√ 
Half-Angle formulas α 1 − cos α
tan ​  _ ​    = ±​ ​  _______   ​ ​ 
 
2 1 + cos α
sin α
= ​  _______   ​
1 − cos α
1 − cos α
= ​  _______  ​
  
sin α

1 − cos(2θ)
sin2θ = ​  _________
 ​  
 
2
1 + cos(2θ)
Reduction Formulas cos2θ = ​ _________
 ​  
 
2
1 − cos(2θ)
tan2θ = ​ _________ ​  
1 + cos(2θ)

1
cos α cos β = ​​  __  ​​​  cos​ α − β ​ + cos​ α + β ​   ​​
2
1
sin α cos β = ​​  __  ​​​  sin​ α + β ​ + sin​ α − β ​   ​​
Product-to-Sum Formulas 2
1
sin α sin β = ​​  __  ​​​  cos​ α − β ​ − cos​ α + β ​   ​​
2
1
cos α sin β = ​​  __  ​​​  sin​ α + β ​ − sin​ α − β ​   ​​
2

α + β α − β
sin α + sin β = 2 sin ​  ​  _____
2   
 ​  ​ cos ​  ​  _____
2
 ​  ​ 
α − β α + β
sin α − sin β = 2 sin ​  ​  _____
2   
 ​  ​ cos ​  ​  _____
2
 ​  ​ 
Sum-to-Product Formulas
α + β α − β
cos α − cos β = −2 sin ​  ​  _____
2   
 ​  ​ sin ​  ​  _____
2
 ​  ​ 
α + β α − β
cos α + cos β =  2cos ​  ​  _____
2   
 ​  ​ cos ​  ​  _____
2
 ​  ​ 
sin α sin β sin γ
​​  _  ​​ = ​​  _  ​​ = ​​  _
a    b
    c ​​ 
 
Law of Sines
sin a sin b sin c
​​  _ α    ​​ = ​​  _  ​​ = ​​  _
    γ    ​​
β

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bccos α
Law of Cosines b2 = a2 + c2 − 2accos β
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2aacos γ

Table A1