OECD Trends in International Migration 1998 PDF

OECD SOPEMI
TRENDS
IN INTERNATIONAL
MIGRATION
ANNUAL REPORT
1998 EDITION
SOPEMI
TRENDS
IN
INTERNATIONAL
MIGRATION
Continuous Reporting System on Migration
ANNUAL REPORT
1998 EDITION
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
Pursuant to Article 1 of the Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, and which came into force
on 30th September 1961, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) shall promote
policies designed:
– to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in
Member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the
world economy;
– to contribute to sound economic expansion in Member as well as non-member countries in the process of
economic development; and
– to contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, non-discriminatory basis in accordance
with international obligations.
The original Member countries of the OECD are Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany,
Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The following countries became Members subsequently
through accession at the dates indicated hereafter: Japan (28th April 1964), Finland (28th January 1969),
Australia (7th June 1971), New Zealand (29th May 1973), Mexico (18th May 1994), the Czech Republic
(21st December 1995), Hungary (7th May 1996), Poland (22nd November 1996) and Korea (12th Decem-
ber 1996). The Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD (Article 13 of the
OECD Convention).
OECD CENTRE FOR CO-OPERATION WITH NON-MEMBERS

The OECD Centre for Co-operation with Non-Members (CCNM) was established in January 1998 when the
OECD’s Centre for Co-operation with the Economies in Transition (CCET) was merged with the Liaison and Co-
ordination Unit (LCU). The CCNM, in combining the functions of these two entities, serves as the focal point for
the development and pursuit of co-operation between the OECD and non-member economies.
The CCNM manages thematic and country programmes. The thematic programmes, which are multi-country
in focus, are linked to the core generic work areas of the Organisation (such as trade and investment, taxation,
labour market and social policies, environment). The Emerging Market Economy Forum (EMEF) and the
Transition Economy Programme (TEP) provide the framework for activities under the thematic programmes. The
EMEF is a flexible forum in which non-members are invited to participate depending on the theme under
discussion. The TEP is focused exclusively on transition economies. Country programmes, providing more
focused dialogue and assistance, are now in place for Bulgaria, China, Romania, Russia, the Slovak Republic (a
candidate for accession to the OECD), and Slovenia.
Publié en français sous le titre :

TENDANCES DES MIGRATIONS INTERNATIONALES
RAPPORT ANNUEL
 OECD 1998
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FOREWORD
The twenty-third annual report of the OECD Continuous Reporting System on Migration (known under its
French acronym SOPEMI) published as Trends in International Migration, draws in large part on thirty written
contributions from national correspondents, listed at the end of the report, and on the summary of debates
at their latest annual meeting (December 1997). Following Denmark, Ireland and Mexico in 1994, the Slovak
Republic joined the SOPEMI network in 1995, and Korea in 1998.
The 1998 Edition is composed of three parts and a Statistical Annex. Part I describes overall trends in
international migration. It focuses on the magnitude, the nature and the direction of flows. Special attention
is given to changes in the foreign or immigrant population in OECD countries and to the role of immigrants in
the labour market and in the various sectors of economic activity. This section also includes an overview of
migration policies, in particular those relating to the control of flows, the integration of immigrants in host
countries and international co-operation.
Part II consists of country notes describing recent developments in migration flows and policies in
twenty-seven OECD countries and three non-member countries (Bulgaria, the Slovak Republic and Romania).
Part III presents a study on the temporary employment of foreigners in several OECD countries. It compares
the different categories of these workers as well as the conditions of their admission and recruitment.
This volume is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD.
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GENERAL INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Part I
MAIN TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
A. MIGRATION, POPULATION AND THE LABOUR MARKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1. Trends in migration movements and changes in the foreign population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2. Immigration and population growth in OECD countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3. Immigrants and the labour market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
B. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN ASIA AND CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1. Migration flows of Asian origin to OECD countries and the impact of the financial crisis
in Asia on migration flows between Asian countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2. Recent migration trends in Central and Eastern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
C. AN OVERVIEW OF MIGRATION POLICIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1. Policies for regulating and controlling flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2. Policies for integrating immigrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3. Migration, international co-operation and economic development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Part II
RECENT CHANGES IN MIGRATION MOVEMENTS AND POLICIES
(COUNTRY NOTES)
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Luxembourg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Slovak Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 5
TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
Part III
REPORT ON THE TEMPORARY EMPLOYMENT OF FOREIGNERS
IN SEVERAL OECD COUNTRIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
1. The general characteristics of temporary employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
2. Conditions of recruitment and residence of the main categories of temporary workers . . . . . . . . . . 188
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Appendix: Recruitment conditions and conditions for staying of the main categories of temporary
foreign workers for selected OECD countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
STATISTICAL ANNEX
A. SOURCES AND COMPARABILITY OF MIGRATION STATISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

1. Sources of migration statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
2. Measurement of migration flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
3. Stocks of migrants and characteristics of the immigrant population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
B. STATISTICAL SERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
1. Introduction to the Statistical Annex tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
2. Tables of the Statistical Annex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
LIST OF SOPEMI CORRESPONDENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
6
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF CHARTS AND TABLES
Part I
Charts
I.1. Inflows of foreign population relative to the stocks of foreign and total population
in selected OECD countries over the last 10 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
I.2. Immigration flows into selected OECD countries by main categories in 1990 and 1996 . . . . . . . 18
I.3. Inflows of migrants by country of origin to selected OECD countries, latest available year . . . 19
I.4. Average annual inflows of asylum seekers to OECD countries in 1986-1990, 1991-1995
and 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
I.5. Components of total population growth in selected OECD regions and countries, 1960-96 . . . 24
I.6. Natural increase and net migration in OECD countries, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
I.7. Share of foreign births in total births relative to the share of foreigners in the total
population in selected OECD countries, 1980 and 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
I.8. Foreign-born and foreign labour force, 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
I.9. Change in total and foreign employment by major industry division between 1993 and 1997
in selected European OECD countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
I.10. Share of foreigners or foreign-born in total unemployment relative to their share
in the labour force, 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Tables
I.1. Projected old-age dependency ratios for 2010 and 2020 in OECD countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
I.2. Foreign or foreign-born population and labour force in selected OECD countries . . . . . . . . . . . 31
I.3. Stocks of European Union citizens and total foreigners in the European OECD countries,
total population and labour force, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
I.4. Maghrebian, Turkish and former Yugoslavian residents in selected European
OECD countries, total population and labour force, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
I.5. Participation rates and unemployment rates in selected OECD countries by sex, place
of birth and nationality, 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
I.6. Comparative development of total employment and employment of foreigners
between 1993 and 1997 and fragility indicator for foreign employment in selected European
OECD countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
I.7A. Stock of Asian nationals in selected OECD countries in 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
I.7B. Stock of immigrants born in an Asian country in Australia, Canada and the United States . . . . 44
I.8A. Foreign residents who are nationals of central and eastern European countries in selected
European OECD countries, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
I.8B. Immigrants born in central and eastern European countries residing in selected
OECD countries, latest available year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
I.9. Central and Eastern Europe: economic indicators, 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
I.10. Main regularisation programmes of immigrants in an irregular situation in selected
OECD countries, by nationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Part II
(COUNTRY NOTES)
Charts
II.1. Flows of permanent and long-term residents, Australia, fiscal years 1982/83-1996/97 . . . . . . . . 78
II.2. Components of population change, 1983-1996, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 7
II.3. Work permits and foreign employment, 1980-1996, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

II.4. Population and net migration change, 1983-1996, Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
II.5. Inflows of permanent settlers by entry class and region of origin, 1980-1997, Canada . . . . . . . . 92
II.6. Share and concentration of foreign employees by economic activity, 1997, France . . . . . . . . . . 106
II.7. Migration flows of foreigners, 1960-1996, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
II.8. Components of German population change, 1970-1996, nationals and foreigners . . . . . . . . . . . 109
II.9. Change in employment and unemployment in Germany, 1981-1997, total population
and foreigners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
II.10. Trends and characteristics of migration, Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
II.11. Migration flows and components of foreign population change, 1980-1996, Netherlands . . . . . . 140
II.12. Demographic characteristics of permanent emigrants, 1990-1996, Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
II.13. Migration flows and acceptances for settlement, 1986-1996, United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Tables
II.1. Permanent and temporary migration programme outcomes, 1994-1997, and 1998 planning
levels for permanent settlers, by category, Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
II.2. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks
of foreign population and labour force, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
of foreign population and labour force, Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
II.4. Immigrant landings by type, 1993-1997, Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
II.5. Current figures on flows and stocks of migrants, Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
II.6. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Denmark . . . . . . . 97
II.7. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Finland . . . . . . . . . . 100
II.8. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, France . . . . . . . . . 103
of foreign population and labour force, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
II.10. Residence permits issued to foreigners, by country of origin, 1993-1996, Greece . . . . . . . . . . . 114
II.11. Current migration figures, Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
II.12. Demographic characteristics of permanent foreign residents and naturalised persons,
30 June 1997, Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
II.13. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . 124
II.14. Current figures on foreign population, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
II.15. Regularisation requests of immigrants in an irregular situation, three last regularisation
progammes, by region of residence, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
II.16. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Japan . . . . . . . . . . 129
II.17. Estimates of foreign workers in Japan by status of residence, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
II.18. Stock of foreign population in Korea by nationality, 1986, 1994-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
II.19. Foreign workers in Korea by category, 1993-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
of foreign population and labour force, Luxembourg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
II.21. Mexican emigration to the United States, 1911-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
II.22. Inflows of temporary visitors for business under NAFTA, by category and nationality,
1994-1996, Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
II.23. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Netherlands . . . . . . . 142
II.24. Foreign-born population by birthplace, 1 January 1996, Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
II.25. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population, Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
II.26. Permanent immigration and emigration, 1993-1996, Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
II.27. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Portugal . . . . . . . . . . 152
II.28. Regularisation programmes of immigrants in an irregular situation by country of origin,
1992-1993 and 1996, Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
II.29. Current migration figures, Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8 II.30. Current migration figures, Slovak Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
TABLE OF CONTENTS
II.31. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
II.32. Regularisation programmes of foreigners in an irregular situation, 1991 and 1996, Spain . . . . . 165
II.33. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Sweden . . . . . . . . 167
of foreign population and labour force, Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
II.35. Number of Turkish workers sent abroad by the National Employment and Placement Office,
by country or region of destination, 1993-1996, Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
II.36. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, United Kingdom . . . 175
II.37. Employment-based immigration, by preference, fiscal years 1993-1996, United States . . . . . . . 180
II.38. Non-immigrants admitted by class of admission, fiscal years 1994-1996, United States . . . . . . 182
Part III
IMMIGRATION AND SOCIAL TRANSFERS: ANALYTICAL ISSUES AND RECENT RESULTS
Tables
III.1. Inflows of temporary skilled workers by main category in selected OECD countries, 1992-1996 189
III.2. Inflows of seasonal workers in selected OECD countries, 1992-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
III.3. Inflows of foreign trainees in selected OECD countries, 1992-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9
STATISTICAL ANNEX
A. Cross national tables
A.1. Foreign and/or foreign-born population: stocks and flows

A.1.1. Inflows of foreign population into selected OECD countries, 1986-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
A.1.2. Outflows of foreign population from selected OECD countries, 1986-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
A.1.3. Net migration of foreign population in selected OECD countries, 1986-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
A.1.4. Inflows of asylum seekers into selected OECD countries, 1987-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
A.1.5. Stocks of foreign-born population in selected OECD countries, 1990-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
A.1.6. Stocks of foreign population in selected OECD countries, 1986-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
A.1.7. Acquisition of nationality in selected OECD countries, 1988-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
A.2. Foreign or foreign-born labour force: stocks and flows
A.2.1. Inflows of foreign workers into selected OECD countries, 1986-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
A.2.2. Inflows of seasonal workers into selected OECD countries, 1986-1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
A.2.3. Stocks of foreign and foreign-born labour force in selected OECD countries, 1986-1996 . . . . . . 227
B. Tables by country of origin
B.1. Foreign and/or foreign-born population: stocks and flows

B.1.1. Inflows of foreign population by nationality
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Luxembourg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
B.1.2. Outflows of foreign population by nationality
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
B.1.3. Net migration of foreign population by nationality
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
B.1.4. Inflows of asylum seekers by nationality
Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
TABLE OF CONTENTS
B.1.5. Stock of foreign-born population by country of birth

Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
B.1.6. Stock of foreign population by nationality
Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
B.1.7. Acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Luxembourg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
B.2. Foreign or foreign-born labour force: stocks and flows

B.2.1. Foreign-born labour force by place of birth
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
B.2.2. Stock of foreign labour by nationality
Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Luxembourg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Notes related to the tables of the Statistical Annex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
11
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The analysis of the recent trends in migration movements confirms that a reduction in legal immigration
flows has taken place in the majority of the OECD Member countries over the past four years. Immigration for
family reasons continues to predominate although temporary migration is gaining in importance, notably that
concerning the highly qualified; for the OECD area considered as a whole, the number of requests for asylum
has been diminishing. The persistence of irregular migration indicates clearly, however, that host and origin
countries are encountering difficulties in controlling migration flows (see Part I.A).
Migration plays a decisive role in the annual population growth of many OECD countries. However, given
the fluctuational nature of migration movement volumes and the large scale of net migration that would be
required to maintain constant old-age dependency ratios, sole reliance on the contribution of net migration
to reduce or stem demographic decline is inherently problematic.
Foreign labour is becoming increasingly present in the service sector. The proportion of foreigners in
self-employment has also increased in some of the Member countries. The supply of foreign labour has
adapted in response to the needs of the labour market. Female labour immigration has grown, as have
foreign womens’ participation rates, in particular of those born in the host country. However, despite the
upturn in economic activity, foreigners’ vulnerability to unemployment remains higher than that of nationals.
The forthcoming enlargement of the European Union to include countries from Central and Eastern
Europe has aroused some concern regarding the possibility of uncontrolled immigration flows which could
result from it. These fears would be abated somewhat were the membership process to be accompanied by
transitional measures postponing the free movement of persons to a date beyond that of the countries’ entry
into the Union; such arrangements have been made in the past. In the meantime, it is likely that further
bilateral agreements governing the movement of persons will be signed, not only with the prospective
members but also with their neighbours. Many Central and Eastern European countries are endeavouring to
put into place migration policies which, with regard to the entry of refugees, the stay and employment of
foreigners, and the control of borders, conform to EU standards (see Part I.B).
The objectives of regulating and controlling flows form the basis of an important part of migration policy
(see Part I.C). The Member countries of the OECD have adopted a more restrictive attitude regarding the
entry and stay of foreigners, notably by tightening the rules governing family reunion and by establishing
more selective criteria for new immigrants. Through the implementation of stricter border controls, by the
conducting of workplace inspections and by the practice of identity checks inside the country, the fight
against illegal immigration has taken on a greater dimension. As a complement to such measures,
programmes for regularising undocumented foreigners have taken place recently in Italy, Spain, Greece
and France.
Alongside the control of flows, OECD Member countries have reaffirmed their desire to accelerate the
integration of immigrants already present. Language instruction and aid towards orienting new arrivals
feature among the priority measures. Job training and easing the access of youths and the unemployed into
the labour market are other fundamental elements of integration policies, likewise are measures designed to
combat the discrimination which immigrants might encounter.
In the area of international co-operation, beyond that directed at gaining a better control of migration
flows, measures have been carried out with the objective of involving a larger number of Member countries in
activities likely to prevent conflict in politically volatile regions. Regional economic integration and trade
liberalisation also feature among those measures which, over the long term, under the impetus of sustainable
development accompanied by significant employment creation, could reduce the incentive to emigrate in 13
those countries with high emigration potential. The Association Agreements signed by the European
Community with the Central and Eastern European countries and with the countries of the Maghreb were
drawn up in this context. This is equally the case with the process of economic integration under way in
North America within the framework of NAFTA.
* * *
Part II of this report presents detailed country notes on the recent developments in migration move-
ments and policies.
Part III touches on a topical subject considered as a high priority by the member countries of the OECD:
the temporary employment of foreigners. Such employment enhances labour market flexibility and favours
the movements of trainees, managers and specialists. This chapter includes a comparative analysis of the
conditions relating to the recruitment and stay of the principal categories of temporary workers. The regimes
which prevail in the eight Member countries examined are shown to be quite diverse.
14
Part I
The following analysis of the main trends in is widening. Although in several European OECD
international migration has been divided into three countries the economic upturn noticeable since
sections. The first looks at changes in migration 1996 has been accompanied by a reduction in for-
movements, in the total and foreign populations of eigners’ unemployment rates, this reduction has
the countries considered and in the situation of for- been less marked than that experienced by
eigners in the labour market. The second section nationals.
focuses on two regions, Asia and Central and Eastern
Europe. An overview of migration policies is
1. Trends in migration movements and changes
presented in the third section in the course of which
in the foreign population
measures to better control and regulate flows and to
promote the improved integration of immigrants in Recent developments in migration movements
host countries are examined. Finally, particular in OECD countries confirm two trends that began in
attention is accorded to the links between migration 1993. After the increase in immigration flows during
and economic development. the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, one
observes (with the exception of a few countries) a
A. MIGRATION, POPULATION reduction in the number of immigrant entries. In
AND THE LABOUR MARKET addition, the diversification of the modes of entry
used by immigrants and the increase in the number
The analysis of migration movements confirms of nationalities involved continues. At the same
that a reduction in legal immigration flows has taken time, however, traditional flows persist and the
place in the majority of OECD countries over the regional character of migration is intensifying. Three
past four years. The number of requests for asylum additional characteristics of recent migration trends
declined over the entire OECD area. Immigration for merit attention: the decline in the number of asylum
family reasons continues to predominate although claims, the predominance of flows linked to family
temporary migration is gaining in importance. How- reunion and the increasing relative importance of
ever, the persistence of irregular migration, the vol- temporary and highly-skilled workers in the total
ume of which is by definition impossible to deter- flows.
mine with precision, indicates clearly that host and
origin countries are encountering difficulties in con-
trolling migration flows. a) Decline of legal immigration flows
In spite of the reduction in the flows, immigra- During the 1980s and at the beginning of the
tion still plays a significant role in annual population current decade, inflows increased in almost all
growth. The proportion of foreign births in total OECD countries (see Statistical Annex, Table A.1.1).
births is high and the foreign or foreign-born popu- However, for several of them, 1993 marked a turning
lation is growing and diversifying. Even though the point: the flows levelled off (Belgium, Denmark,
inflows are displaying a declining tendency, foreign Finland, Luxembourg, Norway and the United
or immigrant labour nonetheless maintains a visible Kingdom) or fell back sharply (Germany, Sweden,
presence in the labour market; in the majority of Switzerland and France). In Japan, Australia, Canada
OECD countries this presence is spreading across an and the United States, after a marked decline in the
increasing number of sectors. Overall, there contin- flows in 1993 and 1994, a mild recovery began, most
ues to exist a gap between the unemployment rates noticeably in Australia and the United States. Nev-
of foreigners and of nationals. Indeed, this disparity ertheless, the documented inflows registered by 15
these four countries remained inferior to the peak period. Finally, the remaining countries included in
recorded in 1992. the chart share the common feature of having
received over the course of the last fifteen years, as
Germany emerges as Europe’s principal immi-
a proportion of the total population, the largest
gration country with inflows of foreigners approach-
immigration flows. These flows have ranged
ing 700 000 in 1996. However, the size of these
between 5 and 10 per thousand in the case of
inflows merits qualification: not only do these flows
Germany, 10 and 15 per thousand in that of
include close to 120 000 asylum requests, the regu-
Switzerland, and 20 and 25 per thousand in that of
lations governing inclusion in Germany’s population
Luxembourg. Concerning this last group, one notes
registers are framed in such a way that many people
that although, in absolute terms, Germany receives
who spend only a short period in the country are
the greatest number of foreigners, it is in
entered onto the registers. These two reasons
Luxembourg and Switzerland that the inflows of for-
largely explain, moreover, Germany’s high levels of
eigners, as a proportion of the total population, are
outflows which in 1996 totalled 560 000. The volume
the largest.
of immigration flows in the other European countries
which possess the relevant statistics is markedly In 1996 (or in the most recent year for which
lower in absolute terms, ranging from between data are available), for the majority of the countries
200 000 entries for Austria and the United Kingdom under consideration, entry flows as a proportion of
to 75 000 for the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the total population stood at a level equal to or
France. Of the non-European Members of the OECD, below that recorded ten years earlier. The excep-
the United States has experienced the most signifi- tions are Luxembourg, Canada, Denmark and Japan.
cant increase in inflows (close to 30 per cent Denmark is the only country where the volume of
between 1995 and 1996). Australia, Japan and inflows for the most recent available year (1995) was
Canada registered much smaller increases, of higher, in relative terms, than during any of the pre-
respectively 13, 7 and 6 per cent. ceding ten.
In Chart I.1, the countries of the OECD are If one relates the inflow data to the foreign or
ranked (in descending order) by their immigration immigrant population rather than to the total popu-
flows per thousand of the total population for the lation (see the left-hand side of Chart I.1), the rank-
most recent available year. The years considered ings alter slightly. This is most notably the case for
are 1986, 1996 (when the data are available) and the Finland, Japan, Denmark and Norway, countries
peak year of the preceding ten. The countries are where the proportion of foreigners in the total popu-
clearly divided into four groups. The first group con- lation was relatively small prior to the rapid growth
sists of Japan, Finland, France and Hungary, coun- in inflows which occurred between 1986 and 1992. In
tries where inflows of foreigners have accounted these four countries, the volume of foreign inflows
over the period 1986-96 for a very small percentage relative to the foreign population has varied widely
of the total population, fluctuating according to the over the period: in Denmark and Norway it has
year at between 1.25 and 2.50 per 1 000 inhabitants. ranged from between 10 and 20 per cent; in Japan
In the second group, which comprises Norway, the (1992) and Finland (1991) it has reached peaks of
United Kingdom, the United States and Sweden, respectively 22 and 47 per cent. With the exceptions
inflows of foreigners or immigrants as a proportion of of Luxembourg, Denmark and Hungary, all the OECD
the total population vary according to the year at countries which appear in this chart experienced in
between 2.50 and 4 per thousand. In Norway, this the mid-1990s their highest volume of inflows as a
proportion varied considerably between 1986 and proportion of the foreign population.
1988 due to a huge inflow of asylum seekers; in For European countries with a long-standing
Sweden the same phenomenon occurred in 1994. In history of immigration and where the percentage of
the United States, a similar rise took place between foreigners in the total population is relatively high
1989 and 1992 as a result of the upsurge in entry (Luxembourg, Switzerland, Germany and Sweden), it
registrations following the implementation of the is only in Germany – due to the magnitude of immi-
amnesty programme enacted in 1986. gration flows between 1987 and 1992 – that the vol-
In Denmark, Australia, Belgium and the ume of entries has been relatively high as compared
Netherlands, countries in the third group, inflows of to the foreign population, varying between 10 and
foreigners or immigrants as a proportion of the total 20 per cent over the period, a sharp decline having
16 population hovered around 5 per thousand over the taken place from 1992 onwards.
◆ Chart I.1. Inflows of foreign population relative to the stocks of foreign and total population
in selected OECD countries over the last 10 years1
Per 100 foreigners and per 1 000 inhabitants at the beginning of the year2
Per 100 foreigners/immigrants Per 1 000 inhabitants Per 100 foreigners/immigrants Per 1 000 inhabitants
20 10 0 10 20 20 10 0 10 20
1986 1986
Luxembourg 1992 1993 Norway
1995 1996
1986
1992
Switzerland 1992 United Kingdom
1996
1996
1986
1986
1991 United States
Germany 1992
1996
1996
1986 1986
Canada 1993 1994 Sweden
1996 1996
20 10 0 10 20 20 10 0 10 20
Per 100 foreigners/immigrants Per 1 000 inhabitants Per 100 foreigners/immigrants Per 1 000 inhabitants
20 10 0 10 20 20 10 0 10 20
1986 1986
Denmark 1991 1992 Japan
1995 1996
(47.1)
1986
1991
Australia 1991 Finland
1996
1996
1986
1986
1992 France3
Belgium 1994
1996 1996
1986 1988
Netherlands 1993 1990 Hungary4
1996 1996
20 10 0 10 20 20 10 0 10 20
Note: Countries are ranked by decreasing order of the inflows per 1 000 inhabitants during the latest available year. Data for Australia, Canada and the United States
refer to inflows of permanent settlers, for France, to issues of certain types of permits and, in 1996, estimates of other flows (mainly inflows of European Economic
Area family members). For the United Kingdom, the data are based on entry control at ports of certain categories of migrants. For all other countries, figures are
from population registers or registers of foreigners. Counts for the Netherlands, Norway and especially Germany include substantial numbers of asylulm seekers.
For more details on sources, refer to the introduction to the Statistical Annex.
1. The selected years are 1986 and 1996, if available, and the year in the 90’s with the highest inflows. Fiscal years for Australia (July to June of the given year) and for
the United States (October to September of the given year).
2. For Australia and Canada, inflows of permanent settlers as a per 100 foreign-born people during the last 3 censuses (1986, 1991 and 1996). For the United States,
inflows of permanent settlers as a per 100 foreign-born people in 1980 and 1990 (Censuses) and in 1996 (estimates from the Current Population Survey).
3. The inflows of foreign population relative to the stock of foreign population ratio is calculated using the two last censuses stock data (1982 and 1990) and the
estimates from the 1996 Labour Force Survey.
4. The inflows of foreign population relative to the stock of foreign population ratio is not calculated for 1988 and 1990 because stock data on foreign population are
only available from 1994 on.
Source: National Statistical Offices. 17
b) Predominance of family immigration centage of total inflows at respectively 45 per cent

and over 30 per cent in 1996. This percentage is
The proportion of total immigration accounted close to 20 per cent in Canada and France (where
for by each of the component flows (workers, accom- the figures cover only foreign workers). In other
panying families, family reunion and refugees) dif- countries, including the United States, the figure is
fers widely from one country to another. That said, in rather lower. In fact, in Sweden labour immigration
almost all the countries of the OECD, inflows related accounts for only one per cent of total inflows.
to family reunion and to family members accompa-
nying workers predominate. Chart I.2 confirms this
trend and shows that the family component has c) Diversification in regions of origin
gained in importance in Australia, France, the and the continuation of traditional flows
United Kingdom, the United States and Sweden. In
Canada, the relative share of family members A comparison of permanent migrant entries into
accompanying foreign workers accounts for approxi- certain OECD countries for the most recent available
mately half of the total family-linked immigration year by country of origin reveals three trends (see
flows. In Denmark and Sweden refugee flows Chart I.3 and Statistical Annex, Tables B.1.1). The
account for the greatest proportion of the total first of these is the confirmation of a new predomi-
inflows. In Switzerland, Australia, Denmark and the nance or of an increase in the part played by certain
United Kingdom, refugee flows account for a greater nationalities in recent inflows. The importance of
proportion of the total inflows than they did in 1990. immigrant arrivals from Asian countries is a case in
As for labour immigration, it is in Switzerland and in point, particularly from the Philippines, China,
Australia (countries where workers and their accom- Hong Kong (China), India, Pakistan and Vietnam for
panying family members are grouped together) that the United States, Japan and Canada. The latter
this category of inflow represents a sizeable per- country received in 1996 close to 30 000 Hong Kong
◆ Chart I.2. Immigration flows into selected OECD countries by main categories1 in 1990 and 1996
Percentages of total inflows
Workers Family reunification
Family members Refugees

accompanying workers
0 20 40 60 80 100 Note: Countries are ranked by decreasing order of the percentage of

workers in total inflows.
United Kingdom2 92 1. For Australia, Canada, the United States and Sweden, data concern
96 acceptances for settlement. For Denmark, Switzerland and France,
entries correspond to residence permits delivered in general for a
Switzerland 90 period longer than one year. For the United Kingdom, data are
96 based on entry control at ports of certain categories of migrants
(excluding European Economic Area citizens). For Switzerland,
Australia3 91 France, Denmark and Sweden, family members accompanying
97 workers are included under “Family reunification”. For Australia,
“Workers” include accompanying dependents.
Canada4 90 2. Passengers, excluding European Economic Area nationals, admitted
96 to the United Kingdom. The data only include certain categories of
migrants: work permit holders, spouses and refugees (excluding
residents returning on limited leave or who previously settled). The
France5 91
96 category “Workers” include Commonwealth citizens with a United
Kingdom born grandparent who are taking or seeking employment
(UK ancestry).
Denmark6 90 3. Data refer to fiscal years (July to June of the given year). Excluding
96 the Special Eligibility programme. The category “Workers” include
the accompanying dependents.
United States7 92 4. Excluding retirees.
96 5. Inflows of family members of EU citizens are estimated in 1996.
6. Excluding Nordic and EU citizens .
Sweden6 90 7. Data refer to fiscal years (October to September of the given year).
96 Excluding immigrants who obtained a permanent residence permit
following the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act.
18 0 20 40 60 80 100 Source: National Statistical Offices.
◆ Chart I.3. Inflows of migrants by country of origin to selected OECD countries, latest available year1
As a per cent of total inflows2
Australia Belgium Canada

0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
New Zeal. (13.1) Netherlands (7.8) H K (China) (29.9)
UK (9.6) France (6.6) India (21.2)
China (7.8) Morocco (4.0) China (17.5)
Former Yug. (5.3) Germany (3.2) Chin. Taipei (13.2)
H K (China) (3.9) United States (3.0) Philippines (12.9)
South Africa (3.2) UK (2.8) Pakistan (7.7)
Vietnam (3.0) Italy (2.7) Sri Lanka (6.1)
Philippines (2.8) Turkey (2.5) United States (5.8)
India (2.7) Former Yug. (2.5) Iran (5.8)
Chin. Taipei (2.2) Portugal (1.8) UK (5.6)
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Denmark3 Finland France

0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Former Yug. (16.6) 50.9 Russian Fed. (2.0) 26.9 Algeria (7.8)
Somalia (1.5) Estonia (0.7) Morocco (6.6)
Iceland (1.2) Sweden (0.6) Turkey (3.4)
Germany (1.0) Iraq (0.5) United States (2.7)
Iraq (1.0) Bos. Herz. (0.4) Tunisia (2.2)
Norway (0.9) Somalia (0.3) Former Yug. (1.3)
UK (0.9) United States (0.2) Japan (1.1)
Turkey (0.8) UK (0.2) Zaire (0.9)
Sweden (0.8) Iran (0.2) Sri Lanka (0.9)
United States (0.6) Germany (0.2) Haiti (0.8)
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Germany Japan Luxembourg

0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Poland (77.4) China (45.6) Portugal (2.4) 25.1
Turkey (73.2) Philippines (30.3)

France (1.5)
Italy (45.8) United States (27.9)
Belgium (0.9)
Former Yug. (42.9) Brazil (22.4)
Portugal (32.0) Korea (17.1) Germany (0.6)
Russian Fed. (31.9) Thailand (6.6) Italy (0.5)

Greece (18.8) UK (6.4)
Netherlands (0.3)
Romania (17.1) Canada (4.5)
United States (0.3)
Hungary (16.6) Chin. Taipei (4.4)
United States (16.3) Germany (4.1) Spain (0.1)
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 19
◆ Chart I.3. (cont.) Inflows of migrants by country of origin to selected OECD countries, latest available year1
As a per cent of total inflows2
Netherlands Norway Sweden

0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Turkey (6.4) Sweden (2.9) Finland (2.6)
Germany (5.7) Denmark (1.6) Iraq (2.1)
UK (4.3) Bos. Herz. (1.0) Norway (1.5)
Morocco (4.3) UK (0.9) Denmark (1.4)
Former Yug. (3.4) United States (0.9) Bos. Herz. (1.2)
United States (3.1) Germany (0.6) United States (1.1)
Surinam (2.8) Pakistan (0.5) Turkey (1.1)
Belgium (1.9) Somalia (0.4) UK (0.9)
France (1.7) Sri Lanka (0.4) Former Yug. (0.8)
Poland (1.4) Turkey (0.3) Iran (0.8)
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Switzerland United Kingdom4 United States

0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Former Yug. (14.1) United States (43.2) Mexico (163.6)
Germany (8.7) Australia (25.1) Former URSS (62.8)
Portugal (5.5) India (13.0) Philippines (55.9)
Italy (5.4) South Africa (12.9) India (44.9)
France (5.0) New Zealand (11.0) Vietnam (42.1)
Turkey (3.4) Japan (10.8) China (41.7)
United States (2.9) Pakistan (7.8) Dom. Rep. (39.6)
UK (2.4) Canada (7.4) Cuba (26.5)
Spain (2.0) Philippines (6.8) Jamaica (19.1)
Netherlands (1.4) Poland (3.6) Haiti (18.4)
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Notes: The top ten source countries are given by decreasing order. The abbreviation H K (China) means Hong Kong (China); New Zeal.: New Zealand; UK: United
Kingdom; Chin. Taipei: Chinese Taipei; Bos. Herz.: Bosnia Herzegovina; Dom. Rep.: Dominican Republic; Russian Fed.: Russian Federation; Former Yug.: Former Yugoslavia.
Data for Australia, Canada and the United States refer to inflows of permanent settlers by country of birth, for France, to issues of certain types of permits and
estimates of other flows (mainly inflows of European Economic Area family members). For the United Kingdom, the data are based on entry control at ports of
certain categories of migrants. For all others countries, figures are from population registers or registers of foreigners. Counts for the Netherlands, Norway and
especially Germany include substantial numbers of asylum seekers. For more details on sources, refer to the introduction to the Statistical Annex.
1. Fiscal year for Australia (July 1996 to June 1997) and the United States (October 1995 to September 1996), 1995 for Denmark and Luxembourg and 1996 for the
other countries.
2. The figures in brackets are inflows in thousands.
3. Including 16 000 former Yugoslavs already in the country who have been recognised as refugees.
4. Passengers, excluding European Economic Area nationals, admitted to the United Kingdom. The data only include certain categories of migrants: work permit holders,
spouses and refugees (excluding residents returning on limited leave or who previously settled).
Source: National Statistical Offices.
(China) nationals; although the figure was slightly In the case of Germany, Austria and the four
down on those of the previous two years, Hong Kong Scandinavian countries (if we abstract from the
remains at the top of Canada’s list of source coun- movements of these countries’ nationals, particu-
20 tries for new entrants. larly those of Norway and of Sweden), East-West
flows account for the greater part of the total flows, nent basis. For example, in a number of OECD coun-
with Poles predominating in Germany, nationals of tries an ad hoc status was granted to Bosnians,
the former Soviet Union in Finland and those of the accompanied generally by social assistance and the
former Yugoslavia in Denmark, Switzerland, Sweden right of access to the labour market. In France, tem-
and Norway. In 1996, the United States experienced, porary residence authorisation has been provided
for the second consecutive year, an increase in the to Algerians forced to leave their country.
number of entrants from the former Soviet Union
From the middle of the 1980s through to the
(63 000, an increase of almost 15 per cent on 1995)
beginning of the 1990s (see Statistical Annex,
for it to retain its position as the second most impor-
Table A.1.4) applications for asylum rose noticeably,
tant source country, after Mexico. In 1996, nationals
sometimes spectacularly (Germany, Austria, Canada,
of Australia and the United States comprised the
the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the United
overwhelming majority of entrants to the United
Kingdom and the United States). Chart I.4 illustrates
Kingdom.
the changes over the last decade in the average
The second obvious trend is the persistence of annual inflows of asylum seekers, respectively over
traditional migration flows. This is the case notably the periods 1986-90, 1991-95 and for the year 1996.
in Switzerland where new immigrants come mostly During the first half of the 1990s the average annual
from the former Yugoslavia, Germany and inflows of asylum seekers was relatively high, most
Southern Europe. In France, nationals from North notably in Germany and the United States; in
Africa (Maghreb) account for an important share of Canada, France and Austria the same phenomenon
flows, although their numbers are lower than in the was observed during the previous period. In 1996,
previous two years. Entries of Algerians were the Germany and the United States had, in absolute
most significant in 1996, followed by Moroccans. In
the United Kingdom immigrants from Pakistan, India
and Bangladesh no longer feature at the top of the
list of source countries. Nevertheless, the volume of ◆ Chart 1.4. Average annual inflows of asylum seekers
entries from these three countries increased in to OECD countries in 1986-90, 1991-95 and 1996
1996 in comparison with the previous year. In the Thousands
case of Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom,
Canada, the Netherlands, Switzerland and France, 1986-90 1991-95 1996
the United States appears in the list of the top ten
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
source countries.
The third and final key trend, the reduction in United States
the relative proportion of flows to Australia, Canada (254.4)
Germany
and the United States originating from Europe,
began in the 1980s; the new data merely confirm it United Kingdom
(see Statistical Annex, Tables B.1.1).
Canada
d) Asylum claims continue to decline Netherlands

for the OECD area as a whole
Switzerland
In OECD countries, in principle, the arrival of
refugees and that of asylum seekers do not occur in France
quite the same way. The arrival of refugees is gener-
ally organised within the framework of government Belgium
programmes negotiated either with specialised

Austria
international organisations or with countries which
are sheltering the refugees. Asylum seekers, on the Australia
other hand, most often apply for refugee status
(which they do not necessarily obtain) either on arri- Others
val at the border or when already present within the

0 25 50 75 100 125 150
country. In addition, OECD countries authorise cer-
tain persons, for humanitarian reasons, to remain in
Sources: United Nations High Commissioner on Refugees and OECD. 21
the country either temporarily or on a more perma-
terms, the highest number of asylum seekers, fol- demand for temporary foreign workers is growing.
lowed by the United Kingdom and Canada. In fact, The use of temporary foreign labour enhances host
looking at asylum applications across the OECD area countries’ labour market flexibility and helps to alle-
as a whole, one observes that Germany received viate sectoral labour shortages. Temporary migra-
proportionately the largest number of asylum seek- tion also has other advantages, particularly in the
ers. The available data for 1996 indicate that in rela- short-term. During a period of restricted immigra-
tive terms the United States has overtaken tion, it may be a means of reducing the employment
Germany. Modifications to the German constitution of foreigners in an irregular situation. Moreover, it
implemented in 1993 rendering its provisions relat- avoids, in part, the sanctioning of permanent immi-
ing to asylum seekers more restrictive have indeed gration with its attendant welfare costs and the
led to a sizeable decline in the number of asylum necessity of implementing integration policies.
applications addressed to Germany from that date. Finally, temporary employment also promotes the
Faced with an increasing number of asylum movement of managerial staff and highly skilled
seekers, the OECD countries have reacted by workers. Given the scale that temporary movements
speeding up the processing of applications and by of labour have recently taken (this includes those of
introducing certain restrictive measures, among qualified and highly qualified workers), Part III of
them the extension of visa requirements to a larger this report is devoted to this phenomenon.
number of countries. The majority of countries have
also decided to restrict asylum applications, except 2. Immigration and population growth
for special cases, to persons from countries that
in OECD countries
have not signed both of the United Nations Conven-
tions provided they have not previously passed Migration plays a significant role in the annual
through a country that has signed them. population growth of many OECD countries. First of
The measures taken to stem the flow of new all, the presence of a foreign or foreign-born popula-
arrivals (for more details see Section C on migration tion contributes to the natural increase in the popu-
policies), combined with the low rate of acceptance lation (excess of births over deaths). The higher the
for refugee status applications have, with the excep- fertility of foreign women relative to natives the
tions of the United States and the United Kingdom, more significant is this contribution. Second, when
led to a sharp fall in the number of asylum requests net migration is positive, the population of the host
since 1993 (see Statistical Annex, Table A.1.1). The country grows by the same amount.
Netherlands, which had registered continuous
growth in the number of requests accepted, wit- In the following section the contribution of
nessed substantial declines both in 1995 and 1996. migration will be examined from the perspective of
In 1997, however, applications increased. In the its impact on total population growth. Special atten-
United Kingdom, asylum requests increased in tion will then be given to births to foreigners or to
1994 and 1995. Although the 1996 implementation of persons of foreign origin and to the relationship
new legislative measures was accompanied by a between population ageing and migration. Finally,
sharp reduction in applications, they rose again in an analysis of changes in the foreign or immigrant
1997. Finally, as several countries of Central and populations in OECD countries will highlight the
Eastern Europe have signed the Geneva Convention growth which has taken place in this population
they recognise and can therefore accord refugee sta- and confirm its trend towards increasing
tus to applicants. Alongside the end of the civil war diversification.
in the former Yugoslavia, this also explains the
decline in requests observed across the whole of
a) The components of total population growth
the OECD area.
In order to explain the respective contributions
e) Temporary labour migration of net migration and the rate of natural increase to
and the migration of highly-qualified workers total population growth, the evolution of these com-
ponents over the past three decades in the princi-
The admission of permanent foreign workers is pal OECD geographic regions will be examined and
currently very limited, particularly into the European a description of the current situation in the Member
22 Member countries of the OECD. However, the countries will be presented.
Main demographic trends: a regional approach A more detailed analysis by country for
1996 (see Chart I.6) reveals that Ireland, Iceland and
Chart I.5 covers the period 1961-96. It shows the
Japan have registered negative net migration; in the
relative contributions of net migration (nationals
case of Japan this has been combined with a rela-
and foreigners) and of natural increase (excess of
tively low rate of natural increase. Germany, Italy
births over deaths) to the total population growth of
and the Czech Republic have in common a negative
the countries of the European Union and other
natural increase rate and positive net migration. In
Member countries of the OECD. This time-series
Sweden as in Greece, it is due to net migration that
analysis illustrates the general trend of a slowdown
the population increased in 1996. In New Zealand,
in demographic growth. One will observe, however,
Luxembourg and Canada, population growth is
that the rates of population growth at the beginning
being driven more by the positive net migration
of the period are clearly higher in Turkey, Australia
than by the natural increase, itself relatively high.
and the United States compared to the countries of
Mexico and Turkey are the OECD countries with the
the European Union and Japan where the demo-
highest natural rates of population growth (28 and
graphic decline is much more marked. The increase
15 per thousand respectively). Turkey’s slightly pos-
in immigration flows in Europe, noticeable between
itive net migration indicates that return movements
1989 and 1992, failed to reverse the demographic
of Turkish expatriates outweigh the emigration flows.
decline.
By contrast, due to the sizeable volume of emigra-
In the United States (and also in Canada), the tion flows in 1996, Mexico recorded high negative
natural increase in the population (per 1 000 inhabi- net migration.
tants) is the principal component of total population
growth. The contribution of net migration has hardly Population growth in other European OECD
changed over the period studied except between countries has in general been rather weak. In the
1979 and 1981 and between 1992 and 1993. The Netherlands, Norway, France, Switzerland, the
natural increase fell sharply between 1961 and United Kingdom and Finland it has been driven
1973 and remained, on average, at the level of largely by the natural increase whereas in Denmark,
7.5 per 1 000 inhabitants through to 1990 at which Austria, Greece, Portugal and Spain the contribution
point it began to decline. In Australia, the natural of net migration has predominated.
increase in the population has steadily declined This analysis points to the conclusion that over
over the past three decades but, as in the case of a long period (be it by region or by country) and by
the United States (and Canada), it still remains the cross section (by country, in 1996), natural increase
principal component of total population growth. is more important than net migration in total popu-
In the countries of the European Union, the sit- lation growth in OECD countries. This is true not
uation is more contrasted. At the beginning of the only in countries which have experienced large emi-
1960s, the relative share of the natural increase in gration flows, such as Ireland, Portugal, Spain, New
total population growth was larger than that of net Zealand, Turkey and Mexico, but also in settlement
migration. From 1967 onwards, net migration grew countries such as Canada and the United States and
while the natural increase continuously declined. to a lesser extent Australia. This is also the case in
Between 1987 and 1991, the relative contribution of other European countries (France, the Netherlands,
net migration grew rapidly following an acceleration the United Kingdom) where immigrants have
in immigration flows. The trend was then reversed. tended to prolong their stay and settle and where
However, over the whole of the European Union the entries have been running at lower levels than in
relative contribution of net migration remains more previous decades. The settlement of immigrants
important than that of the natural increase, in con- and members of their families has contributed, by
trast to the situation prevailing in the United States, means of foreign births or by those of foreign origin
Turkey, Japan and Poland. (see below), to the increase in the dominant role of
the natural increase’s contribution to population
Turkey too is experiencing a relatively high nat-
growth.
ural rate of population growth, approximately
15 per thousand in 1996, a sharp reduction, however, The acceleration of migration movements has
on the 1970s figure of 24 per thousand. Moreover, played a non-negligible role in population growth in
due to the return of former emigrants, net migration certain of the OECD Member countries. This is nota-
in Turkey is slightly positive, in contrast to the situa- bly the case in Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Italy,
tion in Poland. Portugal and Spain. The trend is all the more 23
◆ Chart I.5. Components of total population growth in selected OECD regions and countries,
1960-1996
Per 1 000 inhabitants at the beginning of the year
Natural increase rate Net migration rate
European Union (15 members) Poland

15 15
10 10
Per 1 000
5 5
Per 1 000
0 0
-5 -5
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Australia United States

15 15
10 10
Per 1 000
Per 1 000
5 5
0 0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Japan Turkey
25 25
20 20
15 15
Per 1 000
Per 1 000
10 10
5 5
0 0
-5 -5
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
24 Source: Labour Force Statistics, OECD, 1997.

◆ Chart I.6. Natural increase and net migration in OECD countries,1 1996
Per 1 000 inhabitants as of 1 January 1996
3 3
Denmark
Net migration (per 1 000)

Netherlands
Greece
2 Austria 2
Norway
Portugal
France
New Zealand
10 1 United Kingdom 1
Luxembourg Spain
Canada Belgium Finland Switzerland
Australia
Net migration (per 1 000)
Sweden Poland
5 0 0
0 1 2 3 4
Germany Natural increase (per 1 000)
United States
Italy
Turkey
0 Czech 0
Rep. Japan
Ireland Iceland
-5 -5
Note: The net migration figures are calculated using
annual population estimates and national figures
Mexico 2 for births and deaths.
-10 -10 1. The data for Korea and Hungary are not available.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 2. The data are for 1990.
Natural increase (per 1 000) Source: Labour Force Statistics, OECD, 1997.
marked in those countries where fertility rates are account for a sizeable percentage of total births; this
low (Germany, Italy, Greece, Switzerland and percentage is often higher than that of foreigners in
Portugal). In the settlement countries, such as the total population. Foreign births contribute to the
Canada, the United States and Australia, which con- natural increase in the population and can therefore
tinue to receive substantial numbers of new immi- act as a brake on demographic ageing. However, this
grants each year, it may well be that the predomi- is not an inevitable result and depends essentially
nance of family immigration among total inflows and on a continuing succession of migration waves. A
the younger age structure of the new arrivals exerts sustained halt to new immigration could eventually
over the short and medium term a marked effect on lead to a marked reduction in these beneficial
the natural rate of increase in the population. effects insofar as the fertility rate of foreign women
tends to converge with that of nationals.
The analysis of the changes in the components
of population growth in OECD countries also reveals
that migration movements fluctuate significantly in Measuring foreign births
volume. Indeed, this component of population It is difficult to obtain comparable data on for-
growth is very much dependent on migration policy eign births as the term ‘‘foreign’’ may apply to the
and modifications to it in each country. The fluctua- child or to the parents. When reference to the par-
tional nature of migration movement volumes ents is made in the definition, the number of foreign
explains why it would be difficult to rely on the births will vary according to whether the criterion
contribution of net migration to reduce or stem the adopted is the nationality of both parents, of the
marked demographic decline currently occurring in father or of the mother. Generally, since fertility is
many of the OECD countries (see below). studied in relation to women, the nationality of ref-
erence chosen is that of the mother. In Belgium,
b) Foreign births: a brake on demographic Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and
ageing Switzerland, foreign births are those of children pos-
sessing foreign nationality. In France and Sweden,
In several European OECD countries, births to for example, foreign births are those born to female
foreign nationals and to persons of foreign origin foreign nationals, in Japan those where both parents 25
are foreign nationals, and in the United Kingdom Luxembourg (nearly 42 per cent in 1996) and
they are those to mothers born outside the country. Switzerland (23 per cent in 1996). In France,
Data based solely on births to foreign mothers do Germany, Sweden and the United Kingdom
not adequately reflect the contribution to total (England and Wales only), foreign births in
births linked to the presence of the foreign popula- 1996 accounted for between 10 and 13 per cent of all
tion or that of foreign origin. Moreover, in general, births. In Sweden, Switzerland, Luxembourg,
the degree to which the legislation on naturalisa- Germany and, albeit to a lesser extent, in Japan the
tions is more or less liberal can either speed up or foreign share of total births was greater in 1996 than
slow down the process of absorption of foreigners in 1980; the reverse was true for the four other coun-
into the national population and thereby reduce or tries examined.
increase the number of foreign births.
Except in Belgium and Japan, in 1996 the for-
eign share of total births was in every case higher
Foreign births as a proportion of total births compared
than the proportion of foreign nationals in the total
to the proportion of foreigners in the total population
population (more than twice in Sweden, more than
The share of foreign births is occasionally very one and a half times in France and the
high (see Chart I.7). This is the case, for example, in United Kingdom and only slightly less in
◆ Chart I.7. Share of foreign births1 in total births relative to the share of foreigners
in the total population in selected OECD countries, 1980 and 1996
Share of foreign births

1980 1996
in total births (%)
0 1 2
10.2
Sweden 13.0
10.2
France
Increase
10.1
15.3
Switzerland 22.8
0.6
Japan 0.9
13.3
United Kingdom2 12.6
10.9
Germany3 13.3
Decrease
7.5
Netherlands 6.1
Luxembourg 37.1
41.9
15.5
Belgium4 7.8
0 1 2
1. Foreign births are births of children of foreign nationality for Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland. For France and Sweden, foreign births
are births to a foreign mother, for Japan, to foreign parents. For England and Wales, foreign births refer to those to mothers born outside the United Kingdom. The data
for Japan and Germany refer to 1989 and 1991 respectively instead of 1980. The data for Sweden refer to 1993, for France and the United Kingdom to 1995 instead of
1996.
2. Data refer to England and Wales. Births are relative to the share of the foreign-born in the total population.
3. Data cover Germany as a whole in 1991 and 1996.
4. Between 1980 and 1996, the drop in the number of foreign births can be explain by changes in nationality laws in 1985 and 1992.
Sources: Data on births are from civil register; data on population are from population registers for all countries except for France (1982 census and 1995 Labour Force
26 Survey), and the United Kingdom (Labour Force Survey).
Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany and working-age population by 2020 would be limited. If
Luxembourg (see Chart I.7). A number of explana- anything, this type of scenario presents the prospect
tions can be put forward to account for the variations of a period of even greater social costs through
observed over the past 16 years, the relative impor- increased education and child care requirements.
tance of which depend on the country concerned: That said, the long-term benefits of permanent
higher or lower levels of net migration; differences in increases in fertility are obvious in that they eventu-
fertility rates between nationals and foreigners; dif- ally shift the age structure of the population back
ferences in distribution by age and by sex of the towards younger and more economically active age
foreign and national populations; and changes to groups.
laws concerning the acquisition of nationality.
Increased immigration possesses the advantage
of having an immediate and relatively strong impact
c) Ageing populations and migration on the working age population due to the young age
In spring 1998 the OECD published a report on structure of net migration. In addition, fertility rates
ageing populations, Maintaining Prosperity in an Ageing amongst immigrant women are often relatively high
Society. The report highlights the prospect of rising which can help to boost fertility and hence long-run
shares of the elderly in the population and falling population growth. However, there are a number of
shares of the population in employment to support practical and political constraints in formulating an
pension and health systems. The report suggests immigration policy aimed at achieving demographic
that the range of possible demographic outcomes change. A number of these difficulties were outlined
over the next three decades is fairly limited with in Migration; The Demographic Aspects (OECD, 1991).
migration and fertility only capable of partial allevia- This publication drew three broad conclusions:
tion of the problem. In the following, the reasons for i) immigration policy cannot easily be fine-tuned to
this view are investigated. Also, some of the practi- precise demographic objectives due to difficulties
cal and political issues in implementing an effective in controlling the volume and composition of net
demographic cum labour market orientated immigra- migration; ii) simulations of the impact of immigra-
tion policy are reviewed. tion typically show that extremely high volumes of
Ageing populations are caused by declining fer- immigration, much greater than at present, would be
tility and reduced rates of mortality amongst the required to completely offset ageing processes,
elderly population. Declining fertility shifts the com- such as growth in old-age dependency ratios; and
position of the population towards older cohorts; iii) immigration policy is only one of a number of
reduced mortality rates tend to extend the life ways in which the economic burden of the elderly
expectancy of the elderly populations. Whilst these can be reduced and is unlikely to rank first among
processes have been going on for some time in the possible means of tackling the problem.
many countries, OECD Member countries have Turning to the first of these issues, the most
reached a particularly advanced stage. Shares of the obvious point is that policy usually has control over
elderly in the total population, which are already at the volume of immigration and no control over the
high levels, are set to increase further, particularly volume of emigration, thus making control of net
after around 2010 when the first of the baby-boom migration difficult. In addition, a number of factors
generations begins to retire. There are two feasible both limit and complicate the ability to control
ways of slowing down or reversing these demo- immigration: the existence of free-circulation agree-
graphic trends: increases in fertility or net migration ments, the persistence of illegal immigration,
of relatively young (and preferably economically humanitarian commitments and other obligations
active) individuals. such as the admission for residence on the basis of
A reversal in the long-term decline in fertility family ties. Whilst a number of these issues could be
trends would gradually provide a slow-down and factored into policy design it is clear that a degree of
even reverse ageing by increasing the number of uncertainty would remain as to the final outcome.
births. However, the effect would only be gradual Finally, practical means for monitoring net migration
and would do little to offset the rapid growth in vary across countries. Populations registers (main-
elderly populations. For example, were fertility to tained by many European countries) provide a fre-
increase rapidly from the year 2000 onwards, only quent and relatively accurate account of interna-
the population of those aged under 20 would have tional migration, although not without difficulties. In
been affected by 2020. As a result, the impact on the other countries regular estimation is more problem- 27
atic, inflows are often measured by entry permits of working-age would be required for the depen-
(thus excluding those who do not need a permit) dency ratio in 2020 of 33 persons aged 65 and over
and outflows are commonly estimated from a variety for every 100 persons aged 15 to 64 to be at the
of sources. 2010 ratio of 26. In comparison, the fourth column of
this table shows that over the 10 years between
Although net migration usually has a relatively
1985 and 1995 total net migration in France was
young age-profile, policymakers may wish to
around 600 000. This suggests that even if migration
emphasise this further in pursuit of demographic
only increased the working-age population (e.g.
objectives. However, there are limits on the extent
through a short-term temporary worker program),
to which this can be achieved. For example, commit-
the number of immigrants required to offset growth
ments on refugee intakes cannot (by definition) be
in the dependency ratio would have to be very large
selective on demographic and economic grounds
compared with current migration levels.
and the ability to be selective with regard to
dependants and relatives may be limited. In addi- In addition to the likelihood of large volumes of
tion, it has been suggested that the targeting of net migration being required to maintain constant
immigration by age or fertility behaviour could be old-age dependency ratios, such targets often
viewed as a form of discrimination. How seriously require wide fluctuations in immigration over time,
this point would be taken in policy debate is likely implying a stop-go type of immigration policy which
to vary, depending on the philosophy and character would be difficult to manage. As a final note, simula-
of existing immigration policy. tions also illustrate the fact that at a certain point in
the projection, significant numbers of immigrants
One way of avoiding some of these issues
themselves begin to reach retirement age, providing
would be to use a strictly applied temporary worker
another boost to growth in the share of the elderly
programme as a more direct means of providing
in the population.
increased employment during periods of rapid
growth in elderly populations or decline in working- In sum, immigration policy could only act as a
age populations. However, historical precedents partial and somewhat imprecise means of reducing
suggest that such programmes are difficult to man- the ageing process in populations. In addition to
age. Although most countries have mechanisms these practical constraints, the motivation for such a
which cater for temporary labour migration, ex post policy may be rather weak. First, a significant shift in
many immigrants entering under these programmes immigration policy to increase employment levels
remain in the country on a permanent basis, either and reduce the economic burden of the elderly on
by change of status, or through continual renewal of the population is only likely if labour-supply
temporary permits, or as illegal residents. shortages are widespread and self-evident to both
the government and the public. In this regard, the
In addition to these practical difficulties, simu-
existence of high levels of structural unemployment
lations of population scenarios have shown that the
and the potential for increased female labour force
volume of net migration required to completely off-
participation in a number of OECD countries sug-
set growth in elderly populations is typically very
gests that employment growth could remain fairly
large, much greater than historic levels of immigra-
strong without recourse to increased immigration
tion. For example, hypothetical demographic scena-
intakes. The report Maintaining Prosperity in an Ageing
rios which calculate the volume of migration
Society stressed, among other recommendations, the
required to maintain a constant old-age depen-
reverseal of trends towards early retirement.
dency ratio often show that there would be periods
during which extremely large volumes of immigra- Second, immigration policy is often politically
tion would be required. By way of illustration, sensitive and even if all evidence points to a desira-
Table I.1 shows projected old-age dependency ble shift in stance, this may be thwarted by a fear on
ratios for 2010 and 2020, a period where many coun- the part of governments to engage in debate or by
tries are predicted to experience large increases in the debate itself destroying the prospect of execut-
elderly populations due to the retirement of ‘‘baby- ing timely and effective policy. However, there is
boom’’ generations. The third column in Table I.1 is usually some flexibility within existing legislation
a calculation of the additional working age popula- that allows variation in the volume and composition
tion that would be required in 2020 for the old-age of immigration intakes as well as choice in the distri-
dependency ratio to remain at the 2010 value. For bution of resources across the range of activities
28 example, in France, an additional 11 million persons related to immigration policy.
Table I.1. Projected old-age dependency ratios1 for 2010 and 2020 in OECD countries
Ratio of those Additional working

aged 65 and over age population required Estimates
to those aged 15 to 64 in 2020 for old-age of net migration
(%) dependency ratio for period
to remain at 2010 levels 1985 to 19952
2010 2020 (thousands)
Australia 19.0 24.6 4 380 930

Austria 22.9 27.8 1 210 310
Belgium 25.1 31.3 1 620 150
Canada 20.4 28.0 8 600 1 490
Czech Republic 18.8 26.4 2 650 –20
Denmark 24.5 29.9 750 90
Finland 24.2 34.2 1 340 60
France 25.6 33.0 10 950 630
Germany 27.7 30.0 4 700 4 560
Greece 29.6 33.6 900 420
Hungary 21.7 26.8 1 420 –130
Iceland 18.3 23.7 60 –10
Ireland 18.4 24.8 840 –190
Italy 30.4 36.4 6 760 850
Japan 32.3 42.0 22 350 –140
Korea 12.7 16.7 11 670 ..
Luxembourg 23.0 27.9 60 30
Mexico 9.0 11.7 24 970 ..
Netherlands 22.4 31.0 4 040 340
New Zealand 18.1 22.4 720 –20
Norway 22.7 28.8 780 80
Poland 16.6 22.9 10 090 –280
Portugal 25.1 29.0 980 –290
Spain 26.2 30.6 4 280 –80
Sweden 27.9 34.2 1 290 280
Switzerland 24.6 31.7 1 430 370
Turkey 9.9 12.4 13 940 1 290
United Kingdom 25.0 30.1 7 640 720
United States 19.2 25.4 66 410 5 800
1. Old-age dependency ratios calculated from medium variant projections in United Nations (World Population Prospects, the 1996 Revision).
2. Estimates of net migration calculated as residual of population change and natural increase published in Labour Force Statistics (OECD).
Sources: World Population Prospects, the 1996 Revision, United Nations; Labour Force Statistics, OECD, 1997.
Third, the potential for either increased fertility new immigration programmes, and a change in
or migration as instruments for reducing the eco- approach to immigration policy would be required.
nomic burdens generated by the effects of rapid
increases in elderly populations in the next two or
three decades is fairly limited. That said, concern d) Changes in the foreign or immigrant
about this issue, combined with a more general population in OECD countries
desire to offset longer-term demographic trends For the European OECD countries and likewise
may induce a change in policy. One advantage for Korea and Japan, the most detailed statistics on
immigration has over fertility is that it has the poten- the foreign population refer to the nationality of
tial to provide a relatively rapid and timely residents, be they in the host country or abroad.
response to shorter-term demographic and eco- Thus people born in the country may be counted
nomic concerns. However, the ease with which coun- among foreigners, while others born abroad (and
tries may shift the focus of immigration policy who are therefore immigrants) may have acquired
towards demographic objectives varies widely. the nationality of the host country and are thus no
Some countries already have a comprehensive and longer counted as members of the foreign popula-
co-ordinated approach to immigration, including tion. In Australia, Canada and the United States, the
explicit age-related selection criteria for some cate- criterion is not that of nationality but of country of
gories of immigrant. Other countries may find that birth. A distinction is made between those born 29
abroad (‘‘foreign-born’’) and those born in the coun- United Kingdom) and 9 per cent (Belgium). In the
try (‘‘native-born’’). This approach enables the num- new immigration countries such as Spain, Italy,
ber of immigrants residing in the country to be cal- Portugal and Finland, the proportion of foreigners
culated, whatever their nationality. Certain remains small (between 1 and 2 per cent) the large
European countries such as Denmark, the increase in entries over the last decade
Netherlands, Norway and Sweden have begun to notwithstanding.
publish statistics on the number of people born The foreign population has grown considerably
abroad by country of birth (see Statistical Annex, in Germany (an increase in excess of 60 per cent
Tables B.1.5). over the period 1986-96) due principally to a
Variations over time in the number of immi- marked acceleration from 1989 onwards in the immi-
grants or foreigners do not follow a uniform pattern gration flows from the countries of Central and East-
across countries. Such variations are dependent, ern Europe. The foreign population has also
inter alia, on migration policy, on entries and depar- increased in the United Kingdom, Switzerland,
tures, on the demographics of the foreign popula- Sweden and Austria. In Japan, although the foreign
tion and on the number of naturalisations (which population increased by approximately 60 per cent
correspondingly reduces the stock of foreigners). between 1985 and 1996, the percentage of foreign-
Nonetheless, in nearly all of the OECD countries the ers in the total population remains low (just over
foreign or immigrant population continues to 1 per cent). Similarly, although the number of for-
increase. It is also clear that the extension of the eigners resident in Korea has more than tripled over
geographical sphere of reference of international the course of the last ten years, the percentage of
migration, a consequence of the political and eco- foreigners remains (at 0.3 per cent) one of the lowest
nomic changes which have taken place over the last of the OECD Member countries.
decade, is reflected in the diversification of the
composition by nationality of foreign populations
and in the greater dispersion of immigrants of the ... and is becoming more diversified
same origin across host countries. In general, the composition by nationality of the
foreign or immigrant population (see Statisti-
The foreign or foreign-born population is increasing... cal Annex, Tables B.1.5 and B.1.6) varies across host
countries depending on migration traditions, the
Compared with the situation which prevailed in extent and nature of existing networks established
the mid-1980s, the share of foreigners and foreign- by previously installed migrant communities,
born in the total population has increased in the employment opportunities and the geographical
majority of OECD countries, the exceptions being proximity of the respective origin countries.
Belgium and France (due in part to sizeable levels The political and economic developments of
of naturalisations). the last decade, notably the liberalisation of popu-
In Australia and Canada, immigrants accounted lation movements in Central and Eastern Europe,
for a high percentage of the resident population in have extended the geographical sphere of reference
1996 at close to 25 per cent and over 17 per cent of international migration (see the later sections
respectively. In the United States the figure was devoted to developments in Central and Eastern
9 per cent (see Table I.2). In this latter country the Europe and in Asia). In particular, they have led to
immigrant population increased by almost 6 million the emergence of new flows and an increase in the
between the last two censuses (1980 and 1990), as diversity of origin countries. As a result, both the
compared to a little over one million in Canada and composition by nationality of the foreign population
just under 700 000 in Australia over the intercensal within host countries and the dispersion of migrants
period 1986-96. of the same origin across different host countries
The foreign presence in the total population have modified.
varies widely across the European OECD countries In the countries of the European Union, the pro-
(see Table I.2). It is relatively high in Luxembourg portion of foreigners who have come from non-EU
and Switzerland – 33 per cent and 19 per cent countries has increased. As part of this overall trend,
respectively in 1995. In the other traditional immi- certain origin countries have emerged as being
gration countries, the proportion of foreigners in the important or seen their importance increase relative
30 total population varies between 3.5 per cent (the to others of longer standing in the region. In
Table I.2. Foreign or foreign-born population and labour force in selected OECD countries
Thousands and percentages
Foreign population and labour force
Foreign population1 Foreign labour force2
Thousands % of total population Thousands % of total labour force
19863 19964 1986 1996 19865 19966 1986 1996
Austria 315 728 4.1 9.0 155 328 5.3 10.0

Belgium 853 912 8.6 9.0 270 341 6.8 8.1
Denmark 128 238 2.5 4.7 60 84 2.1 3.0
Finland 17 74 0.4 1.4 .. 19 .. 0.8
France 3 714 3 597 6.8 6.3 1 556 1 605 6.5 6.3
Germany 4 513 7 314 7.4 8.9 1 834 2 559 6.8 9.1
Ireland 77 118 2.2 3.2 33 52 2.5 3.5
Italy 450 1 096 0.8 2.0 285 332 1.3 1.7
Japan 867 1 415 0.7 1.1 .. 6307 .. 0.9
Luxembourg 97 143 26.3 34.1 598 1188 35.6 53.8
Netherlands 568 680 3.9 4.4 169 218 3.2 3.1
Norway 109 158 2.6 3.6 499 559 2.3 2.6
Portugal 95 173 1.0 1.7 46 87 1.0 1.8
Spain 293 539 0.8 1.3 58 162 0.4 1.0
Sweden 391 527 4.7 6.0 215 218 4.9 5.1
Switzerland 956 1 338 14.7 19.0 56710 70910 16.4 17.9
United Kingdom 1 820 1 972 3.2 3.4 815 878 3.4 3.4
Foreign-born population and labour force (census data)
Foreign-born population11 Foreign-born labour force11
Thousands % of total population Thousands % of total labour force
198612 1996 1986 1996 198612 199613 1986 1996
Australia 3 247 3 908 20.8 21.1 1 901 2 239 25.4 24.6

Canada 3 908 4 971 15.4 17.4 2 359 2 681 18.5 18.5
United States 14 080 24 600 6.2 9.3 7 077 14 300 6.7 10.8
1. Data are from population registers except for France (census), Ireland and the United Kingdom (Labour Force Survey), Japan and Switzerland (register of
foreigners) and Italy, Portugal and Spain (residence permits).
2. Data include the unemployed except for Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway and the United Kingdom. Data for Austria, Germany and Luxembourg
are from Social Security registers, for Denmark and Norway from the register of population and the register of employees respectively. Data for Italy,
Portugal, Spain and Switzerland are from residence or work permits. Figures for Japan and the Netherlands are estimates from National Statistical Offices.
For the other countries, data are from Labour Force Surveys.
3. 1982 for France; 1988 for Portugal.
4. 1990 for France.
5. 1988 for Norway, Portugal and Spain; 1991 for Italy.
6. 1995 for Denmark.
7. Data are estimates and include Japanese descents, students and illegal workers.
8. Including cross-border workers.
9. Excluding the self employed.
10. Number of foreigners with an annual residence permit or a settlement permit who engage in gainful activity. Seasonal and cross-border workers are
excluded.
11. Data are from censuses except for the United States in 1996 (estimates from the Current Population Survey).
12. 1980 for the United States.
13. 1991 for Canada.
Sources: National Statistical Institutes.
Germany, for example, this observation applies to in Finland, in Norway and in Sweden as newer for-
nationals of the countries of Central and Eastern eign communities have increased in size: Asians
Europe and the former Soviet Union, in France to (Pakistanis, Vietnamese, Iranians and Sri Lankans)
Moroccans and Senegalese, and in the Netherlands and Turks in Norway and Sweden; and nationals of
to nationals of the former Yugoslavia. As for the Nor- the former Yugoslavia in Finland, Norway and
dic countries, the proportion of foreigners who have Sweden. These transformations reflect not only the
come from neighbouring countries has diminished changes in the origins of the flows but also the 31
changes in their nature (an increase in the number order of importance, in Luxembourg (89 and 94 per
of asylum seekers). cent), Ireland (73 and 80 per cent) and Switzerland
(61 and 67 per cent). At the opposite end of the
Regarding immigration in the countries of
scale, with the corresponding percentages of 11 and
Southern Europe, two characteristics stand out:
8, Austria had the lowest proportions in both.
there exists a sizeable group of immigrants from the
developing countries of Africa and Asia, and another In Australia, Canada and the United States, the
of foreign residents from Europe, North America and proportion of European residents has declined in
Latin America. These flows differ markedly in nature: favour of immigrants from the developing countries
the former, partly clandestine, is essentially (see Statistical Annex, Tables B.1.5). In the United
(unskilled) labour migration; the latter is linked to States, the number of European residents has fallen
multinational firms and to foreign direct investment while that of immigrants from Asia (see the later
together with flows of retired persons. In Portugal, section on Asian migration) and from the American
for example, the largest foreign community is continent have increased. Between 1980 and
African, originating from Portugal’s former colonies 1990 the number of Asian and Central American
and from other countries of Portuguese language nationals grew very rapidly; the Mexican community
and culture such as Cape Verde and Angola. The doubled.
second largest group is comprised of European
In Canada, the number of Europeans fell
Union and United States nationals.
sharply between 1981 and 1996 while the immigrant
Regarding the European countries of the OECD population of Asian provenance doubled. The same
(see Table I.3), the highest percentages of EU (at phenomenon has been observed in Australia: con-
15 members) nationals, as a proportion respectively spicuous growth in immigration flows from Asia, New
of their total foreign population and of their foreign Zealand and Africa, while those of European prove-
labour force, were to be found in 1996, in decreasing nance remained stable.
Table I.3. Stocks of European Union citizens and total foreigners in the European OECD countries,
total population and labour force, 1996
Total foreign population of which: European Union
% of foreign
% of foreign labour % of total
% of total EU labour force
Thousands force in total Thousands foreign
population in total foreign
labour force population
labour force
Austria 681 8.6 9.8 99 14.5 12.9

Belgium 841 8.3 8.1 513 61.0 72.4
Denmark 158 3.0 2.2 36 22.8 38.7
Finland 46 0.9 0.8 8 17.4 15.8
France 3 390 6.0 6.3 1 103 32.5 38.4
Germany 7 109 8.8 8.9 1 855 26.1 31.4
Greece 133 1.3 1.8 15 11.3 10.7
Ireland 116 3.3 3.6 84 72.4 79.2
Italy 162 0.3 0.4 27 16.7 15.3
Luxembourg 140 34.1 40.4 125 89.3 89.9
Netherlands 701 4.6 3.8 205 29.2 46.4
Norway1 158 3.6 2.6 64 40.7 ..
Portugal 105 1.1 1.1 21 20.0 17.0
Spain 262 0.7 0.8 129 49.2 41.9
Sweden 449 5.1 4.4 122 27.2 46.7
Switzerland2 1 338 19.0 17.9 817 61.1 67.7
United Kingdom 1 930 3.3 3.5 778 40.3 43.9
Note: Except for Norway and Switzerland, data are based on the Community Labour Force Survey (Eurostat) and are not strictly comparable to data published
in Table I.2 and in the Statistical Annex.
1. Data are from population registers. Data on labour force exclude unemployed and self employed.
2. Data are based on the register of foreigners. Data on labour force exclude seasonal and cross-border workers.
Sources: Community Labour Force Survey, Eurostat, 1996; Statistics Norway; Office fédéral des étrangers (Switzerland).
32
The dispersion of immigrants of the same origin cent, in Belgium 9 per cent and in Denmark 16 per
across the range of host countries cent. In Austria, one in five salaried foreign workers
is of Turkish origin.
Certain immigrant communities have tended to
increase in countries where they were not strongly
represented previously. The following section will Foreigners or immigrants from OECD Member
focus on immigrants from certain countries of the or non-member countries residing in the OECD area
Southern and Eastern shores of the Mediterranean
Among foreign or foreign-born residents in
Basin (this aspect of migration flows from the coun-
OECD countries, some are from non-Member coun-
tries of Central and Eastern Europe and of Asia will
tries while others are nationals of Member countries.
be examined in Section B).
In most analyses of migration, focus is rarely placed
The apportionment in Europe of nationals from on the latter group even though their numbers are
the three Maghrebian countries (Algeria, Morocco relatively high. The recent admission of several new
and Tunisia), Turkey and the former Yugoslavia has countries to the OECD has boosted this trend. In
changed over the past 15 years. Although France 1996, Turks headed the rankings by nationality of
remained in 1996 the principal host country for foreigners residing in the European Members of the
Maghrebians (in total, close to 1.4 million residents) OECD. The Italians and the Portuguese were respec-
indeed Algerian emigration remains concentrated tively third and fourth (behind nationals of the for-
almost entirely there, Moroccan and Tunisian mer Yugoslavia). The Korean predominance in Japan
migrants have been going in greater numbers to merits highlighting, as does that of the Mexicans in
other host countries. Already present in Belgium the United States.
and the Netherlands (140 000 persons in each coun-
try), Moroccans have widened the range of their des-
tinations and now form sizeable communities in 3. Immigrants and the labour market
Italy, Germany, and Spain. In 1996, far behind The net annual change in the foreign labour
France, it was in Italy, followed by Germany, that the force is not simply identical to the net change in
largest Tunisian communities were located (see foreigners’ migration flows: changes in the foreign-
Table I.4). ers’ labour force participation rate, alterations in
Migrants from the former Yugoslavia, due to the their demographic profile and modifications to
spreading of the conflict in the region, have increas- naturalisation policies are potentially no less impor-
ingly gone to new host countries. Although in tant. Over the course of the past fifteen years,
1996 Germany remained, by some distance, the changing economic conditions combined with the
country with the greatest number of immigrants from upward trend in migration movements and the entry
the former Yugoslavia (over 750 000 nationals of onto the labour market of family members of immi-
Serbia and Montenegro and approximately grants already settled in the host country have had
550 000 Croatians and Bosnians), Italy was by then significant repercussions on the employment of for-
the fifth host country after Switzerland, Austria, and eigners. The foreign labour force has grown in almost
France. The Nordic countries also feature among the all the OECD countries and its characteristics have
new host countries along with Greece, Hungary and changed, although in ways which vary from country
Bulgaria. to country.
Turkish immigrants, the largest number of The heterogeneous character both of the for-
whom are to be found in Germany, have also settled eign presence in the various economic sectors and
in other European OECD countries, notably, in of their share of total employment is the product of
decreasing order of importance, in France, the a number of factors the importance of which vary
Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria and from country to country, the most significant gener-
Denmark. Numbering just over 2 million, the Turkish ally being the country’s migration history. Other fac-
community in Germany accounts for almost 30 per tors include, most notably, the functioning of the
cent of the resident foreign population in that coun- productive apparatus, the legislation governing the
try. Although Turks are far less numerous in the access of foreigners to the labour market, and the
Netherlands than in France they account for almost working conditions and wages on offer in each sec-
one quarter of the total foreign population there; the tor. Despite the contrasts which exist among the
corresponding percentage in France is less than sectors, it is evident that foreign workers have pene-
6 per cent. In Switzerland the figure is also 6 per trated all sectors, thus showing the same general 33
Table I.4. Maghrebian, Turkish and former Yugoslavian residents in selected European OECD countries,
total population and labour force, 1996
Foreign population1
of which:
Total foreign
population Former
Algeria % Morocco % Tunisia % Turkey % Yugoslavia %
Belgium 911.9 9.2 1.0 138.3 15.2 5.1 0.6 78.5 8.6 8.1 0.9
Denmark 237.7 .. .. 3.4 1.4 .. .. 36.8 15.5 32.2 13.5
France 3 596.6 614.2 17.1 572.7 15.9 206.3 5.7 197.7 5.5 52.5 1.5
Germany 7 314.0 17.2 0.2 82.9 1.1 25.7 0.4 2 049.1 28.0 1 296.72 17.7
Italy 1 095.6 .. .. 119.5 10.9 44.8 4.1 .. .. 94.6 8.6
Netherlands 679.9 1.1 0.2 138.7 20.4 1.9 0.3 127.0 18.7 32.8 4.8
Norway 157.5 .. .. 1.4 0.9 .. .. 3.9 2.5 17.5 11.1
Spain 539.0 .. .. 77.2 14.3 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Sweden 526.6 .. .. .. .. .. .. 18.9 3.6 36.6 7.0
Switzerland 1 337.6 .. .. .. .. .. .. 79.4 5.9 305.0 22.8
United Kingdom 1 972.0 .. .. .. .. .. .. 42.0 2.1 .. ..
Foreign labour force3
of which:
Total foreign
labour force Former
Algeria % Morocco % Tunisia % Turkey % Yugoslavia %
Austria4 257.2 .. .. .. .. .. .. 52.2 20.3 141.5 55.0

Belgium5 335.3 3.1 0.9 42.9 12.8 1.9 0.6 21.0 6.3 3.0 0.9
France 1 604.7 253.3 15.8 203.1 12.7 75.2 4.7 72.5 4.5 31.8 2.0
Germany6 2 559.3 .. .. .. .. .. .. 759.1 29.7 454.57 17.8
Netherlands 218.0 .. .. 32.0 14.7 .. .. 33.0 15.1 .. ..
Spain8 161.9 3.1 1.9 59.2 36.5 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Sweden9 218.0 .. .. .. .. .. .. 7.0 3.2 23.0 10.6
Switzerland10 709.1 .. .. .. .. .. .. 34.3 4.8 136.2 19.2
United Kingdom 1 031.7 0.8 0.1 1.8 0.2 1.9 0.2 13.7 1.3 8.5 0.8
1. Data are from population registers for all countries except for France (census), Italy and Spain (residence permits) and the United Kingdom (Labour Force
Survey).
2. Data are for Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia.
3. Figures include unemployed except for Austria and the Netherlands. Data for Belgium, France, Sweden and the United Kingdom are from the Labour Force
Survey; for the other countries, see the notes at the end of the Statistical Annex.
4. Annual average of valid work permits. Unemployed and self-employed are not included.
5. Data are for 1995.
6. Data (as of 30 September) refer to salaried workers only. Figures cover only western Germany.
7. Data are for Serbia and Montenegro.
8. Valid work permits. Workers from the European Union are not included in total.
9. Annual average. Data are from the annual Labour Force Survey.
10. Data are counts of the number of foreigners with an annual residence permit or a settlement permit (permanent permit) who engage in gainful activity.
Sources: Labour Force Survey, Eurostat and National Statistical Institutes.
evolution as total employment over the past France and Australia. Classified by the size of the
decade. foreign or foreign-born share of total employment,
three groups of countries could be distinguished in
1996: a first group comprised of (in descending
a) The proportion of foreigners
order) Luxembourg, Australia, Canada and
in the labour force
Switzerland, with shares between 54 and 18 per
Over the last decade, the proportion of foreign- cent; a second group, comprised of Austria, the
ers or the foreign-born in the total labour force has United States, Germany, Belgium, France, and
increased in several OECD countries, notably in Sweden where the share was at a much lower level,
Luxembourg, Austria, Germany, and the United between 10 and 5 per cent; and a third group com-
States (see Table I.2). By contrast, throughout the prised of Norway, the Netherlands, the United
34 period the proportion has slightly declined in Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, Italy, Spain and
Portugal with foreign shares of total employment at the participation rates of women (nationals and for-
less than 5 per cent. eigners) born in the countries where they currently
reside are still at least equal to those of women
born abroad, except for Italy and Spain (new immi-
b) The increase in the female participation rate gration countries) and Luxembourg (where labour
immigration is heavily predominant). As for men, the
The participation rate of foreign women is typi- same kind of comparison reveals less pronounced
cally lower (in the case of the foreign-born, much divergences between nationals and foreigners and
lower) than that of nationals. In certain OECD between foreigners born in and outside the country.
Member countries, however, foreign womens’ partic- In addition to the three countries noted above, the
ipation rates, in particular of those born in the host participation rates of foreign-born men actually are
country, have tended to increase over the course of greater than those of nationals in Austria, Canada
the last fifteen years alongside female labour immi- and France. Participation rates also evidence a
gration. Nevertheless, the existence of differences marked dependence on the length of stay: the dif-
depending on the countries and nationalities conferences according to place of birth and nationality
sidered notwithstanding, analysis of the most tend to reduce considerably beyond a period of
recently available data (see Table I.5) reveals that stay greater than ten years.
Table I.5. Participation rates and unemployment rates in selected OECD countries by sex,
place of birth and nationality, 1995
Women Men
Born Born
Born Born
in the Foreigners Nationals in the Foreigners Nationals
overseas overseas
country country
Participation rates
Australia 67.6 58.0 .. .. 86.8 82.5 .. ..

Austria 63.1 62.5 64.5 62.9 81.4 84.8 86.1 81.3
Belgium 53.2 42.0 38.1 53.2 72.8 71.2 68.9 73.1
Canada 70.9 71.0 .. .. 86.5 89.2 .. ..
Denmark 74.2 56.4 48.3 74.2 86.8 80.0 78.7 86.7
France 62.2 54.6 46.8 61.8 75.5 79.2 76.3 75.2
Germany .. .. 50.8 62.8 .. .. 79.3 80.4
Italy 42.9 51.1 49.8 42.9 73.5 88.6 84.7 73.5
Luxembourg 40.6 51.8 51.2 40.7 72.7 83.2 80.3 74.1
Netherlands 59.7 48.1 39.8 59.4 81.9 70.4 64.1 81.7
Portugal 61.4 47.0 35.1 61.4 80.7 66.4 64.3 80.5
Spain 45.2 52.2 48.6 45.3 74.8 80.4 85.1 74.9
Sweden 80.3 64.0 60.2 80.0 84.6 73.3 69.7 84.5
United Kingdom 67.7 58.3 56.1 67.4 85.3 80.0 76.5 85.2
Unemployment rates
Australia 7.7 10.0 .. .. 8.5 9.8 .. ..

Austria 4.6 7.4 7.8 4.6 3.6 6.5 6.2 3.7
Belgium 11.2 23.8 31.5 11.0 6.3 16.9 19.8 6.0
Canada 10.0 10.7 .. .. 10.2 9.7 .. ..
Denmark 8.4 16.7 .. 8.4 5.3 13.2 16.2 5.4
France 13.5 19.0 24.4 13.6 9.1 16.5 20.2 9.2
Germany .. .. 14.8 9.2 .. .. 15.1 6.1
Italy 16.2 27.3 22.6 16.2 9.2 .. .. 9.2
Netherlands 7.7 19.8 24.3 8.2 4.8 19.4 23.1 5.3
Portugal 7.5 .. .. 7.7 6.3 .. .. 6.5
Spain 30.3 30.1 27.0 30.3 17.9 24.1 20.7 18.0
Sweden 6.5 18.5 15.6 7.0 7.7 24.8 23.5 8.1
United Kingdom 6.6 10.9 11.7 6.7 9.8 14.0 16.4 9.8
Sources: Community Labour Force Survey, Eurostat, 1995; Labour Force Survey 1996 (Australia); 1991 census data (Canada).
35
◆ Chart I.8. Foreign-born and foreign labour force, 19951

As a per cent of self-employment and total employment
as a % of self-employment as a % of total employment Share of self-employment

in total employment (%)
Foreign-born labour force Foreign labour force
20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20
Australia2 (25.8) 14.6

(24.4)
Foreign-born labour force

Belgium 17.6
in self-employment
over-represented
United Kingdom 13.0
Sweden 10.9
Denmark 9.2
Spain 24.9
Luxembourg (27.8) (27.8)

11.2
(38.5) (39.1)
France
Foreign-born labour force

13.3
in self-employment
under-represented
2
United States 7.4
Germany3 10.2
Austria 13.6
Netherlands 12.2
20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20
Note: Countries are split into those for which foreign-born labour force is under- or over-represented in self-employment. In each group, countries are ranked by
decreasing order of the percentage of foreign-born self-employed in total self-employment.
1. 1990 for the United States, 1996 for Australia.
2. Data on foreign labour force are not available.
3. Data on foreign-born labour force are not available.
Sources: Labour Force Survey except for the United States (1990 census).
c) The proportion of foreigners On the whole, the reasons why the foreign-born
in self-employment labour force is over-represented in self-employment
differ according to the country considered. It would,
Chart I.8 sets out the proportions of the foreign for example, be extremely difficult to explain the
and foreign-born labour forces in self-employment. revealed tendencies without effecting a more
It also allows one to draw the comparison with these detailed analysis of each country’s independent
two labour force sub-groups’ share of total employ- structure of employment. Allied to this are historical
ment. The countries are themselves divided into factors: immigration into the United Kingdom, for
two sub-groups according to whether the foreign- instance, is a much older phenomenon than in
born labour force’s share of non-salaried occupa- Denmark (Nordic nationals excepted) and is related
tions is greater or less than their corresponding the country’s colonial past. For diverse reasons,
share of total employment. In the first sub-group, many immigrants to the United Kingdom either
one observes that in Belgium, the United Kingdom, arrived already in possession of British nationality or
Sweden and Denmark the foreign-born labour force have since resided there long enough to be able to
is over-represented in non-salaried employment. obtain it; this greatly facilitates their access to inde-
This gap is much more marked than in the case of pendent employment. In Denmark, the foreign-born
36 the foreign labour force. labour force’s disproportionately high tendency to
take up self-employment could well be explained restructuring. It was observed that despite economic
by the fact that recent immigration has been com- difficulties, in certain sectors the degree of depen-
prised largely of refugees who characteristically tend dence on foreign labour remained broadly constant.
to meet with particular difficulties in integrating into In other terms, during periods unfavourable to the
the labour market. It should be noted equally that supply side of the labour market the employment of
the economic significance of the figures is limited to foreign labour is not homogeneously fragile. To what
the extent that the number of workers concerned is extent has foreigners’ employment been sensitive
much lower than in the United Kingdom, and like- to fluctuations in labour demand during the period
wise the ratio of independent workers to total 1993-97 over the course of which all the countries
employment. studied with the exception of Germany (see
In the second sub-group, the foreign-born Chart I.9) have experienced growth in employment?
labour force is under-represented among the self- Chart I.9 indicates that for all workers, nationals
employed, with the most marked gaps in Austria, and foreigners considered together, the reductions
the Netherlands and Luxembourg. The same is true in employment in the industrial sector have been
of their foreign labour forces. Comparisons within more than offset by increases in the tertiary sector.
this group are equally difficult to draw as in the Although the employment of foreigners has followed
former. In Austria, for example, for the economy as a the broad overall tendency, employment creation in
whole the proportion of self-employment is greater the tertiary sector has not been sufficient to out-
than in France and the Netherlands yet the legisla- weigh the massive job losses in the industrial sector
tion currently in force (designed with salaried in Belgium, France and Germany. The extent of the
employment principally in mind) renders more diffi- fragility of foreigners’ employment reveals itself
cult foreigners’ access to self-employment. clearly when one proceeds to a more detailed secto-
rial analysis (see Table I.6). It is possible to calculate
d) Recent developments in the employment by branch and by country an indicator comparing
of foreigners and the increasing presence the changes over time in foreigners’ employment
of foreign labour in the service sector with that of foreigners and nationals combined. One
can then compare the respective variations in
In the last edition of Trends in International Migra- employment over the course of a given period. The
tion (1997), an analysis of the distribution of foreign higher the indicator’s value (superior to 0), the more
labour by economic sector revealed concentrations fragile is foreigners’ employment, either because it
in certain sectors, the sectors concerned varying diminishes faster than total employment in times of
from country to country (for example, mining and a deteriorating employment situation or because it
quarrying and manufacturing in Germany, manufac- increases at a slower rate or diminishes during peri-
turing in Australia and Canada, construction in
ods of net employment growth.
France and in Luxembourg, and a few service sectors
in the United Kingdom). It was underlined that the Table I.6 brings out the very different results in
degrees of concentration similarly display country- the industrial and tertiary sectors. Overall, the
dependent variability. In the overwhelming majority degree of fragility is particularly high in the construc-
of the countries examined, public administration tion sector in Belgium and to a lesser degree in
(posts in which are generally open only to nationals) France and the United Kingdom. This fragility also
employs the lowest proportion of foreigners (the concerns mining and quarrying activities and/or
exceptions being agriculture in Australia and the manufacturing in Germany, Luxembourg, France and
United Kingdom and mining and quarrying in the Netherlands. In those sectors (shaded grey in
Canada and the United States). the table) where foreign labour is at present espe-
cially concentrated, the degree of fragility is corre-
In this edition the focus is placed on changes in
spondingly more significant.
total employment and the employment of foreigners
between 1993 and 1997 in six European countries The situation in the service sector is similarly
where foreign labour accounts for a relatively high contrasted. In certain branches foreigners have ben-
percentage of the total labour force. An earlier study efited relatively more than nationals from employ-
(see Trends in International Migration, OECD, 1995) cov- ment creation, for example, in the hotel and restau-
ering the period 1983-92 revealed the complexity of rant sector of all the economies considered except
the complementary or substitutive links between those of France and Holland. Except in the
foreign and native labour in times of recession and Netherlands, this is also the case in the business 37
◆ Chart I.9. Change in total and foreign employment by major industry division between 1993 and 1997
in selected European OECD countries
Percentages
Total employment Foreign employment
1 = Agriculture 2 = Industry 3 = Services Total = All industry divisions
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20

1 11
Belgium 2 2 Belgium
3 3
Total Total
1 1
Germany 2 2 Germany
3 3
Total Total
1 1
France 2 2 France
3 3
Total Total
1 1
United Kingdom 23 2 United Kingdom
3
Total Total
11 11
Luxembourg 23 2 Luxembourg
3
Total Total
1 11
Netherlands 23 2 Netherlands
3
Total Total
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Note: The data are based on the annual Labour Force Survey. Part of the fluctuations may be due to sampling error. The data refer to persons in employment (i.e. employers,
self-employed, employees and family workers).
1. The data on Agriculture are not statistically significant.
Source:Community Labour Force Survey, Eurostat.
services sector and real estate. Turning to the trans- employment of foreigners has grown faster than that
port sector, the employment of foreigners has of nationals, in others the opposite is true. The
increased at a faster rate than that of nationals in the trend of increasingly widespread use of foreign
United Kingdom, Luxembourg and France; in the labour across the various sectors of the economy has
Netherlands, foreigners have been less affected continued. The profile of the present cohort of for-
than nationals by the decrease in the total number eign workers is different to that of the immigrants of
employed; in Germany although the total number the previous generation. However, although the
employed has also diminished, the number of for- nature of the services which they offer has modified
eigners employed has actually increased; in in response to the needs of the labour market, they
Belgium, the overall decline has had the opposite nevertheless remain more vulnerable to unemploy-
result. In the other service activities the results dif- ment than members of the native labour force.
fer according to the country. The employment situa-
tion in the banking sector has been unfavourable to
foreigners in Germany and the United Kingdom, e) Foreigners are more vulnerable
likewise has that prevailing in the retail sector in to unemployment than nationals
Germany, France and the Netherlands, and in the
In general, foreigners are more vulnerable to
health and social services sector in Belgium, the
unemployment than nationals. The causes of this
United Kingdom, Germany and France.
greater vulnerability are multiple. In almost all of
In conclusion, over the course of the period the European Member countries of the OECD, the
1993-97, foreign labour has shown itself in the coun- foreign-born population’s relative exposure to
tries considered to be more flexible than in the unemployment is greater than the proportion of the
38 previous period (1983-92). In certain sectors, the labour force for which they account. According to the
Table I.6. Comparative development of total employment and employment of foreigners

between 1993 and 1997 (percentages) and fragility indicator for foreign employment (FIF)
in selected European OECD countries
Belgium United Kingdom France
Growth rate of Growth rate of Growth rate of

employment (%) employment (%) employment (%)
FIF1 FIF1 FIF1
Total Foreigners Total Foreigners Total Foreigners
Agriculture .. .. .. –4.7 9.1 –2.9 –13.9 –4.4 –0.7

Mining and quarrying .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Manufacturing –6.4 –28.9 3.5 –5.3 –7.1 0.3 –1.7 –8.6 4.1
Electricity, gas and water supply .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Construction 1.9 –16.9 9.8 7.8 3.2 0.6 –3.1 –8.7 1.8
Wholesale and retail trade –3.7 –0.4 –0.9 4.0 15.4 –2.9 –0.4 –7.5 19.4
Hotels and restaurants 19.2 23.3 –0.2 12.2 19.4 –0.6 1.5 –6.2 5.1
Transport and communication 8.4 –10.2 2.2 7.5 8.1 –0.1 1.4 3.3 –1.4
Financial intermediation 4.7 31.5 –5.7 –1.4 –20.1 13.7 –6.7 –3.7 –0.4
Real estate and business activities 11.0 13.4 –0.2 26.8 70.0 –1.6 5.2 10.6 –1.0
Public administration 7.7 109.7 –13.2 –3.7 –3.8 0.0 –0.7 –25.0 35.2
Education 3.0 36.1 –11.1 9.2 10.4 –0.1 2.1 10.3 –3.9
Health 10.3 8.6 0.2 11.4 –0.9 1.1 12.2 8.0 0.3
Other services 1.4 3.6 –1.5 13.9 30.9 –1.2 10.8 15.0 –0.4
Private households with employed persons .. .. .. 11.6 35.5 –2.1 39.6 32.2 0.2
Extra-territorial organisations and bodies 25.5 76.4 –2.0 –13.9 –33.9 1.4 –1.1 –12.5 10.4
Total 2.5 –3.8 2.5 4.7 9.9 –1.1 1.2 –1.7 2.3
Germany Luxembourg Netherlands
Growth rate of Growth rate of Growth rate of

employment (%) employment (%) employment (%)
FIF1 FIF1 FIF1
Total Foreigners Total Foreigners Total Foreigners
Agriculture –17.7 –6.1 –0.7 .. .. .. .. .. ..

Mining and quarrying –28.4 –33.7 0.2 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Manufacturing –16.1 –22.3 0.4 –8.7 –19.1 1.2 –4.4 –14.0 2.2
Electricity, gas and water supply .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Construction 11.1 13.0 –0.2 –8.7 –11.3 0.3 7.6 –3.0 1.4
Wholesale and retail trade 1.2 –5.3 5.5 –8.8 –9.0 0.0 3.4 3.0 0.1
Hotels and restaurants 23.3 35.2 –0.5 –7.9 3.7 –1.5 14.9 11.4 0.2
Transport and communication –13.8 2.8 –1.2 12.4 75.1 –5.1 –3.5 –1.4 –0.6
Financial intermediation 4.8 –11.9 3.5 21.4 53.8 –1.5 .. .. ..
Real estate and business activities .. .. .. 15.0 46.9 –2.1 15.7 –8.1 1.5
Public administration –0.5 20.9 –41.6 .. .. .. 2.0 –5.4 3.7
Education 3.9 9.0 –1.3 21.0 45.1 –1.2 –1.1 –11.0 9.4
Health 47.4 36.4 0.2 24.0 34.9 –0.5 9.6 31.2 –2.3
Other services 11.4 45.5 –3.0 2.8 15.5 –4.5 16.6 –5.1 1.3
Private households with employed persons 11.4 60.8 –4.3 20.8 26.7 –0.3 .. .. ..
Extra-territorial organisations and bodies –41.6 –42.8 0.0 11.2 20.1 –0.8 .. .. ..
Total –2.2 –4.6 1.1 2.9 7.9 –1.8 4.3 –5.5 2.3
Note: The symbol ‘‘. .’’ in this table means that the sample is not statistically significant.
1. The indicator is computed as follows: FIF = (dEti – dEi)/|dEti| where dEti represents the trend in percentage terms of total employment between the two
dates in a given branch i and dEi the trend in foreign employment in the same branch i. This indicator compares the relative rate of growth or decrease of
foreign employment to that of total employment. The figures in bold correspond to the branches where the percentages of foreign employment are greater
than their share in total employment in all branches in 1997.
Source: Community Labour Force Survey, Eurostat.
39
most recently available data, presented in factors. These factors include, most notably, changes
Chart I.10, it is in the Netherlands that this discrep- in economic performance and the nature of the
ancy is the greatest: on average, a foreign member posts occupied by the different ethnic groups, the
of the labour force is there three times more likely demographic structure and the order of the various
to be unemployed than a national. The situation is waves of migration into the host country. The profile
also critical in Denmark, Belgium and Sweden. of the immigrants has an important bearing on their
In the settlement countries (Australia, Canada degree of employability: variables such as age, gen-
and the United States), this over-representation is der, nationality, level of education, training and
much less marked and, in general, the discrepancy experience, mastery of the host country’s language
between the unemployment rates of those born and the length of stay in the host country play a non-
inside and those born outside the country is consid- negligible role among the factors which explain the
erably lower than that observed between foreigners degree of vulnerability to unemployment.
and nationals in Europe.
In many countries, foreign male labour is con-
Over the course of the last decade (see the centrated in sectors which are in decline or undergo-
previous edition of Trends in International Migration, ing major restructuring (notably mining and manu-
OECD, 1997), as a proportion of total unemployment facturing) or in activities particularly susceptible to
that of foreigners has tended to increase in Belgium, swings in the business cycle (such as construction
Luxembourg, the Netherlands and, more recently, in and public works). The foreign workers made redun-
Austria, Sweden and Switzerland. During the same dant, often approaching retirement age and having
period the proportion has stabilised at a high level undertaken over the course of their working lives a
in Germany and France, and at a distinctly lower series of low-skilled manual jobs in precarious sec-
level in Denmark. It has declined slightly in the tors, have little likelihood of finding new
United Kingdom. That there exist differences employment.
between the unemployment rates of foreigners and
nationals and that in any particular country foreign Family immigration’s preponderance in total
nationals from different countries are typically not immigration flows, the increase in female participa-
affected to the same degree are due to a series of tion rates (see above) and, in certain cases, the
◆ Chart I.10. Share of foreigners or foreign-born in total unemployment relative to their share
in the labour force, 19951
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
1. 1996 for Australia, 1991 for Canada and 1990 for
the United States. For these countries, data refer to
foreign-born citizens. In all other countries, data
refer to foreign citizens.
Sources: For EU countries: Community Labour Force Survey,
0 0 Eurostat; Australia: Labour Force Survey, Australian
a ia es in aly rg nd ce nd ria m ce ny en m rk ds Bureau of Statistics; Canada: census data, Statistics
nad ral tat Spa It bou Irela Gree Finla Aust ingdo Fran erma wed elgiuenma erlan
Ca Aust ted S em S B D th Canada; United States: census data, US Department of
i Lux dK G
Ne Commerce, Census Bureau.
Un ite
40 Un
importance of labour immigration explain the recent B. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN ASIA AND
trends of increasing employment and unemploy- CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE
ment among female foreigners or immigrants. In
In the two most recent editions of Trends in Inter-
Table I.5, one observes that the rate of unemploy- national Migration (OECD, 1995 and 1997), particular
ment among foreign women is, with the exception of attention was given to the widening over recent
Spain, greater than that of nationals in all of the years of the area of reference to be considered in
countries considered. Except in Sweden and the analyses of migration movements and policies. Two
United Kingdom, foreign women’s vulnerability to regions in particular have contributed to this exten-
unemployment also exceeds that of men. In general, sion: Asia and Central and Eastern Europe.
the rate of unemployment of women born abroad is Characterised by a diversification of the nationali-
lower than that of foreign women. This phenomenon ties involved and the growing importance of flows
could be explained, in the cases of the Netherlands, between neighbouring countries sharing common
the United Kingdom, France and Belgium, by the historical, economic and cultural traditions, both
high percentage of those born abroad possessing regions are exemplars of the globalisation and
the nationality of one of these countries. regionalisation of migration movements – not only
are Asia and Central and Eastern Europe zones of
In looking for work, foreign youths encounter emigration, notably towards the countries of the
the same difficulties as young nationals. However, OECD, they are also experiencing extensive intra-
even though the level of education of immigrants’ regional migration.
children tends to come close that of nationals’, the In the case of Asia, regional migration has been
convergence is necessarily progressive and in the taking place within a context characterised until very
vast majority of cases there remains a gap, at least recently by strong economic growth, increasing trade
for the first generation. The time spent unemployed and capital flows, and a strong momentum towards
being an inverse function of the level of educational further regional economic integration. East Asia’s
attainment, foreign youths are, therefore, typically 1997-98 financial crisis has affected countries simul-
more vulnerable to unemployment than young taneously concerned with both immigration and
nationals. To the differences due to the level of emigration. The initial impacts of the crisis on migra-
educational attainment are probably added racial tion flows within the region will be discussed below
and cultural discrimination which increase their vul- following a brief review of the immigration flows of
nerability and aggravate the difficulties they face in Asian provenance into the OECD area. Finally, spe-
successfully entering the labour market. It is, how- cial attention will be accorded to the impact of
ever, difficult to quantify the effect of discriminatory the reunification of Hong Kong (China) with conti-
practices and no less so to determine clearly nental China on migration movements within the
whether or not the quality of the young foreigner or region.
youth of foreign extraction plays a decisive role in In Central and Eastern Europe, the recent eco-
deciding the labour market outcome. nomic and political changes reinforced by social and
ethnic tensions have been the principal determi-
The recent arrival of large numbers of immi- nant factors behind population movements. Allied
grants has also contributed to the swelling of foreign to these factors, the economic imbalances within the
unemployment, especially since labour market con- Central and Eastern European countries (CEECs)
ditions are far from favourable in many OECD coun- (and likewise in the countries on their eastern bor-
tries, particularly for unskilled workers. Moreover, ders) have played a non-negligible underlying role
new arrivals frequently need to go through a period in the recent trends in migration movements within
of adaptation prior to their successful entry into the the region. Following a presentation of these trends,
host country’s labour market, be it due to the need a second sub-section will be devoted to an exami-
to attain a mastery of the language, understand the nation of the likely impact on migration flows of
administrative formalities, become sufficiently certain of the CEECs’ forthcoming membership of
aware of the particular modes of entry into the the European Union. An analysis of the contents of
labour market (acquire fresh job search techniques) the association agreements concluded between the
or adapt to new working conditions. All of these European Union and several of the CEECs will be
factors play a decisive role in finding and retaining a developed further in the third section of this
job. synthesis. 41
1. Migration flows of Asian origin to OECD in the majority, accounting for almost two thirds,
countries and the impact of the financial those of Asian origin now account for just over a
crisis in Asia on migration flows between quarter of the total.
Asian countries The increase in Asia’s importance as a region of
Over the last decade, Asia has experienced the origin is brought into sharp relief by an examination
highest rate of economic growth of any region. This of the composition of the inflows. Whereas in
growth has been accompanied by an increase in 1982/83, approximately 30 per cent of the immi-
capital flows, trade and international migration. grants authorised to settle in Australia were Asian,
Although counting among its number many immigra- by 1991/92 that figure had reached 50 per cent.
tion countries, Asia is presently one of the principal Since then, however, this upward trend has been
sending regions (both for settlement and labour moderated somewhat by increased flows from
migration) as well as being one of the chief origins of Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet
refugees and displaced persons. Over recent years, Union. Nevertheless, in 1996 there remained six
Asian migration to OECD countries has been dis- Asian countries among the ten most important send-
playing a broad tendency of mutually reinforcing ing countries for new permanent entrants (see
increases both in volumes and in the degree of Chart I.3).
diversification. Immigration from Asia has also increased in
Canada. In 1981, the number of immigrants born in
a) Asian migration to OECD countries continues Asia (including the Middle East) stood at close to
to increase and diversify 540 000, i.e., 14 per cent of the total immigrant popu-
lation. In 1996, they accounted for almost a third of
Several OECD countries, in particular the the total. Since 1993, more than half of immigrant
United States, Canada, Australia, France and the entries have been from Asian countries and in the
United Kingdom, have for many years received flows top ten source countries for new immigrants seven
of immigrants or refugees from Asia. Since the early Asian countries (including Hong-Kong [China], India,
1960s, such flows to the United States, Canada and the Philippines, China and Sri Lanka) have featured
Australia have registered steady increases and in so consistently. This trend has continued in 1996 (see
doing have gradually supplanted those from Chart I.3). In that year the inflow from Chinese Taipei
Europe. Recent Asian migration to OECD countries surpassed those originating from the Philippines,
has been characterised by two clear trends both of Pakistan and Sri Lanka. This progression in the rank-
which correspond to the standard evolution of the ings accompanied fallbacks in the flows from Europe
migration process: on the one hand, a strengthening and the United States.
of previously formed ties, and on the other, a widen-
The same phenomenon – a decline in European
ing of the range of immigrant nationalities, destina-
migration and an increase in flows from Asia – is
tion countries and entry categories involved.
clearly in evidence in the United States. Immigrants
of Asian origin (including the Middle East) num-
Immigration flows from Asia surpass those from Europe bered 5 million in 1990, twice the figure of 1980. In
From the early 1980s onwards, flows from Asia 1996, four Asian countries (in decreasing order of
to the United States, Canada, Australia and several importance, the Philippines, India, Vietnam and
of European countries have intensified. In North China) were among the top ten source countries for
America and in Australia, the increase in these flows permanent immigrants.
has gone hand in hand with the reduction in the The intensification of traditional flows from Asia
numbers of those coming from Europe. In Australia, is also apparent in the United Kingdom and France.
residents born in Asia accounted for less than 6 per In the latter country, the proportion of Asian
cent of the total foreign-born population in 1971; the residents increased between the two censuses of
corresponding figure for those born in Europe was 1982 and 1990 from 4 to 6 per cent of the total
85 per cent. Over the last fifteen years, the foreign foreign population. Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos
population of Asian provenance (including the Mid- are the principal sending countries. Over the same
dle East) has more than doubled, passing from close period, the number of Asians possessing French
to 400 000 in 1981 to reach a figure in excess of nationality doubled. As for the inflows by national-
one million in 1996. Although as a proportion of the ity, in 1993 only Vietnam featured in the top ten
42 foreign population those of European origin remain countries of origin; by 1995 China and Japan were
also present, the latter country retaining a place in (southern as well as northern) and Japan. Whereas
the top ten in 1996. In the United Kingdom, despite intra-European migration, notably from Spain, Italy,
the stabilisation, indeed the decrease in flows from Greece and Portugal, has declined since the 1970s,
South Asia, Indians continue to constitute the sec- flows from Asia have increased. Thus, Germany
ond largest foreign community after the Irish (see receives, after France and the United Kingdom, a
Table I.7). The Bangladeshi and Pakistani communi- high number of refugees from Indo-China. In 1996, of
ties remain sizeable. In 1996, Malaysia, India and the 7.3 million foreigners resident in Germany,
Korea featured among the top ten sending countries 92 000 were from Vietnam, 58 000 from Sri Lanka,
for new immigrants. 35 600 from India and roughly the same number
from China and Pakistan (see Table I.7). During the
1980s, the number of immigrants of Pakistani and Sri
The diversification of Asian migration flows Lankan origin received by the Netherlands similarly
Alongside the intensification of traditional increased. In 1996, the Indonesians (abstracting from
flows, the trend of the origin countries’ increasing the fact that most of them possess Dutch national-
diversification is confirming itself and likewise the ity) remained the largest Asian community, followed
enlargement of the range of receiving countries. by the Chinese, the Vietnamese, the Pakistanis and
the Sri Lankans.
In the United States during the 1980s, immi-
grant flows from Cambodia and Laos declined, while Asian migration to the Nordic countries, almost
those from Thailand, Indonesia and Chinese Taipei negligible until the 1970s, increased considerably
stabilised. Those from Malaysia, Hong Kong (China), during the second half of the 1980s, largely through
Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka increased, albeit requests for asylum. In Denmark, this immigration is
to levels of a few thousand from each country. In primarily from Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Vietnam; in
Canada, in 1996, Sri Lanka and Chinese Taipei were Finland, from Malaysia, India, Vietnam, China and
in the top ten immigrant source countries (see Bangladesh. Immigration from Pakistan, Vietnam
Chart I.3). In Australia, from the beginning of the and Sri Lanka has also developed in Norway. In
1980s the number of immigrants of Vietnamian and Sweden, immigration from Asia largely involves
Indian origin have continuously increased. This above all the Vietnamese, the Chinese, Indians and
diversification has also concerned other Asian coun- Filipinos (see Table I.7).
tries: the number of residents of Chinese origin In Southern Europe, Asian immigration is
more than tripled between 1986 and 1996 to reach mainly from the Philippines and China. In Italy and
over 111 000, those of Filipino origin now number Spain, these migration flows, essentially feminine,
93 000. Over the same period, the number of immi- are linked to the development of the domestic ser-
grants of Malaysian origin increased by just under vice and health-care sectors. In 1986, Italy had
60 per cent (to 76 000); those from Hong Kong 65 000 foreign residents of Asian origin (including
(China) and Sri Lanka have more than doubled. the Middle East). By 1996 this number had more
Much lower down the scale are Indonesia, Japan, than doubled. The most numerous national groups,
Korea, Thailand, Chinese Taipei, Cambodia and in decreasing order of size, were Filipinos (57 000),
Laos. Chinese (29 000), Sri Lankans (25 000) and Indians
Increased diversity in the means of entry also (19 000). In Spain, Filipinos comprise the largest
characterises the evolution of recent Asian migration Asian community, followed by Chinese and Indians.
to the United States, Canada and Australia. The From the beginning of the 1980s, migration to
desire on the part of these three host countries to Japan has increased significantly. Although non-
increase the number of qualified and highly quali- Asian immigration has also grown in importance,
fied entrants, manifested by offering entry opportu- migration movements to Japan are principally
nities other than family reunion (such as employ- regional in character, involving in the main
ment-related permanent immigration as well as neighbouring countries. In 1980, the large majority
entry for temporary work or study) has contributed (80 per cent) of foreigners settled in Japan were
to this diversification. Korean. In 1996, Koreans still formed the largest
The diversification in migration flows of Asian group of foreigners, but other nationalities were also
provenance is also illustrated by the broadening of present, in particular Chinese, Filipinos,
the range of destination countries. These now Vietnamese, Indonesians and Indians. In addition,
include a wider range of European countries illegal immigration in Japan, estimated on the basis 43
Table I.7. A. Stock of Asian nationals1 in selected OECD countries in 1996

Japan2 Denmark France Germany Italy Korea
Thousands % Thousands % Thousands % Thousands % Thousands % Thousands %
Total foreigners 1 415.1 100.0 237.7 100.0 3 596.6 100.0 7 314.0 100.0 1 095.6 100.0 148.7 100.0
of which:
Bangladesh 5.9 0.4 .. .. .. .. .. .. 11.1 1.0 6.3 4.2
China 234.3 16.6 1.9 0.8 14.1 0.4 34.6 0.5 29.1 2.7 26.7 18.0
India 6.3 0.4 1.1 0.5 4.6 0.1 35.6 0.5 19.4 1.8 .. ..
Indonesia 8.7 0.6 .. .. 1.3 0.0 .. .. .. .. 9.6 6.5
Korea 657.2 46.4 .. .. 4.3 0.1 21.6 0.3 .. .. – –
Pakistan 5.1 0.4 6.7 2.8 9.8 0.3 .. .. .. .. 1.1 0.7
Philippines 84.5 6.0 1.9 0.8 1.9 0.1 .. .. 57.1 5.2 10.8 7.3
Sri Lanka .. .. 5.4 2.3 10.3 0.3 58.3 0.8 24.9 2.3 2.9 1.9
Vietnam 10.2 0.7 5.1 2.1 33.7 0.9 92.3 1.3 .. .. 10.3 6.9
Total for the above
nine countries 1 012.2 71.5 22.1 9.3 80.0 2.2 242.4 3.3 141.6 12.9 67.7 45.5
Netherlands Norway Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom
Thousands % Thousands % Thousands % Thousands % Thousands % Thousands %
Total foreigners 725.4 100.0 157.5 100.0 539.0 100.0 499.1 100.0 1 243.6 100.0 1 972 100.0
of which:
Bangladesh 0.5 0.1 .. .. .. .. 1.2 0.2 0.3 – 43 2.2
China 7.9 1.1 .. .. 10.8 2.0 2.8 0.6 3.4 0.3 15 0.8
India 2.7 0.4 2.4 1.5 6.9 1.3 1.7 0.3 4.4 0.4 128 6.5
Indonesia 8.2 1.1 .. .. .. .. 0.3 0.1 0.9 0.1 .. ..
Korea .. .. 0.2 0.2 .. .. 0.6 0.1 0.8 0.1 .. ..
Pakistan 3.7 0.5 8.6 5.5 .. .. 1.0 0.2 1.2 0.1 78 4.0
Philippines 2.4 0.3 1.8 1.1 11.8 2.2 1.7 0.3 3.0 0.2 12 0.6
Sri Lanka 3.2 0.4 4.4 2.8 .. .. 1.3 0.3 7.0 0.6 23 1.2
Vietnam 3.8 0.5 4.6 2.9 .. .. 4.0 0.8 7.4 0.6 .. ..
Total for the above
nine countries 32.4 4.5 22.1 14.0 29.5 5.5 14.6 2.9 28.4 2.3 299.0 15.2
B. Stock of immigrants born in an Asian country3 in Australia, Canada and the United States
Australia (1996) Canada (1996) United States (1990)
Thousands % Thousands % Thousands %
Total foreign-born 3 908.3 100.0 4 971.1 100.0 19 767.3 100.0

of which:
China 111.0 2.8 231.1 4.6 529.8 2.7
Hong Kong (China) 68.4 1.8 241.1 4.8 147.1 0.7
India 77.5 2.0 235.9 4.7 450.4 2.3
Indonesia .. .. .. .. .. ..
Japan .. .. .. .. 290.1 1.5
Korea .. .. .. .. 568.4 2.9
Malaysia 76.2 1.9 .. .. .. ..
Pakistan .. .. .. .. .. ..
Philippines 92.9 2.4 184.6 3.7 912.7 4.6
Sri Lanka 47.0 1.2 .. .. .. ..
Chinese Taipei .. .. 49.3 1.0 244.1 1.2
Vietnam 151.1 3.9 139.3 2.8 543.3 2.7
Total for the above
twelve countries 624.1 16.0 1 081.2 21.8 3 685.9 18.6
1. Data are from population registers (or registers of foreigners) except for France (census), Italy and Spain (residence permits) and the United Kingdom
(Labour Force Survey). Figures are for 1990 for France, 1992 for Sweden and Switzerland and 1995 for the Netherlands.
2. Data for China include Chinese Taipei.
3. Census data.
Source: National Statistical Institutes.
44
of the number of foreign nationals who have not left ing Korea, Malaysia and Singapore and Thailand,
the territory upon the expiration of their visa or work have recently effected regularisation programmes
permit, is mostly from Asia (Korea, Thailand, China, for these workers.
the Philippines and Malaysia). A reduction in the Another characteristic feature of Asian migra-
1996 inflows notwithstanding, Japan now appears to tion, in addition to its temporary nature and the fact
be becoming a regional migration pole. An analysis that family migration is not encouraged, is the
of its 1996 immigration figures reveals that of the ten important role of recruitment agencies, be they gov-
leading countries of origin, five were Asian. In Korea, ernmental or private of which there are large num-
the number of registered foreign nationals has con- bers in the labour sending countries. They recruit
siderably increased since 1991, a development and select migrants, arrange their transportation and
largely attributable to the normalisation of diplo- look after the administrative formalities associated
matic relations with China. They still accounted for with work contracts.
less than one per cent of the total population in
1996, comprised principally of Chinese, Taipei Recent trends in labour migration
Chinese, Japanese, Filipino and Vietnamese
nationals. Several of the developing South-east Asian
countries have emerged as both sending and receiv-
ing countries for skilled and unskilled workers.
b) Intra-Asian migration and the impact
China, which is experiencing shortages of highly
of the recent financial crisis on migration
skilled labour and which is now receiving sizeable
movements within the region
inflows of foreign direct investment, counted
Migration flows between the countries of East approximately 90 000 highly skilled foreign workers
and South-east Asia – if one excludes the move- in 1996, one third of whom were from Japan, 20 per
ments of refugees, notably to Thailand – are essen- cent from the United States and 15 per cent from
tially composed of temporary workers. These intra- Germany. In Korea, an OECD Member country since
regional flows are largely a development of the 1996, the number of foreign workers has grown over
1980s and have since then continued to grow. In so the past six years: according to some estimates, they
doing they have overtaken the magnitude of those now number approximately 225 000 of whom 13 000
to the oil-producing economies of the Middle East. are registered skilled workers and 68 000 are train-
In fact, the experience gained from contract-related ees; the remainder are working illegally.
migration to the Middle East since the early 1970s Malaysia is a source of labour for Singapore. At
can explain in part why Asian migrants and public the same time, Malaysia receives very considerable
and private recruiting agencies were able to take numbers of foreign workers, over 1.5 million accord-
advantage of employment opportunities in the fast- ing to official estimates. The majority are employed
growing Asian economies. In addition to the factor of (legally and illegally) in plantations, construction
rapid economic growth, intra-Asian flows have and public works, manufacturing and domestic ser-
attained their importance as a result of structural vices. The overwhelming majority come from
change in the region’s labour markets and develop- Indonesia, Bangladesh, the Philippines and
ing regional integration in a context characterised by Thailand.
substantial inter- and intra-national economic and In the case of Indonesia, Sri Lanka and the
demographic imbalances. Philippines, women account for an important share
Data on labour migration in Asia are scarce and of the overseas labour force: over two thirds for the
not always reliable. International comparisons are first two countries and a half for the third. Most work
therefore difficult to draw. Moreover, in several as domestic helpers, nurses or entertainers. China,
countries the estimated number of illegal immi- which has supplied labour to other countries in the
grants far exceeds official count of those in posses- region for centuries, now possesses large overseas
sion of a valid residence or work permit. In the more communities and seeks to export a greater number
developed countries of the region this situation is in of workers, notably to Japan, Korea and Singapore.
large part a reflection of the shortages of unskilled In the latter country, foreign workers now account for
labour: since these countries restrict the entry of more than 10 per cent of the labour force. This immi-
unskilled workers, the number of illegal foreign gration has allowed employers to preserve manufac-
workers, for the most part staying after the expiry of turing jobs not only for immigrants, but also for
their permits, is growing. Several countries, includ- those nationals who are limited in their professional 45
mobility and who would therefore in all likelihood a sharp fall in the sums remitted by their overseas
become unemployed were manufacturing activities workers will have to intensify their efforts towards
to be relocated abroad. ensuring that these funds are directed towards
those sectors of economic activity most likely to cre-
The impact of the financial crisis on international migration ate employment.
The crisis, and policy measures effected in

The return of Hong Kong to China
response to it, have affected the economies of the
region with varying severity. Similarly, within the The return of Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty
region’s economies not all sectors have been as a Special Administrative Region (SAR) has led to
equally affected – export oriented sectors, for two key changes in its immigration policy: British
example, are suffering much less than the construc- citizens may no longer enter visa-free and the status
tion sector. Labour market conditions have already of ‘‘permanent resident with the right of abode in
deteriorated markedly in certain economies and can Hong Kong’’ has been redefined to include, subject
be expected to worsen further as large scale restruc- to a numerical restriction on the daily inflow, chil-
turing proceeds. The consequences for immigrant dren of Hong Kong parentage born on the mainland.
workers, who prior to the crisis were believed to With the exception of being unable to choose the
number approximately five million (quantification is immigrants it receives from mainland China how-
extremely difficult given the widespread phenome- ever, the number of whom is fixed at 150 per day
non of illegal immigration), have been severe and (45 of these places are allocated to the aforemen-
are set to deteriorate further. tioned children, a limitation which is currently the
One can expect a sharp reduction in the subject of a legal challenge), Hong Kong retains con-
demand for foreign labour. Indeed, the authorities trol over policy relating to international migration.
in many of the region’s economies have already This includes, most notably, the administration of
decided not renew the permits of those legally reg- labour importation schemes (generally linked to
istered and to expel undocumented workers. Large- large-scale construction projects) and the issuance
scale repatriation is, however, improbable for not of employment visas to skilled professionals.
only is such a measure potentially extremely costly The economic impact on Hong Kong of the emi-
both financially and in terms of external relations, it gration of skilled professionals has not been as
is also exceedingly difficult to implement: the immi- severe as earlier reports had predicted. The vacan-
grants will not return to their countries of origin vol- cies have generally been filled with little difficulty
untarily. (Indeed, some countries have already by internal promotion and fresh recruitment from
experienced varying degrees of protest by immi- overseas. A significant proportion of those who left
grants faced with the prospect of repatriation.) Fur- the province prior to the handover have returned,
thermore, the existence of firmly embedded net- albeit in possession of a second travel document.
works of illegal workers are a considerable asset to Their long-term commitment to the province
those who wish to stay and work for employers keen appears to be contingent on future political and
to hire clandestine workers in order to hold down economic developments.
costs in the face of increased competitive pressure. The new arrivals from mainland China generally
In several South-east Asian economies, remit- have poor qualifications (or qualifications which are
tances from overseas workers, in addition to having not recognised in Hong Kong). These new immi-
made an important contribution to maintaining bal- grants are therefore competing directly with those
ance of payments equilibrium, have also been an most deeply affected by the recent wave of indus-
important contributory factor in reducing income trial restructuring, namely, unskilled and semi-
inequalities. Migrant workers working in countries skilled workers. The fears of Filipino domestic help-
whose currencies have suffered a marked devalua- ers (who constitute over 80 per cent of this category
tion (or depreciation) against the dollar have wit- of worker) that they would be replaced by mainland
nessed a sharp fall in the value of their remittances. Chinese have not been realised. This is almost
Moreover, those countries whose currencies have wholly due to the fact that Chinese nationals cannot
undergone the largest depreciations are also those enter under that status. To this factor can be added
whose economies are in the greatest difficulty; the the desire of the Hong Kong Chinese to retain
slowdown in labour intensive sectors exacerbates English speakers in their households for the linguis-
46 the initial currency impact. Countries confronted by tic benefit of their children.
2. Recent migration trends in Central and a) Sizeable inflows and outflows

Eastern Europe since the opening of the borders
Recent migration developments in Central and The changes which have taken place in Central
Eastern Europe display two clear trends, namely, a and Eastern Europe have led to an increase in
reversal in the net migration balance in certain migration movements not only from East to West
countries such as the Czech Republic and Hungary, but also between the various countries of the region.
(or if not, at least the beginnings of foreign immigra- Two other aspects of recent East-West migration
tion) and the increasing importance of intra-regional flows merit highlighting: these new flows are occur-
movements. An important part of these movements ring in the context of the migration trends already
concerns the migration of ethnic minorities. Such observed in the past (Polish emigrants, followed by
flows, already quite sizeable in the case of Germany, those from Romania, constitute the largest groups in
grew during the 1980s. These movements largely these flows); Germany remains the principal receiv-
involve ethnic Germans (in Poland, Hungary, ing country for migrants from Central and Eastern
Romania and the former Soviet Union), Hungarians Europe.
(in Romania and the Slovak Republic), Poles (in The traditions of Westward emigration are not
Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Siberia), Russians (in the identical for all the CEECs. In the past, the Poles and
Baltic States), Finns (in Russia and Estonia), Greeks the Romanians were the most numerous to emigrate
(in Albania and the Pontian region of the former to certain OECD countries. The location of the estab-
Soviet Union), and finally, Turks (in Bulgaria). lished expatriate communities explain, in part, the
Another trend is that of transit migration direction, nature and magnitude of the post-1989
towards western European countries. These flows East-West flows. Other East-West migration flows,
are essentially comprised of migrants either from notably those of seasonal and border workers,
other CEECs or other eastern European, Asian or developed after 1989; they largely correspond to a
African countries who, in the majority of cases, enter process of regional integration limited to border
one of the CEECs legally in the hope of rapidly regions within the framework of bilateral agreements
(illegally) reaching a western European country. This (for example, those between Germany as a recipient
phenomenon is increasingly obliging the CEECs to of labour from Poland and the Czech Republic, and
implement policies to control the flows, most often likewise those between Austria as a recipient of
in the context of international co-operation at the labour from Hungary and the Slovak Republic).
regional level, which frequently involves OECD In 1996 or for the most recent year for which
Member countries. data are available (see Table I.8), nearly all of the
Since 1989, Central and Eastern Europe has OECD countries counted immigrants from the CEECs
constituted a new migration area. Due to the impor- in their populations. In Australia, Canada and the
tance of flows between neighbouring countries shar- United States, available statistics refer to the for-
ing common historical, cultural and economic tradi- eign-born. Nationals of the former Yugoslavia, fol-
tions, reinforced by the sizeable population lowed by the Poles, were the most numerous in
movements provoked by social and ethnic tensions, Australia. In the United States, the Poles were again
the regionalisation of movements now predomi- the second most numerous preceded (just) by
nates. Contrary to certain alarmist forecasts, the nationals of the former Soviet Union. In Canada,
opening of national borders in Central and Eastern these latter outnumber the Poles by almost two to
Europe following the political changes of the late one.
1980s have, as yet, not resulted in massive popula- The majority of the European OECD countries
tion movements towards OECD countries. It is cer- count foreigners in their populations according to
tainly the case that emigration towards these coun- their nationality. In 1996, Germany was the principal
tries (in particular to Germany) is far from negligible, receiving country for nationals of the CEECs and the
however, these flows have declined markedly since former Soviet Union. Austria receives mainly
1993 despite the fact that migration flows of tempo- Romanians and Poles, followed by nationals from
rary labour have been increasing and that free circu- the former Czech and Slovak Federal Republic and
lation is being facilitated by the majority of the then Hungarians. The recent inflows notwithstand-
OECD Member countries which do not require entry ing, in the case of Germany and likewise that of
visas for nationals of CEECs wishing to stay less than Austria, nationals of the former Yugoslavia outstrip
three months. nationals of the CEECs by a wide margin, both in 47
Table I.8. A. Foreign residents who are nationals of central and eastern
European countries in selected European OECD countries, latest available year
Thousands
Austria Belgium Denmark Finland France Germany

1991 1996 1996 1996 1990 1996
Bulgaria 3.6 0.7 .. .. 0.8 36.0

Former CSFR 11.3 0.8 .. .. 2.0 29.6
Hungary 10.6 0.9 .. 0.4 2.9 55.7
Poland 18.3 5.7 5.3 0.7 46.3 283.4
Romania 18.5 2.2 1.1 .. 5.7 100.7
Former USSR 2.1 2.6 2.6 17.0 4.3 54.3
Former Yugoslavia 197.9 8.1 32.2 4.0 52.5 1 296.7
Total foreigners 517.7 911.9 237.7 73.8 3 596.6 7 314.0
Countries mentionned above (as a % of total foreigners) 50.7 2.3 17.4 29.9 3.2 25.4
Hungary Italy Netherlands Sweden Switzerland

1996 1996 1995 1996 1996
Bulgaria 1.5 .. 0.6 .. ..

Former CSFR1 3.7 .. 0.9 .. 4.6
Hungary 0.1 .. 1.1 2.9 3.5
Poland 4.3 27.4 5.9 15.9 4.4
Romania 61.6 31.7 1.5 3.8 ..
Former USSR .. .. 5.0 .. ..
Former Yugoslavia 14.9 94.6 32.8 36.6 305.0
Total foreigners 142.5 1 095.6 725.4 526.6 1 337.6
Countries mentionned above (as a % of total foreigners) 60.4 14.0 6.6 11.2 23.7
B. Immigrants born in central and eastern European countries residing in selected OECD countries,
latest available year
Thousands
Australia Canada Denmark Netherlands Sweden United States

1996 1996 1996 1995 1996 1990
Former CSFR .. 41.2 .. 3.9 .. 87.0

Hungary .. 54.2 1.4 4.9 14.7 110.3
Poland 65.1 193.4 9.8 13.6 39.5 388.3
Romania .. .. 1.4 3.1 11.2 91.1
Former USSR2 49.8 106.4 3.6 8.4 .. 389.9
Former Yugoslavia 118.5 122.0 27.6 43.8 72.8 141.5
Total of foreign-born 3 908.3 4 971.1 259.2 1 407.1 943.8 19 767.3
Countries mentionned above (as a % of total foreign-born) 6.0 10.4 16.9 5.5 14.6 6.1
1. Slovak Republic for Hungary.
2. Including Baltic States for Australia.
Sources: Census for Austria, France, Australia, Canada and the United States and population registers for the other countries.
terms as a proportion of the total population and of former Yugoslavia, Romanians and Poles. In Sweden
the labour force. By far the greatest number of for- and the Netherlands, after nationals of the former
mer Yugoslavia nationals live in Germany, followed Yugoslavia it is the Poles. In Finland, where nation-
by Switzerland and Austria. als of the former Soviet Union predominate, the
numbers of those originating from the CEECs and
In France, of the foreign residents originally the former Yugoslavia are very low. Excepting those
from Eastern Europe those from the former in the United States, the largest Polish and
Yugoslavia and Poland (47 000 of the latter according Romanian expatriate communities are located in
to the 1990 Census) are the most numerous. In Italy, Germany (283 000 and 100 000 persons
48 Albanians predominate followed by nationals of the respectively).
Of the European OECD countries, Germany Austria, in the same year, nationals of the former
receives the largest number of foreign workers from Czech and Slovak Federal Republic were the most
the CEECs. In 1996, the Poles were the most numer- numerous of the holders of short term or limited
ous (approximately 70 000, not including sub- duration (two year) permits, followed by Poles,
contract workers and seasonal workers), followed by Romanians and Hungarians. CEEC nationals there
the Romanians (25 000). In Austria in 1996, Polish account for approximately one in five of the foreign
foreign workers (close to 9 500) only just outnum- nationals in possession of a short-term work permit,
bered the Hungarians and Romanians (8 900 and but barely one in ten of those with a permanent
8 300 respectively). permit.
b) From permanent to temporary migration c) Central and Eastern Europe:

a regional migratory pole
After having developed rapidly from 1989, the
emigration flows of CEEC nationals to western coun- The political changes which have taken place in
tries have slowed down. For example, in absolute Central and Eastern Europe since 1989 have led to
terms the entries of Polish immigrants have the dismantling of controls on the movement of per-
decreased since 1991 in Denmark, France, the sons (abolishment of exit visas, removal of restric-
United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Sweden. In tions on the issuance of passports) in the majority of
Germany, since 1993 the net migration flow of these countries. These countries have also modified
Romanian nationals has been negative. The emigra- their nationality laws, in particular to allow expatri-
tion flow of Bulgarians of Turkish origin to Turkey has ates who had been deprived of their citizenship to
also decreased since 1993. Nevertheless, the exis- recover it. A second set of changes has concerned
tence of a wide range of ethnic minorities in the the establishment of programmes to encourage tem-
CEECs presents the potential for significant migra- porary labour migration to Western countries with
tion inflows to certain of the OECD countries. the object of developing the participants’ profes-
The number of refugees and asylum seekers sional experience and language skills, the introduc-
originating from the CEECs has also declined. tion of short and long-term residence permits for
Indeed, the OECD Member countries now consider foreigners, the abolition of visa requirements for the
all of the CEECs as ‘‘safe’’ countries, the citizens of nationals of most OECD countries, and the ratifica-
which are not eligible, in principle, to lodge asylum tion of the Geneva Convention on refugees.
requests. Moreover, the introduction in several Immigration flows are increasing. Indeed, in
European OECD countries from 1992 onwards of visa some of the CEECs and likewise in Russia, immigra-
regimes for the citizens of the former Yugoslavia led tion flows probably exceed those of emigration.
to a reduction in the number of people originating Unfortunately, the official data available do not per-
from that region obtaining refugee status. It should mit the accurate measurement of the magnitude of
be noted, however, that this reduction was offset to immigration flows.* On the basis of partial informa-
some extent by an increase in the number of those tion concerning the numbers of foreigners in the
granted temporary resident status on humanitarian CEECs, it would appear that the Czech Republic and
grounds. Hungary are host to the largest numbers of foreign-
Whereas permanent emigration to OECD coun- ers in possession of a long-term or permanent resi-
tries is declining, the temporary migration of work- dence permit (in the case of the Czech Republic,
ers is developing both from East to West and 45 800 and 153 000 respectively; in the case of
between the CEECs themselves. On the providers’ Hungary, 77 400 and 65 000 respectively). In addi-
side, the Poles are the most involved, working prin- tion, data on the initial registrations for short-term
cipally in Germany and Austria, but also in France, permits and the renewals thereof point to the sizea-
the Czech Republic and Sweden. In Germany, in ble volume of the temporary migration flows to
1996, the majority of Poles in temporary employ- these countries.
ment did so under inter-governmental agreements In the Czech Republic in 1996, approximately
for seasonal work and subcontract employment. In 152 800 foreigners held a residence permit valid for
* The present state of the CEECs’ migration statistics is such of foreign workers. For a detailed discussion of the con-
that they adequately cover neither migration movements, cepts used and the available data on migration in the
the number of foreigners in the population nor the number CEECs, see the Statistical Annex to this publication. 49
a duration of less than one year. The majority were entered in the same manner. The countries most
from the former Soviet Union (essentially Ukraine), affected are Poland and the Czech Republic due to
the Slovak Republic, Vietnam and Poland. In the their common borders with Germany. Bulgaria and
same year, Hungary issued over 25 000 short-term Hungary also receive transit migrants seeking to
permits, mostly for long visits, asylum claims or reach Greece and Austria, respectively. Regarding
employment; nationals of Romania, the former the latter, following the tightening of border controls
Yugoslavia and the former Soviet Union were the at the Austro-Hungarian border, many transit
most numerous. The net migration balance of the migrants have elected to change itinerary attempt-
Czech Republic, which was negative in 1989 and ing instead to reach Germany via the more permea-
1990, became positive in 1991 and has continued to ble borders of the Slovak Republic. Transit migra-
be so thereafter. In 1996, a total over 70 000 foreign- tion also concerns the Baltic States: nationals of the
ers held a work permit there; the available statistics former Soviet Union (Russians, Ukrainians, and
show that in addition to the Slovakian workers who Belarussians) and Middle Eastern countries use this
benefit from free access to the labour market, a route as a means of reaching the Nordic countries,
number of Ukrainians and Poles are also registered. principally Sweden.
In Hungary, Romanian workers account for just under Transit migration has given rise to the develop-
half of those in possession of a valid working permit ment of illegal immigration and employment in sev-
(the total in 1996 was 18 800). Immigration is also eral CEECs. The transit migrants come from
developing in Poland and Bulgaria. Regional for the neighbouring countries such as Turkey, Albania and
most part, and largely involving members of ethnic the former Yugoslavia, as well as from Bangladesh,
minorities, the immigration flows also originate India and Iran. The more flourishing is a country’s
from more distant regions such as Asia (for informal economy, the greater the pace at which the
example, Vietnam and China) and the Middle East. employment of immigrants in an irregular situation
The economic imbalances which exist at the develops.
heart of the CEECs and, in certain cases, the pres- Poland and the Czech Republic are the main
ence of ethnic minorities explain the migration poles of attraction, largely as a result of their rela-
movements between these countries and the pre- tively higher average wages, the convertibility of
dominance of flows from the Slovak Republic in their currencies and the relatively low unemploy-
those to the Czech Republic and similarly those ment rate in the Czech Republic. The majority of
from Romania in Hungary’s inflows. In addition, the transit migrants to the Czech Republic come from
opening of national borders, the economic changes the former Yugoslavia; those to Poland are largely
linked to the transition towards a market economy from Bosnia-Herzegovina and the former Soviet
and the collapse of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia republics. Gypsy migrants come mainly from
have also been important driving forces behind the Bulgaria, Romania and the Slovak Republic. These
growth in regional migration. Certain countries are latter countries also serve as transit countries for
now both sending and receiving countries. The main migrants, most of whom come from the former
sending regions are the former Soviet Union (nota- Soviet Union, seeking to enter Greece or Turkey in
bly Ukraine and Belarus), Romania, Poland, and the south and the Czech Republic to the north and
Bulgaria, to which should be added the former onwards towards other Western European countries.
Yugoslavia and the Baltic States. Geopolitical fac-
Far from all transit migrants actually succeed in
tors, particularly wars or ethnic conflicts in areas
emigrating to the West (mainly to Germany, Austria,
such as the former Yugoslavia, also contribute to
the Scandinavian countries and, to a lesser extent,
explaining migration flow patterns. The number of
Switzerland and Italy): many remain in the country of
refugees from the former Yugoslavia in the CEECs is
transit or return to their country of origin. Although
relatively high.
this circular migration contributes to the develop-
The CEECs also constitute a zone of temporary ment of clandestine migration and illegal employ-
stop-over points for potential immigrants hoping to ment it also stimulates commercial activity and
reach Western Europe or North America. The major- intra-regional trade. The CEECs, confronted with
ity of these migrants possess documentation immigration in all its forms, are increasingly examin-
authorising their stay, having typically entered ing with a view to implementation policies which
either as tourists, business persons, or students. might better control the flows. Various forms of co-
50 Many others illegally prolong their stay having operation have been established with OECD coun-
tries in order to develop such policies. At the same the EU’s enlargement towards the East, the prospect
time, the CEECs have also begun to co-operate of sizeable uncontrolled immigration flows is some-
among themselves and co-ordinate their actions in what more imagined that real. It therefore follows
order to better define the regulations governing the that although the migration issue should be taken
movement of persons within an enlarged European into account in the present and forthcoming debates
migration space. concerning the calendar and procedures for the EU’s
Four conclusions emerge from this overview of enlargement, it should not be overemphasised. The
recent migration trends in the countries of Central reasons for this cautious optimism result from the
and Eastern Europe. First, East-West migration flows considerations outlined below.
are continuing and reveal the predominance of cer- Whilst it is clear that the migration issue is one
tain nationalities and the relative importance of cer- of the challenges linked to the integration, over the
tain host countries. One notices next that these long term, of the CEECs into the EU, other factors of
flows are currently at levels lower than those regis- an economic, political and social nature are no less
tered between 1989 and 1992; this illustrates the important. Moreover, the membership process
desire on the part of OECD countries to control East- could very well be accompanied by certain transi-
West flows without totally closing their borders to all tional measures such as those which might postpone
immigration from the CEECs. Third, the changes the free movement of persons to a date beyond that
which have occurred in Central and Eastern Europe of a particular country’s entry to the Union – such
have led to some degree of growth in regional measures were taken at the time of Greece’s,
migration movements between the CEECs and to Portugal’s and Spain’s membership. In the
much stronger growth between them and their meantime, bilateral agreements could be made
neighbours to the East and South (the NIS and the between the CEECs and member countries of the
former Yugoslavia). Finally, immigration flows to the EU. For example, Austria and Germany have already
CEECs, considered in their entirety, are growing. signed bilateral agreements with Ukraine, the Slovak
Republic and the Czech Republic. It is likely that
d) The forthcoming enlargement other agreements governing the movement of per-
of the European Union to include countries sons will also be signed.
from Central and Eastern Europe: Next, the requirements exacted prior to mem-
the likely impact on migration flows bership could also contribute to reduce incentives
The process of economic and social transition to emigrate. Indeed, these requirements focus on
which the CEECs are undergoing is accompanied by the key economic and social indicators. In so far as
a desire to join the European Union. Between certain of the candidate countries are predicted to
1994 and 1996, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, attain the required performance levels, this proce-
Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, dure towards convergence could lead to a reduction
Romania, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia in standard of living disparities and likewise there-
presented their candidacy. This group of countries fore the incentives to emigrate. Moreover, the EU
covers an area of just over one million square has initiated a process leading to the harmonisation
kilometres (in other terms, one third of the size of of labour standards; this should translate into a
the current European Union) and count over 100 mil- reduction in the number of hours worked and an
lion inhabitants (that is, 30 per cent of the present increase in the minimum wage. Whatever the delays
total population of the member countries of the EU). in the implementation of this policy, the CEECs will
Of these countries, Poland and Romania together be obliged to conform to the accepted norms. The
contain over half of the total population of the resulting improvements in working conditions will
CEECs. The member countries of the EU are con- lead to a corresponding reduction in the incentives
cerned about the consequences that the enlarge- to emigrate.
ment of the Union might have on the immigration As the migration trends (presented above)
flows originating from or transiting through the reveal, in the hypothetical situation whereby the
CEECs. memberships of a number of the CEECs occur simul-
A preliminary assessment based on research taneously, their emigration flows would not become
carried out under the auspices of the OECD leads uniquely directed towards the existing member
one to the conclusion that although migration merits counties of the EU. Given the economic imbalances
attention as an important question in the context of which exist at the heart of the CEECs [which are 51
Table I.9. Central and Eastern Europe: economic indicators, 1997
Czech Republic Hungary Poland Slovak Republic Bulgaria Romania
Population (millions of inhabitants) 10 299 10 135 38 660 5 388 8 283 22 526

Total employment (thousands)1 4 905 3 610 15 177 2 194 3 090 11 050
Unemployment (thousands)1 242 349 1 923 287 491 707
Unemployment rate (%)1 5 9 11 12 14 6
Industrial production (Index 1990 = 100)2 81 101 139 82 62 68
Labour productivity (Index Q4 1992 = 100)3 118 131 146 111 130 142
Monthly earnings (US dollars)4 357 305 267 279 81 118
Exports (billions of US dollars)5 23 20 27 9 5 8
Index 1991 = 100 271 211 213 .. 169 261
Imports (billions of US dollars)5 27 21 39 10 5 11
Index 1991 = 100 308 235 303 .. 198 254
Sum of FDI, net6 (billions of US dollars) 8 14 8 .. 1 2
1. 1997 Labour Force Survey data.

2. Slovak Republic data refer to 1996; Bulgaria data refer to Q3 1996.
3. Labour productivity in industry; Czech Republic data refer to Q4 1993; Bulgaria data refer to Q3 1996.
4. Total gross average wages; applying average period exchange rate; 1996 data for Czech Republic and Bulgaria.
5. Bulgaria data refer to 1996.
6. Sum of foreign direct investments from 1992 to 1997; 1997 data are estimates.
Sources: OECD-CCNM Labour Market database; Short-term Economic Indicators: Transition economies, OECD; OECD National Accounts database; EBRD, The
Economics of Transition, Vol. 6, No. 1.
reflected in different standards of living, real nature of the migration system (whether oriented
wage levels and unemployment rates (see more towards settlement or labour), the country’s
Table 1.9) – important factors influencing the deci- geopolitical situation, and the its willingness (which
sion to emigrate] it is quite likely that a large part of has been shown by most OECD countries) to exer-
any migration flows will be directed towards the cise its sovereign right in matters of admission, exit,
more developed of the new members. and stay of foreigners. Certain Member countries of
the OECD which have recently had to establish poli-
cies in order to control migration flows (southern
C. AN OVERVIEW OF MIGRATION POLICIES European countries and certain countries of Central
and Eastern Europe) find their policy options heav-
Migration policies in OECD countries can be
ily influenced by the dominant migration systems
grouped into three broad areas. The first consists of
already in place in the traditional immigration coun-
measures adopted nationally to strengthen the con-
tries of Western Europe. Those that are already
trol of flows (including those of asylum seekers) and
Members of the European Union (EU), like Greece,
to more effectively fight against illegal immigration.
Italy, Portugal, and Spain, have modelled a signifi-
The second covers all measures that aim to ensure a
cant portion of their legislation on the policies in
better integration of migrants in the host country.
The third concerns international co-operative meas- force among other EU Member countries. Those who
ures taken on a bilateral or regional level in order to have more recently joined the EU, such as Austria,
improve the management of migration flows. Sweden, and Finland, find themselves obliged to
implement directives of the European Commission
Due to the nature of contemporary migration, or provisions on immigrants’ rights that are con-
international population movements raise a number tained in co-operative agreements between the
of common challenges for public policy: inflow and Commission and a number of non-Member coun-
outflow control (both quantity and selection crite- tries. Those Central and Eastern European countries
ria), labour market regulation with respect to the (CEECs) which have already begun negotiating their
new foreign labour force, and the integration of possible entry into the EU, are endeavouring to
increasingly diverse categories of migrants (includ- establish new migration policies that conform to EU
ing immigrant workers, their families, temporary and standards in the areas of the entry of refugees, the
permanent migrants). But the responses of individ- stay and employment of foreigners, and the control
52 ual countries differ substantially according to the of borders.
1. Policies for regulating and controlling flows model in favour of the distinction between EU and
non-EU countries.
Policies intended to better control flows con-
cern essentially i) the redefinition of the conditions Poland’s Parliament replaced the Aliens Act of
of entry and stay for foreigners, ii) the revision of 1963 with a new Aliens Law, effective as of 25 June
legislation and procedures pertaining to the right to 1997, in response to the increased inflow of undesir-
asylum, and iii) the reinforcement of control systems able immigrants. Other agreements, including the
European Social Charter (with the exception of arti-
both at the border and within the country in order to
cle 20) were ratified as part of increasing co-opera-
prevent and combat illegal migration.
tion with neighbouring European countries. Poland
is one of several countries that have adopted a for-
a) The regulation of flows mal policy of repatriation of its ethnic nationals. In
and the implementation of new legislation the wake of the dissolution of the former Soviet
Union, the Baltic States, Bulgaria, the Czech
Recent trends show that OECD countries have Republic and Romania, have been similarly engaged
adopted a more restrictive attitude towards the in reintegrating displaced nationals and their
entry and stay of new immigrants. Several countries descendants. For the moment, return flows have
have introduced significant changes to their legisla- been minimal and have met with more integration
tion [see above and in the detailed country notes problems than anticipated. Language and cultural
(Part II)]. In most cases the changes aim to tighten estrangement are often a consequence of prolonged
the rules governing family reunion and to establish separation, and it is not uncommon for only one
more selective criteria for permanent immigration. spouse to be of the target ethnic tradition.
For many European OECD countries, where unem-
In Belgium, the Vande Lanotte Law, enacted in
ployment levels remain high, the wish to place
July 1996, amends the Act of 15 December 1980 on
stricter limits on immigration flows (while still per-
the entry, stay, settlement and deportation of for-
mitting family reunion and refugee movements) is in
eigners with the aim of tightening immigration con-
part due to the necessity of meeting new require-
trols and limiting the entry and settlement of nation-
ments imposed by adherence to the Schengen
als from non-EU countries. The Act also contains
Agreement and, for certain countries, the EU. Most
provisions placing greater responsibility on trans-
non-OECD European countries, principally those of
port operators, conferring on them the duty to check
Eastern Europe, have embarked on the complete
not only the entry papers required of certain catego-
revision of their legislation on immigration, either in ries of foreigners but also that passengers have the
the hope of facilitating their entry into the EU or means to support themselves during their stay in
simply in order to improve their control of migration Belgium. Foreign students must prove that they
flows. In the case of nations once associated with the have sufficient funds to live on and any person
former Soviet Union, these migration phenomena found to be excessively prolonging their studies can
may represent new challenges not adequately cov- be refused permission to stay. Also, family members
ered by existing legislative regimes. of students may receive orders to leave the territory
The Schengen Zone has been enlarged from if their income and living conditions are considered
seven (Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, the unsatisfactory. One of the more contested compo-
Netherlands, Portugal and Spain) to ten countries nents of the Law is the extension to eight months of
with the inclusion in 1997 of Austria, Greece, and the administrative detention period for foreigners
Italy. Participating countries have been revising leg- found to be in an irregular situation, with the possi-
islation in order to accommodate the requirements bility of prolongation.
of the Agreement. At the same time, certain difficul- In other OECD countries, changes and revisions
ties remain regarding these countries’ implementa- to migration policy have been prompted by specific
tion of this Agreement’s and France’s overriding con- events. After a documentary on gypsy integration in
cern about the circulation of illegal drugs which has Canada was broadcast on Czech TV in August 1997,
led it to provisionally re-establish border controls Canada received a flood of applications from Czech
with some participating countries. In Switzerland, gypsies (Roma) wishing to emigrate there. Con-
the Federal Commission is currently engaged in cerned by the possibility of a mass influx of Roma,
drafting a new Law on the Residency and Settlement Canada responded in October of the same year by
of Foreigners that moves away from the three circle restoring visa requirements for Czech tourists. 53
Following a significant increase in illegal immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act,
gration and large inflows of migrants from Albania passed in September 1996, increases the sponsoring
and the former Yugoslavia, Italy has been occupied income for legal immigration and strengthens its
with revising its immigration legislation. The new enforcement. This new legislation will particularly
law, which is intended to promote the integration of affect people who may have difficulty meeting the
regular immigrants, also introduces an entrance new income-level criteria and who will therefore no
quota system and seeks to curtail illegal immigra- longer be able to legally bring in their non-US citi-
tion, notably through a policy of ‘‘immediate zen relatives, including spouses and children. The
expulsion’’. Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Rec-
onciliation Act of August 1996 (often referred to as
In Austria, quotas on the number of available
the ‘‘Welfare Act’’) restricts benefits for nearly all
residence permits were reduced in 1996. Austria’s
categories of legal permanent residents to two major
accession to the European Economic Area (EEA) in
Federal assistance programmes (refugees and asy-
1994 and to the EU in 1995 has led to important
lum seekers are exempt from these restrictions).
policy changes. Austria’s policy has been brought
into conformity with EU regulations: citizens of EU In Canada, general regulations have also been
member countries are no longer included in the tightened and ‘‘family sponsorship’’ criteria stiff-
quotas set on residence visas, and Austria must now ened, making it more difficult for low-income
comply with special agreements made between the Canadians to bring in their relatives. In Australia,
EU and non-EU countries (in particular, that con- where in 1996 the government made it clear that it
cluded with Turkey). In addition, the allowances intends to tighten entry rules for immigrants, reduce
granted to foreign residents whose children were overall immigration levels, and reduce the burden
living abroad were abolished in October 1996. Par- on the state budget by ensuring that immigrants and
ents wishing to get round this restriction by bringing their sponsors meet their fair share of initial costs,
their children into Austria are, over the short term, the introduction of similar restrictions is being dis-
largely prevented from doing so by the quota limits cussed. Greater emphasis is being placed on skill-
established on family reunion. based rather than family-based immigration in the
issuance of residency visas. Canada’s Adjustment
In the Netherlands, the Aliens Employment Act Assistance Programme was rebaptised the Resettle-
(1 September 1995) has replaced the Foreign Work- ment Assistance Programme in April 1998, and will
ers Employment Act with the goal of better regulat- no longer be providing direct assistance to immi-
ing the employment of non-EEA foreigners in the grants; it will instead fund services provided by
Dutch labour market. In Switzerland, seasonal per- other institutions on a contractual basis. The Austra-
mits have been limited to the nationals of tradi- lian government has adopted an integration strategy
tional recruitment countries from the EU and EFTA, that provides grants to ethnic and other community
and only in special cases will be granted to nationals organisations involved in the settlement of
of other traditional recruitment countries. Prior to immigrants.
the new Act on the entry of seasonal workers
(19 October 1994), only new work permits had been Japanese migration policy continues to focus
subject to this rule. Recent measures in Germany exclusively on the entry of foreigners with technical
have also been designed to restrict entries of new expertise, special skills or knowledge, or who
workers from countries outside the EU. The United engage in business requiring knowledge of a foreign
Kingdom government put forward a Special Immi- culture not possessed by Japanese. The criteria for
gration Appeals Bill (21 May 1996) in response to the entry under the category of entertainers was tight-
decision of the European Court of Human Rights ened out of concern that those entering through that
according to which existing appeals procedures did category were often not fully qualified. The stricter
not fully meet the requirements of the European criteria has led to a fall in their entries.
Convention on Human Rights in cases where depor-
tation had been made on national security grounds. National preference in the labour market
Canada, Australia, and the United States con- Most OECD countries have legislation in place
tinue to seek immigrants for permanent settlement. to protect the domestic labour market. This legisla-
The selection policies of these three countries differ tion, often referred to as the ‘priority rule‘‘, requires
significantly from those of EU member countries. In that nationals or resident foreigners be given the
54 the United States, one provision of the Illegal Immi- opportunity to apply for jobs before permits are
issued to newly entering foreigners. In Luxembourg, An important policy initiative in Australia has been
the Grand Ducal Regulation of 17 June 1994 laid directed at developing mechanisms to encourage
down the measures applicable for the employment both permanent and temporary business migration.
of foreign workers within the Grand Duchy. Priority is Provisions allow business people who are tempora-
given to citizens of countries that are Member states rily in Australia to more easily apply for permanent
of the EU and the EEA. In Finland, an amended residency and to establish a business with greater
Aliens Act came into force in March 1994 which ease. Canada and Australia continue to use point
implemented a new procedure for issuance work systems as a means of selecting highly skilled immi-
permits to employers. This procedure links the issu- grants. This may, however, be a factor contributing
ance of work permits to foreigners with the local to the phenomenon of urban settlement, as the
labour market situation. In the Netherlands, the leg- skills accorded the highest importance are usually
islation of September 1995 re-affirms the priority exercised urban areas. The United States allots a
rule for the Dutch labour market. In Bulgaria, high fixed number of visas to foreigners of exceptional
unemployment and increasing inflows of foreigners ability and who possess international recognition in
claiming to be ’’in transit‘‘ (many of whom, it is sus- their field of activity, including sports.
pected, enter the labour market) led to the addition NAFTA has increased the ease with which work-
of new selection criteria for work permits in ers (business investors, traders, intra-company
1996 requiring foreigners to have special skills or a transferees, and professionals) can temporarily
specific educational background completed by pro- move between the United States, Mexico, and
fessional experience. In addition, employment con- Canada. At present, however, most circulation has
tracts must be full-time and Bulgarian employers been limited to the United States and Canada.
must first attempt to hire Bulgarian workers. In NAFTA provisions, it should be noted, do not con-
Hungary, the employment situation may constitute cern permanent settlement.
grounds for refusal to employ any foreigners wishing
to work there. The same has been true of the Slovak
Immigration policies in the new host countries
Republic since 1995.
The United States is considering a variation on Over the course of the past decade, a number
the priority rule in the area of H-1B visas, normally of countries which were not accustomed to receiving
issued to professionals and intra-company transfer- sizeable inflows of immigrants have found them-
ees working temporarily in the United States. The selves ill-equipped to effectively control these
Department of Labor is proposing reforms which flows. They have responded by enacting new legis-
would require employers to attest that they had not lation in order to clarify vague or inadequate poli-
laid off US workers in the occupations for which they cies and to establish authorities responsible for
are seeking foreign staff for the six months prior to migration. New legislation addressing, inter alia, the
and after the request. They would further have to conditions for the entry, residence, departure, and
attest that they had first tried to hire US workers. A expulsion of foreigners was enacted in Poland (1997)
reduction in the authorised stay from six to three and in the Slovak Republic (1995, 1996).
years has also been proposed in order to better In the face of ever-increasing numbers of immi-
reflect the permit’s ‘‘temporary’’ nature. grants, the Czech Republic is preparing a new law on
the entry and stay of foreigners which will resemble
legislation currently existing within the EU. Specific
Facilitating the flows of the highly skilled
changes will be made in the areas of category of stay
Several countries have implemented policies to and visa practices, and Czech embassies and con-
facilitate the flows of highly skilled immigrants. In sulates will henceforth handle the issuance of resi-
France, labour market access has been facilitated dence permits. Romania might likewise be
and employment eligibility requirements relaxed for described as a country of immigration. Its liberal
highly skilled foreigners through new provisions regulations governing entry, such as visa-free entry
designed to streamline the procedures for renewing for tourists, and the fact that managers do not need
temporary work and residence permits. In work permits, favour international migration.
Switzerland, legislation of October 1995 facilitates Romania’s liberal policies have also contributed to
the immigration of skilled workers by allowing family its role as a transit country in East-West flows. Enter-
members access to the labour market and permits ing the country is relatively easy; transit migrants are
the entry of service providers on a temporary basis. usually only detected when attempting to exit 55
Romania’s western border. The government is trying costs and moving expenses. In certain cases, more-
to closely model its legislation on the norms of the over, a special allowance would be granted in order
EU. to help defray the initial resettlement costs. The
Increased numbers of foreigners in Mexico, Ministry of Development Co-operation has already
especially refugees from Guatemala, El Salvador, set up pilot projects with the same goal. These
and Honduras, has led to a revision and redefinition projects target both legal immigrants and rejected
of migration policy within the larger framework of asylum seekers. They provide support similar to
the General Law on Population. On 26 February that set out in the proposed Act. Both the Act and
1996, Mexico and Guatemala signed a joint declara- the initiatives of the Ministry have been met with
tion recognising the necessity of establishing a legal some support from NGOs and refugee associations.
framework for Guatemalan temporary agricultural
workers in Mexico, who at present have no legal b) Laws and procedures concerning asylum
status to ensure protection of their rights. seekers
The Baltic States have become countries of In all OECD countries, the procedure for grant-
emigration, in their case to the East rather than to ing refugee status is regulated by the Geneva Con-
the West. Under the Soviet regime they received vention of 28 July 1951 and by the New York Protocol
considerable numbers of immigrants from other of 31 January 1967 which define the criteria for deter-
Soviet republics: from the end of the Second World mining the validity of asylum requests and for
War to 1989 their foreign populations increased from according refugee status. In reaction to the strong
20 to 48 per cent. With the dissolution of the former growth in the number of requests for asylum since
Soviet Union they have begun experiencing the early 1990s, most countries have introduced new
problems with the integration of these foreign-born legislation and implemented new administrative
populations, who usually do not speak the local lan- procedures, in particular to speed up the processing
guage. There have been sizeable return flows of of applications and to deal more quickly with mani-
these immigrants to their countries of origin. festly spurious requests. The objective of these pol-
Regarding immigration, the basic policies of the icies is to prohibit entry to persons whose request is
Baltic States remain restrictive: only return migration clearly unfounded and to avoid giving unsuccessful
of ethnic nationals dispersed throughout the former applicants the time to familiarise themselves with
Soviet republics is actively encouraged. Neverthe- the society of the host country and plan an illegal
less, mirroring the situation which prevails in certain stay. In addition, many countries have introduced
CEECs countries, they have also become transit the principle of ‘‘safe countries’’ into their asylum
countries for migration towards western and legislation, enabling asylum seekers to be rejected
northern Europe for nationals of Asian countries, on the basis that they have come directly or have
mainly India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. passed through a country considered safe. Recent
measures have also had the goal of improving ser-
Measures to encourage voluntary return vices provided to refugees and to asylum seekers
whose requests are deemed legitimate.
Several European OECD countries have estab- Due to the growing number of asylum seekers
lished policies to encourage the voluntary return of (and temporary refugees) over recent years, the
immigrants to their countries of origin, especially issue of voluntary repatriation is high on the agenda
those who were granted a temporary status for in many OECD host countries. Another interesting
humanitarian reasons. This primarily concerns development has been the recourse to sophisti-
nationals of the former Yugoslavia. cated technology in order to facilitate the identifica-
In Spring 1998, the Dutch Parliament discussed tion of foreigners. An amendment (June 1997) to
a proposal for a new Act on return migration. It was Denmark’s Aliens Act authorises the taking finger-
proposed that financial support be made available prints and pictures of foreigners, and using DNA-
to immigrants wishing to return to their country of testing in cases of family reunion. The Dutch Minis-
origin. Most of the potential beneficiaries are try of Justice has announced a number of measures
nationals from former labour recruitment countries to curb inflows of asylum seekers (principally from
(Morocco, Turkey, Cape-Verde Islands, states of the Iraq and Afghanistan). These include the use of fin-
former Yugoslavia) or from Surinam, as well as refu- gerprints as a means of checking identity. Several
56 gees. The proposed subsidies would cover travel Nordic countries are currently discussing the possi-
bility of sharing information and making it available, enable applications to be refused if unfounded or
as technology permits, to other EU countries. based on insufficient information has contributed to
the streamlining of the administrative procedures
Hungary recently passed a new Asylum Act. It
and has not only resulted in an overall decline in
took effect in March 1998 and recognises several
the number of asylum seekers since 1994 but also a
categories of refugees: ‘‘refugee’’ for reasons of race,
reduction in the number of applications from nation-
national status, social group, or political conviction;
als of countries considered safe. Since January 1995,
‘‘asylum seeker’’ fleeing foreign invasion, war, or eth-
most Bosnian war refugees have been granted a res-
nic confrontation; and, ‘‘accepted refugee’’ facing
idence permit enabling them to benefit from the
death, torture, or inhuman or humiliating treatment.
same integration programmes available to
A draft of Bulgaria’s Refugee Law was discussed with
recognised refugees (housing, social benefits, edu-
representatives of the UNHCR and the Bulgarian
cation, and work permits).
National Assembly in Geneva in December 1996.
The creation of transit centres at Sofia’s international Ireland is currently experiencing unusually high
airport and near border checkpoints is being numbers of asylum requests, although the numbers
considered. are still small in comparison with those of other EU
countries. This may be due in part to a spill-over
In July 1996, the United Kingdom passed a new
effect resulting from the more restrictive stance
Asylum and Immigration Act which denies social
recently adopted by traditional receiving countries.
benefits to asylum seekers who do not immediately
This new interest in Ireland may also be due to the
make their request on entering the country and to
passage of the 1996 Refugees Act which makes asy-
those appealing a rejection. Moreover, in addition
lum procedures more transparent and broadens the
to designating ‘‘safe’’ countries from which asylum
definition of ‘‘refugee’’ as established by the
applications are now unlikely to be successful the
1951 Geneva Convention and the 1967 Protocol:
Act also contains provisions designed to speed up
Ireland recognises persecution for reasons of gen-
the processing of asylum appeals by extending the
der, sexual orientation, or membership of a trade
accelerated appeals procedure to a wider range of
union. The Act is the first significant legislation in
cases. The Dutch Parliament introduced the princi-
this area since 1936, establishing an Applications
ple of ‘‘safe countries’’ in August 1994, enabling asy-
Commissioner to independently assess applications
lum seekers to be rejected on this basis. In order to
for asylum as well as an Appeals Board. It contains
better implement this policy, new asylum centres
provisions that ratify the Dublin Convention on the
were opened at the Belgian and German borders for
rules for examining asylum applications within the
the immediate rejection of applications coming from
EU.
any ‘‘safe country’’. The Netherlands is expected to
ratify an amendment to the 1994 Law (specifically, In Belgium, legislation of 10 and 15 July 1996
article 15c) which would introduce the possibility of (the Vande Lanotte Law) extends the period of
deeming a claim unfounded when it can be proved detention for undocumented foreigners. During this
that the asylum seeker is responsible for the period, the relevant authorities are responsible for
destruction of identifying documents. As a result, making the necessary arrangements for return to the
some airlines now collect passenger documents and home country. Another measure introduced by the
retain them until arrival. In Germany, tougher legis- Act requires that all applicants for asylum be accom-
lation introduced on 1 July 1993 to clarify the eligi- modated in a reception centre. Certain Belgian com-
bility criteria for asylum applications has drastically munes have been refusing to register applicants for
reduced the number of requests regarded as justifi- refugee status.
able and also increased the recognition rate. Several countries have abolished the temporary
In the United States, asylum seekers who make protection categories created to handle requests for
their request from US territory are no longer allowed asylum by nationals of the former Yugoslavia. In
immediate access to the labour market, a decision Sweden, the new immigration law passed in Nov-
which should reduce the attractiveness of this entry ember 1996 went into effect in January 1997. The law
channel. Also in the United States, the staffing levels applies a broader interpretation of the Geneva Con-
of the departments that process asylum applications vention with regard to the provision of protection to
have been increased. In Denmark, several changes asylum seekers. At the same time, however, the
concerning asylum seekers were made in 1995 to the right to asylum was restricted to war refugees and
Aliens Act. The earlier introduction of a procedure to the protection category of de facto refugee was 57
abolished. In Belgium, the displaced person status, adopted laws on refugees and asylum seekers which
created in 1992 to handle requests for asylum from bring them within the norms established by the
nationals of the former Yugoslavia, was abolished. In Geneva Convention and the New York Protocol. For
Norway, according to the White Paper on Refugee the moment, only Lithuania has begun practical
Policy debated by Parliament in June 1995, the application of these procedures.
instrument of ‘‘collective protection’’ will be used Faced with increasing flows from Iraq and
only in the case of large-scale refugee flows and will Afghanistan, the Dutch government is attempting to
offer temporary protection, after consultation with increase co-operation and harmonisation with
the UNHCR and the affected country. The police will Germany and other EU Member countries. Sweden,
no longer conduct interviews with asylum seekers; on the one hand, and Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania
instead, the Directorate of Immigration will take on the other, have decided to co-operate in order to
over that function. In addition, appeals on their improve control of Sweden’s eastern border and
decisions can now be made to the Ministry of prevent transit migration.
Justice.
The increasing emphasis on harmonisation
Following the recommendations of the UNHCR, should ultimately allow countries to place more con-
a number of countries are seeking to repatriate fidence in the practices of neighbouring countries
‘‘convention refugees’’ when conditions in their that share common policies. Yet signs of reluctance
countries of origin permit. With the improved situa- to grant that confidence persist. At the same time
tion in Bosnia and Herzegovina since the Dayton that Ireland has made its procedures concerning
Agreements (1995), the Czech Republic decided in asylum seekers more transparent and straightfor-
November 1996 to implement a programme of vol- ward, it has reserved the right to examine persons
untary repatriation of refugees from those countries. (other than EU citizens) arriving from the United
This programme required all refugees not in jeop- Kingdom in order to determine their eligibility to
ardy of losing their lives and fit for travel to leave enter (Statutory Order enacted on 29 June 1997) and
the Czech Republic’s territory by 30 September in so doing pick out the ‘‘bogus refugees’’.
1997.
Although Mexico has not yet ratified the
Geneva Convention, a new programme for Guatema-
Harmonisation of asylum policy lan refugees was initiated in August 1996. Refugees
Most EU countries have already taken measures will be able to obtain documents allowing them to
to harmonise their policies on asylum seekers and live and work legally in Mexico. The programme also
to bring them into conformity with the protocols of enables refugees to acquire Mexican nationality if
the Schengen Agreement. In most cases, changes they have children born in Mexico or are married to
concern the definition of asylum seeker and the Mexicans.
right to residence and work for those whose status is
recognised. Measures facilitating the expulsion of
c) The fight against illegal immigration
those not granted asylum status are also common
points in recent legislative developments. OECD countries continue to combat illegal
Greece has recently sought to bring its legisla- immigration by means of stricter border controls,
tion into accordance with EU directives, Council of workplace inspections, and identity checks within
Europe conventions, and the Geneva Convention their countries. These measures are intended
(which Greece signed in 1959, but with reservations respectively i) to make it more difficult for people to
concerning the right of refugees to work and circu- illegally enter the country (with falsified or invalid
late freely). Laws passed in 1996 set out the proce- documents, or by illegally crossing the border, ii) to
dures regulating the bestowal of political refugee reduce illegal participation in the workforce, and
status, the processing of asylum requests as well as iii) to discourage illegal residence, particularly by
the granting of work permits to recognised refugees. persons who overstay their visas or residence per-
The Czech Republic adopted a new law in March mits. This latter infraction is of particular concern to
1997 that expedites the processing of applications the United States, where some 40 per cent of illegal
for asylum and provides greater protection for refu- immigrants in 1996 were visa overstayers.
gees. Although it receives relatively few applica- Most OECD Member countries continue to
tions, Romania passed new legislation on asylum experience illegal immigration, indeed its growth. It
58 seekers in 1996. At the end of 1997, the Baltic States is quite apparent that this activity is organised on an
international level, with increasingly sophisticated the Interior appointed a working group which began
methods being employed by traffickers. Of particu- on 1 November 1997 to study the problem of illegal
lar note is the use of high technology equipment for immigration.
the production of forged documents that are virtu- The United States continues to experience a
ally undetectable using conventional verification high volume of illegal immigration (undocumented
procedures. These trafficking activities have also workers are estimated at 5 million, with a projected
extended to new countries, which are often ill- annual growth of 275 000). Mexico is the leading
equipped to respond because they have only country of origin for illegal immigration to the US. In
recently become receiving or transit countries and recent years the United States has paid increasing
consequently lack preventative experience. They attention to visa overstayers. They account for over
may also lack the resources to provide an adequate 90 per cent of the undocumented immigrants who
response. Certain countries have already taken do not originate from Mexico or Central America.
measures in response to the recent surge in traffick-
The principal and perhaps most obvious
ing. Such measures include increasing the police’s
response to illegal immigration is tightening borders
authority, increasing the penalties for convicted traf-
and toughening entry legislation. In Canada, legisla-
fickers and developing new technologies for the
tive changes which became effective on 10 July 1995
detection of forged documents and for tracking
deny access to the refugee status request system for
migrants’ movements. At the same time, co-opera-
multiple or fraudulent claimants and for criminals. In
tion among the affected countries with the aim of
the United States, the Illegal Immigration Reform
dismantling the traffickers’ networks has grown.
and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 includes a
Given the substantial fees charged by traffickers,
provision barring admission to the country for up to
there is a considerable risk that ties will develop
10 years for individuals found to be unlawfully
with other types of organised crime, including Mafia
present.
networks and prostitution rings.
In order to combat the efforts of organised traf-
Poland has become one of the principal transit fickers, Japan’s Immigration Control Act was
countries for illegal migrants heading towards the amended to establish new penalties for the collec-
West from Asia, the Middle East, and the former tive smuggling of aliens (effective 11 May 1997). The
Soviet Union. According to a special report prepared Immigration Bureau is also requesting that sending
by the Department of Migration and Refugee Affairs countries severely prosecute persons involved in
published in 1997, there has been a dramatic smuggling activities. In Belgium, a government
increase in the trafficking of migrants since 1996 and report on the trafficking of humans (March 1996) con-
likewise the number of illegal transporters associ- cluded that current policies are infrequently or
ated with this traffic. Hungary too is concerned by poorly applied in combating the problem. It further
this phenomenon which is also connected with the noted the inefficiency of the organisations charged
recruitment of young women for prostitution net- with assisting victims of these activities. Sweden has
works. The Czech Republic continues to be a transit raised the maximum penalty for organising illegal
country for migrants attempting to enter Western immigration from two to four years of imprisonment.
Europe, especially nationals of the former Norway raised their penalty from two to five years in
Yugoslavia. These flows have, however, decreased 1997. A further penalty of up to two years was estab-
from the highs reached in the early and mid-1990s, lished for individuals who provide their passport or
possibly as a result of changes made in 1994 to visa any similar travel document for the purpose of aid-
policies regarding the Balkan Peninsula and the NIS. ing a foreign national to enter Norway. Such actions
In the Baltic States, control of the eastern boarders are now considered criminal rather than civil
remains difficult. There is an urgent need for collab- offences. The majority of Norway’s asylum seekers
oration between the East and West in order to stem initially entered the country illegally. Mexico
these illegal activities. amended its General Law on Population on 8 Nov-
Traditional receiving countries have also been ember 1996 to increase the penalty for individuals
affected by the rise in illegal migration. Germany who traffic in persons without papers. Penalties were
attributes an increase in the illegal entry of foreign- also increased for cases where the life or health of
ers to the criminal activities of trafficking organisa- migrants, especially minors, is put at risk.
tions that charge as much as DM 40 000 for smug- In addition to increasing penalties for traffick-
gling and forged documents. The Finnish Ministry of ers, several countries have directed efforts towards 59
developing new technologies to be used in the Portugal recently conducted a second exercise
detection and prevention of illegal transit. Of partic- to regularise undocumented foreigners in irregular
ular concern to Canadian officials was the discovery situations, which proceeded over a period of six
of high quality counterfeit and altered Canadian visi- months beginning on 11 June 1996. The eligibility
tor visas. Enhanced verification technologies and requirements were less stringent than those of the
special training programmes are being designed in previous exercise (October 1992-March 1993), in par-
response to this development. Canada’s work on the ticular with regard to the proof of the foreigner’s
development of carbon dioxide detectors for ship- economic situation. In addition, labour organisa-
ping containers has been effective in reducing that tions, management, and immigrant associations
form of clandestine immigration. The United were widely involved in the procedures. Amnesty
Kingdom published a consultation paper demon- was granted based on the date of entry in Portugal:
strating the government’s intent to prosecute before 31 December 1995 for nationals of Angola,
‘unscrupulous immigration advisers’ and to develop Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, and São
new techniques for detecting lorries carrying illegal Tomé and Principe; and before 25 March 1995 for
immigrants and bogus asylum seekers. New detec- those of other non-EU countries. Available data
tion procedures introduced in 1994 have already show that approximately 35 000 applications were
resulted in the discovery of a higher number of ille- accepted for review and nearly 22 000 were granted
gal migrants. Once detected, illegal immigrants typi- (see Table I.10).
cally make an application for asylum. Spain’s new Aliens Act of February 1996 con-
In the United Kingdom a provision of the tained a regularisation component that was imple-
July 1996 Asylum and Immigration Act makes it a mented between April and August of that year. The
criminal offence to employ a person not having the programme largely benefited foreigners who
right to work. The possibility nevertheless remains entered the country legally during the period
open to employers to offer as a statutory defence 1986-91 but who had not been able to renew their
the proof that they had tried to establish the immi- residence or work permit. Some 20 000 foreigners
gration status of their employee. participated in the programme.
France decided to carry out an exceptional
Regularisation of undocumented foreigners regularisation programme starting in June 1997 and
Since the regularisation programmes launched finishing in May 1998. The campaign was aimed pri-
in 1996 by Italy, Portugal and Spain, two new initia- marily at regularising the unlawful status (with
tives have been taken in France and in Greece. The regard to entry or residence) of people married to
results and effects of these recent regularisation French citizens, of foreigners having entered France
programmes, however, have not yet been fully legally outside of the family reunion procedure, of
assessed. In addition, the United States and spouses of people with refugee status, and of long
Germany have given amnesties to specific catego- established foreign families. It also applied to cer-
ries of immigrants and asylum seekers. tain categories of children who had entered France
outside of the family reunion procedure and, under
Italy’s most recent amnesty, begun in late 1995,
certain circumstances, to other clearly specified cat-
did not actually go into effect until passage of the
egories of foreigners (foreigners with no family
relevant Law on 9 December 1996. As a result, data
responsibilities, foreigners who were very ill, stu-
on requests previously accepted by the Ministry of
dents pursuing higher-level studies, and people
Internal Affairs are recorded in the 1997 statistics.
denied asylum). As of the end of January, approxi-
This decree has led to a remarkable increase in the
mately 150 000 applications had been reviewed, and
number of foreigners legally resident in the territory,
23 450 residence permits granted. Most of these
with a total of approximately 259 000 residence per-
(85 per cent) were for family related reasons.
mits issued, in comparison with 235 000 during the
1990 amnesty and 118 000 in 1986 (see Table I.10). In Greece, a regularisation process was imple-
To qualify for this programme, applicants had to mented on 1 January 1998. The process will be com-
have been employed (and prove that they had pleted in two phases. During the initial phase, the
worked during at least four of the previous twelve undocumented workers must submit an application
months) or have a relative they wished to join who to their local Employment and Manpower Organisa-
had lived in Italy for over two years and who had tion (OAED) before 31 May 1998. This involves sup-
60 sufficient income to adequately accommodate them. plying information regarding their occupation, level
Table I.10. Main regularisation programmes of immigrants in an irregular situation in selected OECD countries, by nationality
Thousands
France Italy
(1981-1982)1 (1997-1998)2 (1987-1988) (1990) (1996)3
Tunisia 17.3 Algeria 7.0 Morocco 21.7 Morocco 49.9 Morocco 23.0
Morocco 16.7 Morocco 5.5 Sri Lanka 10.7 Tunisia 25.5 Albania 20.2
African countries 15.0 China 5.0 Philippines 10.7 Senegal 17.0 Philippines 18.6
Portugal 12.7 Tunisia 10.0 Former Yugoslavia 11.3 China 8.9
Algeria 11.7 Senegal 8.4 Philippines 8.7 Peru 8.8
Turkey 8.6 Former Yugoslavia 7.1 China 8.3 Romania 5.9
Other 39.1 Other 31.4 Other 50.1 Other 97.1 Other 62.4
Total 121.1 Total 48.9 Total 118.7 Total 217.7 Total 147.9
Portugal Spain United States5
(1992-1993) (1996) (1985-1986) (1991) (1996)4 (1986)
Angola 12.5 Angola 6.8 Morocco 7.9 Morocco 49.2 Morocco 6.1 Mexico 2 008.6
Guinea-Bissau 6.9 Cape Verde 5.0 Portugal 3.8 Argentina 7.5 Peru 1.7 El Salvador 152.3
Cape Verde 6.8 Guinea-Bissau 4.0 Senegal 3.6 Peru 5.7 Argentina 1.1 Caribbean 110.5
Brazil 5.3 Sao Tome and Principe 2.0 Argentina 2.9 Dominican Republic 5.5 Poland 0.9 Guatemala 64.0
Sao Tome and Principe 1.4 Brazil 0.3 United Kingdom 2.6 China 4.2 Dominican Republic 0.7 Colombia 30.3
Senegal 1.4 Philippines 1.9 Poland 3.3 Algeria 0.6 Philippines 25.7
Other 4.8 Other 3.7 Other 21.1 Other 34.7 Other 7.6 Other 293.5
Total 39.2 Total 21.8 Total 43.8 Total 110.1 Total 18.8 Total 2 684.9
1. Excluding seasonal workers (6 681 persons) and around 1 200 small traders not broken down by nationality.
2. A total of 150 000 applications were received at the end of January 1998. Data refer to persons granted a residence permit among 108 515 examined applications at the end of April 1998.
By July, 73 000 permits had been delivered (out of 142 000 examined applications) but the breakdown by nationality is not available.
3. A total of 258 761 applications were received but the provisional results, broken down by nationality, cover only permits granted for reasons of work; including their spouses and children, a total of
227 300 permits were granted.
4. Provisional data. The regularisation programme was carried out from 23 April to 23 August 1996.
5. Data refer to all persons granted a permanent residence permit (excluding the dependents) during the period 1989-1996 following the 1986 Immigration and Reform Control Act.
Data are broken down by country of birth.
Sources: France: OMI; Italy, Portugal and Spain: Ministry of the Interior; United States: INS.

61
of education, skills, employment experience, age, It is impossible to describe the full range of
family status, nationality, and country of origin. processes and policies likely to increase the pro-
Upon completion of these formalities, the applicant pensity of immigrants to integrate. This section will
will receive a temporary residence permit card therefore focus first of all on the challenges faced by
(‘‘white card’’). During the second phase, which will the various models of integration found in OECD
last until the end of July 1998, the applicants must countries and then on two factors key to any suc-
demonstrate that they have earned an income cessful integration effort: a naturalisation policy and
equivalent to 40 working days of unskilled labour. access to education. Finally, certain of the measures
After consideration of the applicant’s record, the recently taken to facilitate the integration or social
needs of the labour market and those of the Greek insertion of immigrants will be presented.
economy, an OAED Committee may then grant a
residence card (‘‘green card’’) of limited duration a) Models of integration
(1 to 3 years). At the end of June 1998, approxi-
mately 374 000 applicants had been registered. For many years, changes in the nature of the
migration process and in the societies of host coun-
The United States enacted the Nicaraguan
tries have modified the conditions for integrating
Adjustment and Central American Relief Act on
foreign or immigrant populations. Although they
19 November 1997 which provided amnesty to
have not been called into question, models of inte-
nationals of Nicaragua and Cuba who had been in
gration have nevertheless become more fragile.
the United States for at least two years. It also
allowed nationals of El Salvador, Guatemala, the for- In most European OECD countries, immigrants
mer Soviet Union, and certain Eastern European are extending their stay and, when possible, are
countries to apply for suspensions of deportation tending to settle permanently. In some countries a
orders under the more lenient rules that existed second and even a third generation has resulted
before the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant from the original immigration wave. Recent changes
Responsibility Act of 1996 (see above). In Germany, are related, in part, to a greater diversity in both the
a programme for legalising the status of asylum geographical origin of migrants and in the prevailing
seekers who reside in Germany and who requested modes of entry (notably, family reunion and asylum
asylum more than five years ago has been in place requests). The economic recession and the persis-
since the end of March 1996. tence of high levels of unemployment (especially in
Europe) have magnified the difficulties in integrat-
ing certain groups of foreigners and of aiding subse-
2. Policies for integrating immigrants quent younger generations in their transition into
Along with the control of flows, one of the prin- the labour market.
cipal objectives of migration policy is the integration In Australia, Canada, and the United States, the
of immigrants already settled or who wish to reside underlying model of integration rests mainly on the
in the host country for an extended period. How- absence of any contradiction between the mainte-
ever, assessing the success of the integration of for- nance of cultural and social links with the commu-
eign populations or immigrants in each of the host nity of origin, or the claim of membership in an
countries is problematic. In the first place, integra- ethnic minority, and adherence to the ideals and
tion strategies tend to vary from country to country, interests of the nation. As immigration is viewed
and the cultural traditions of immigrant groups are from the onset as long-term or permanent, the
themselves diverse. Furthermore, migration flows acquisition of the host country’s nationality is rela-
are not of the same magnitude everywhere. Integra- tively easy and ethnic minorities are officially
tion sets into play complex social relationships that recognised. In the United States, for example, the
cannot be reduced to estimates of a few select integration of various successive waves of immi-
indicators (e.g. employment, sector of activity, grants was carried out under this model. Political
income level, place of residence, family situation, and associative networks of immigrants have existed
etc.). In addition, differences between nationals and for over a century, and ethnic minorities are some-
immigrants with respect to a number of indicators times concentrated in certain regions or city districts
do not necessarily imply inequality between the two as well as in certain activities and socio-professional
groups, nor does a convergence of behavioural pat- categories. These groups often have political repre-
terns necessarily reflect a successful integration sentation and have their own media (press, radio,
62 process. and television). Over the years, immigrants have
been able to progress in the labour market and to to lose the nationality of the country of origin or
integrate into society, all the while maintaining an certain rights in that country, such as property rights.
affiliation to an ethnic group. Birthplace and kinship (jus soli and jus sanguini)
Countries like Norway and Sweden, which have play a fundamental role in the procedures for the
only recently become host to large immigrant popu- acquisition and granting of nationality. They are
lations, seem to be opting for a ‘‘multicultural’’ equally important to the integration process, as they
model. In September 1997, a Bill entitled ‘‘Sweden, establish a dividing line between foreign and
the future of a plural society – from immigration national populations. Changes in naturalisation pro-
policy to integration policy’’ was proposed. The Bill cedures, notably reforms that make it easier for chil-
requires that future legislation take into consider- dren and grand-children of immigrants to become
ation the society’s ethnic and cultural diversity. The naturalised, have recently affected the naturalisa-
Government has also proposed to review the use of tion rates in Belgium, the Netherlands, France, and
the term ‘‘immigrant’’ in statutes and other docu- Germany. The modifications have generally
ments. A report submitted to the Norwegian parlia- expanded the possibilities for the acquisition of
ment in 1997 noted that Norway is developing more nationality in cases where the law was restrictive,
and more into a multi-cultural society and that it and introduced limits where the law was more lib-
needs to make the most out of this diversity in order eral (for more details see the special chapter on the
for the society to benefit from immigrants’ resources acquisition of nationality in Trends in International
and experience. No specific policies were proposed, Migration, OECD, 1995).
but the importance of language instruction and job
The naturalisation rate, i.e., the number of per-
training was underlined.
sons acquiring the nationality of the country as a
The active policies of many of the CEECs reflect percentage of the number of foreigners resident at
a primary interest in the reintegration of ethnic the beginning of the year, is also a significant indica-
nationals rather than in the integration of resident tor of integration. The Netherlands naturalised over
immigrants. The Czech government is currently 11 per cent of its resident foreign population in
interested in assisting the return of some 1996, by far the highest percentage among European
40 000 individuals of Czech origin who have been nations. This high rate, compared to the other Euro-
dispersed in regions of the former Soviet Union. At pean Member countries of the OECD, is not due to
the end of 1996, with the aid of a private foundation increased levels of net immigration but rather to the
working with the Ministry of the Interior, several 1992 change in the regulations governing naturalisa-
dozen ‘‘compatriots’’ and their families were brought tion rendering the possession of dual nationality
to the Republic from regions considered dangerous possible. Debate in the Dutch Parliament on the
(Azerbajdzan, Armenia, Georgia, Bosnia and high levels of naturalisation has since resulted in
Herzegovina, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia, Russia, restrictive measures being adopted: as from in
Tadjikistan, Turkmenia, and Uzbekistan). Poland, mid-1997, only nationals of countries that do not
Bulgaria, and the Baltic States are currently engaged allow the loss of nationality in the case of the acqui-
in similar operations. sition of another (like Morocco) will be eligible.
Naturalisations have as a result decreased in 1997.
b) Naturalisations and the social integration
Among other European OECD countries,
of immigrants
naturalisation rates remained steady in 1996. Most
The granting or the acquisition of the host countries show only a moderate increase over last
country’s nationality can improve the prospects for year’s rate, or else an actual decrease, as is the case
integrating foreigners, just as it can reflect the out- for Belgium, Germany, Italy and Sweden (see Statis-
come of a gradual process of social or economic tical Annex, Tables B.1.7). In absolute terms, the
integration. The number of naturalisations essen- number of naturalisations continues to be the high-
tially depends on the magnitude and date of migra- est in the United States, which has more than
tion waves, the more or less liberal nature of the doubled its number of naturalisations, reaching over
legislation concerning the acquisition of nationality, one million. This astounding figure can only partially
and the incentives for obtaining the nationality of be attributed to an overall increase in levels of
the host country. Another issue that may affect the immigration, being more likely due to the imple-
desire to be naturalised is whether by acquiring the mentation of a ‘‘green card replacement program’’
nationality of the host country the immigrant stands that may have prompted immigrants to simply apply 63
for citizenship rather than renew their card. Legisla- tation required for naturalisation to one year (it had
tion passed in 1996 restricting access to federally- been raised to two by the 1993 legislation).
funded social programmes may also be contributing In several OECD Member countries, marriage
to the desire of immigrants to become citizens. (It with a national continues to be the primary means
should be noted that Social Security Income and by which foreigners attain citizenship. The rates of
Medicaid eligibility were restored to legal immi- these marriages may also be seen as an indicator of
grants under the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 for the degree of integration of immigrant groups with
those who were eligible prior to the 1996 Welfare the wider society, as they create permanent ties
Reform Bill.) with the host country. The Home Secretary of the
In Germany, the sharp rise in the number of United Kingdom has changed a component of the
naturalisations that began in 1994 after amendments Immigration Rules that had previously required
were made in July 1993 to the Aliens Act has finally applicants to prove that their marriage was not one
tapered off, taking a downward turn in 1996. The of convenience, i.e. simply a means of gaining
amendments facilitate the naturalisation procedure entrance to the country.
for long-standing foreign residents and notably for
individuals able to prove their German origin. Eth- c) The schooling of immigrant children
nic Germans have constituted the vast majority of and their integration
naturalisations over the past decade. Others are
Education is of vital importance to the integra-
granted German nationality on a discretionary basis,
tion of immigrants’ children. Both the level of
with knowledge of German heavily influencing the
schooling achieved and the diplomas obtained are
decision. Turks continued to be the main group
determining factors in their success in the labour
naturalised by discretionary decision in 1996. Legis-
market and their integration into the society of the
lation passed by Turkey in 1995 may further support
host country. With regard to education and integra-
this trend. Now all Turkish nationals who acquire the
tion into the school system, all governments insist
nationality of another country may continue to own
on the need for instruction in the host-country lan-
property in Turkey. Similar amendments were
guage. Current debate in some countries concerns
recently made to Mexican legislation concerning
instead the issue of teaching the language of the
nationals living abroad. In addition, as of
country of origin. In a number of countries, including
August 1996 a new programme allows refugees to
Germany, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, immi-
acquire Mexican nationality if they have children
grant children can receive instruction in the native
born in Mexico or are married to Mexicans. Bulgaria
language of their family either in school or in classes
and Turkey are discussing the possibility of giving
given outside of school. Portugal and Norway have
Bulgarian Turks who presently live in Turkey the
recently instituted similar programmes. In all cases,
choice of citizenship in either country.
the directing principle of one school for all is still
In Spain, the Act of 2 November 1995 amended upheld.
the legislation regarding the recovery of Spanish In most OECD countries, regardless of how inte-
nationality. Prior to this Act, returning emigrants who gration and the role of the school in this process are
wished to recover their Spanish nationality had to conceived, support and orientation services are
obtain an exemption from the ten-year legal resi- available to foreign pupils, particularly for new arriv-
dence requirement. That formality is no longer als who are not immediately able to enter main-
required. stream education. The range of educational and
In France, the 1994 naturalisation figures were special help facilities available usually includes
exceptionally high, mainly because the authorities introductory classes, remedial classes and extra-cur-
were expediting the processing of pending cases ricular activities (through associations or institu-
before the 1995 implementation of more restrictive tions). Greece’s special schools established for the
legislation (voted in 1993). A new Law on nationality children of migrant Greeks from Europe and else-
has since been adopted (March 1998). It reaffirms where abroad have now been renamed ‘‘intercul-
the principle of jus soli and clarifies the age catego- tural schools’’, and have been opened to non-Greek
ries and periods of residency required to acquire foreign pupils regardless of their legal status. The
French citizenship for children born in France of for- German government has decided to make the edu-
eign parents. In the case of marriage to a French cation of foreign children a high priority, recognising
64 national, the new Law returns the period of cohabi- that at present over 40 per cent leave general edu-
cation schools with only lower secondary school cer- programmes to provide immigrants with at least
tificates (compared to 25 per cent for German basic language instruction. A new trend has
pupils). A directive issued in Portugal in June appeared in the financing of integration initiatives
1996 authorises the creation of alternative education among several of the traditional receiving countries.
streams to ensure that immigrants and their children The governments of Germany, Australia, and the
have equal access to education and academic United States are reducing the direct involvement of
achievement. A later directive made it possible to national or federal organisms in the integration pro-
develop projects for priority education zones that cess, preferring to provide public funds to private
would improve the quality of education and pro- organisations and local associations.
mote innovative approaches in areas with special
needs.
Assistance for new arrivals
In Sweden, the National Agency for Education
recently commissioned a research centre at Stock- In Canada and in Australia, support to immi-
holm University to evaluate the efficiency and effec- grants is provided immediately upon their arrival in
tiveness of Swedish language instruction for foreign- the country in the form of assistance with adminis-
ers. Norway is concerned that immigrant children trative procedures and formalities, financial assis-
are not benefitting from pre-school education and tance, and help with language problems (interpret-
day care facilities because of cost and limited avail- ing, translation, language courses). Citizenship and
ability, which consequently hinders immigrant Immigration Canada sponsors several programmes
children’s ability to learn Norwegian. Luxembourg which fund activities assisting the integration of new
remains committed to producing students who are arrivals. Its Resettlement Assistance Programme
completely fluent in its three national languages, provides for the basic needs of new immigrants by
even in the case of immigrant children who have a contracting with local service providers. The Immi-
different native language. grant Settlement and Adaptation Programme pro-
vides funds to a variety of entities, from businesses
While not immigrants in a strict sense, gypsy
to local and regional governments, that provide
children represent a particular integration and edu-
essential services to immigrants such as reception,
cational challenge. The Czech Republic approved a
orientation, translation and interpretation,
document on 29 October 1997 prepared by the Gov-
paraprofessional counselling, employment-related
ernment Council for Foreigners that underscores the
services, etc. The Host Programme provides funding
urgent need to take specific steps towards their
to groups or individuals who put Canadian citizens
integration. The government plans to directly inter-
into contact with new arrivals in order to help them
vene in the area of education, establishing prepara-
on an individual basis with all aspects relating to
tory classes for gypsy children in order to bring them
their integration. Finally, Language Instruction for
to a level of equality with other primary school chil-
Newcomers to Canada, while sponsored by the Min-
dren. Incentives for employers to hire gypsies are
istry, involves local and regional groups in the
also planned. Portugal’s Council of Ministers,
development of language training strategies.
responding to similar concerns, had already passed
a Resolution in October 1996 establishing a Working Australia provides 510 hours (or more, if neces-
Group for the Equality and Integration of Gypsies. sary) of English instruction to new arrivals. Its
National Integrated Settlement Strategy, designed
to facilitate the integration of immigrants, involves
d) Integration policies and the social integration
various government departments. Part of the inte-
of immigrants
gration strategy consists in providing grants to eth-
Integration policies vary according to the coun- nic and other community organisations involved in
try and the nature of the integration problems the settlement of immigrants. The programme also
encountered. According to the model of integration, provides a number of services which assist immi-
policies are either designed for all immigrants or are grants with administrative formalities. In Europe,
targeted at particular groups, for assistance to new integration policies are aimed at educating immi-
arrivals or those already settled in the host country. grant children, providing vocational training and
Of foremost concern to the governments of all host-country language instruction, as well as housing
receiving countries is the immigrant’s rapid mastery assistance and access to health care. Aid is oriented
of the national language, the prerequisite to all either to specific target groups in the foreign popu-
other aspects of integration. Most countries have lation (ethnic minorities, women, young immigrants, 65
second-generation immigrant children) or to the dis- Portuguese policy have similar objectives with
advantaged in general, foreign or otherwise. regards to migrants: the protection of their civic
rights, their political and social integration in the
One of the principal concerns of many OECD
host country, and the collection of information con-
countries has been to adapt integration policy in
cerning their contribution to development. In addi-
such a way as to respond to the large inflows of
tion to the many programmes that already exist to
asylum seekers over recent years. The Swedish gov-
maintain links between Portugal and Portuguese
ernment has acted upon the recommendations of
nationals abroad (associations, language grants,
the Parliamentary Commission on Immigration Pol-
legal and financial assistance, special bank accounts,
icy by introducing a new Integration Bill in 1997. The
etc.), the Parliament passed a law in September
Bill addresses the need for improvements in intro-
1996 establishing the Council of Portuguese Commu-
duction programmes for new arrivals, specifically in
nities. The Council has the mission of advising the
the area of Swedish language tuition, practical work
government on policies regarding emigrant commu-
experience, and orientation to social and working
nities; it represents all Portuguese living abroad who
life in Sweden. It further establishes that the intro-
ductory programme should be followed on a full- wish to be involved. Portugal also seeks to guaran-
tee assistance to its immigrant populations and to
time basis for a limited period of time and that
combat social exclusion by offering full political
subsidies should be allocated by the relevant
rights (subject to reciprocity) and a straightforward
municipalities. The Bill also proposes the creation of
naturalisation process.
a new authority to oversee the implementation of
the integration policy in all sectors and at all levels In order to facilitate the integration of ethnic
of society. Greek and foreign pupils, the Greek Government
In Norway, faced with the task of settling large has put into place three types of educational institu-
numbers of refugees and asylum seekers, the gov- tions: reception classes for ten or more pupils, tuto-
ernment requested that a report be made on immi- rial sections for three to nine pupils, and special
gration and multi-cultural nature of the country. This schools for the children of returnees from English
report, published in 1997, proposes that language speaking countries. Albanian pupils constitute the
and job training for immigrants be strengthened and largest group in both reception classes and tutorial
that increased efforts be made to combat racism sections. The special schools located in Northern
and discrimination. It is hoped that these special Greece (Salonica) have gradually become domi-
measures will prevent increased social and eco- nated by ethnic pupils – chiefly Pontians – from
nomic differences between persons of immigrant former Soviet republics. Greece is currently encour-
background and the rest of the population. Finland’s aging ethnic Greeks from Albania to return to that
Council of State approved proposals on 16 October country and has given Southern Albania preferential
1997 made by the Committee for Policy on Immigra- treatment in order to assist its economic
tion and Refugees that noted the need to take steps development.
over the long-term to improve the integration of
immigrants into Finnish society. A new phase in the The policies of CEECs are different from those
integration policy for newly arrived immigrants of traditional destination countries. They are gener-
began in the Netherlands in January 1996. Newcom- ally not interested in developing integration pro-
ers who receive social welfare benefits may now grammes for immigrants who are likely to be in the
have their benefits cut if they do not participate in country only temporarily. Countries such as the
integration programmes. These programmes are Czech Republic prefer to integrate and provide
designed to provide Dutch language skills and infor- financial assistance to individuals and families on a
mation likely to help foreigners integrate into Dutch case by case basis.
society.
Integration in the labour market
Historically, Portugal and Greece have had high
levels of emigration; they are now experiencing sub- Vocational training and access to the labour
stantial return migration. Accordingly, both have market for young people and the unemployed,
developed policies tailored to this situation. Migra- including immigrants, is another key component of
tion policy in Portugal has two facets, one concern- integration policy. Many programmes have been
ing Portuguese residing abroad and the other con- implemented by Member countries at both the
66 cerning immigrants within Portugal. The two axes of national and local levels. These generally target
high-unemployment groups (older and long-term for example, interpreters. The United States is not
unemployed, low skilled women, unskilled youths only concerned that recipients of H-1B visas may be
who did not finish secondary education) and offer replacing qualified native workers, but that they
either training or government-subsidised jobs in pri- may also be receiving inadequate remuneration for
vate firms or employment in the public sector. their services. Unscrupulous companies may be hir-
Numerous new initiatives seeking to combat dis- ing foreign workers as a means of evading payroll-
crimination in the workplace address an unfortunate taxes.
problem associated with the integration of recent
immigrant flows, particularly in countries that are not The Nordic countries have recently introduced
accustomed to permanent foreign resident legislation which aims to combat racism and discrim-
populations. ination in the workplace. Sweden fears that discrimi-
nation may be an important factor in the dispropor-
The Finnish Government is in the middle of a tionately high rate of unemployment among
four-year project (1995-99) called ‘‘Pathway to
immigrants, which has risen from just under 5 per
employment for the socially excluded’’, financed by
cent in 1990 to stand currently at 30 per cent. In
the European Social Fund. This project focuses on
response, the government has appointed a commis-
specific measures to help those who are at risk of
sion of inquiry to revise the law against ethnic dis-
being marginalised and establishes new co-opera-
crimination in order to stem the trend towards a
tion between the authorities concerned and
segmented labour market and to increase diversity
organisations. In April 1995, the Ministry of Labour
in the labour market.
established a working party to develop measures to
increase the participation rate of foreigners in the Norway’s improved economic situation has
labour market. In its 1997 report it identified insuffi- been of overall benefit to its immigrant population,
cient language competence as one of the most sig- but they still have higher rates of unemployment
nificant barriers to employment. than Norwegians. Studies on the attitudes of public
The German Federal Ministry of Labour has and private employers suggest that discrimination is
launched schemes to help second-generation immi- partly responsible, even when the immigrant’s expe-
grants find employment by enhancing their techni- rience is potentially valuable. In order to reduce
cal and language skills. Those completing the discrimination, the government proposed an
courses are awarded a diploma from the Chamber of amendment to the Working Environment Act in
Commerce and Industry and are eligible for a train- Spring 1997 that would prohibit discrimination on
ing course in their country of origin. Nineteen new the basis of race, colour, or national or ethnic back-
projects involving Greece, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and ground. Criteria for the recognition of foreign diplo-
Turkey are under consideration. Belgium undertook mas also poses a problem. The Ministry of Local
a number of measures in 1996 and 1997 designed to Government and Labour, in co-operation with sev-
improve the integration of immigrants and to eral other Ministries, is revising the Plan of Action
increase their chances of entering the labour force. against Racism and Ethnic Discrimination (1992).
The Flemish region of Belgium implemented a stra- The new Plan will be completed in 1998. An Interdis-
tegic plan for immigrant policy in 1996. It focuses ciplinary Advisory Group on Community Relations
primarily on three important issues: improving the and Anti-Racist Work has also been constituted.
access of immigrants to local programmes and insti- They advise local authorities in the prevention of
tutions, developing a reception policy for new arriv- conflicts and the handling of acute situations where
als, and promoting the acquisition of linguistic com- racial violence and harassment appear to be at the
petence, professional training and counselling in root of the problem. Particular attention has been
order to facilitate job placement. given to providing assistance to parents whose chil-
dren (occasionally less than 14 years old) have been
In Japan, reports submitted by employers in
recruited by extreme right-wing groups.
1994 showed that the difficult employment situation
is having particularly adverse effects on the employ- The Finnish Ministry of Labour has also taken
ment of foreign workers, especially those employed action against discrimination in hiring practices. The
in manufacturing or large enterprises. In response, Criminal Code, amended in September 1995, states
guidelines were drawn up by the Ministry of Labour that it is illegal to practise discrimination in
to ensure proper working conditions for foreign announcing a job vacancy, in recruitment, or in the
workers and to provide them with special services, workplace, on the basis of race, nationality, ethnic 67
origin, language, sex, age, family relations, religion, in local elections. In September 1996, the Portu-
or political opinion. guese Parliament unanimously passed a law enact-
In Switzerland, a Federal Anti-Racism Commis- ing the EU Directive on the participation of nationals
sion was set up in March 1995 to combat all forms of of other Member States in local elections; it grants
racial discrimination. The Belgian Centre for Equal the same right to other resident foreigners, subject
Opportunity and the Fight Against Racism co-ordi- to reciprocity. Other measures adopted in 1996 con-
nated the Belgian activities devoted to the EU- cern improving housing conditions, extending immi-
sponsored European Year Against Racism, which grants’ entitlement to social security benefits, and
took place in 1997. In November of that year, it the right of immigrant associations to intervene as
organised a general assembly on equal opportuni- assisting parties in penal procedures relating to
ties and the combating of racism. The Centre formu- racial and xenophobic crimes.
lated a series of proposals which were presented to The Austrian Supreme Court ruled in July 1996
the inter-ministerial conference on immigrant policy. that indigenous and foreign persons could not be
These proposals ranged from simple recommenda- treated differently with regard to means-tested wel-
tions for modifying existing legislation on racism and fare benefits. These benefits are typically provided
xenophobia to programmes designed to fight to the long-term unemployed who have ceased to
against racial discrimination in employment and be eligible for insurance-based unemployment ben-
housing and to further advance continuing voca- efits. At present, foreign workers only have a right to
tional training. this benefit if they have a permanent work permit
and are then limited to one year of benefit, whereas
Foreigners’ political participation and other rights Austrian citizens have indefinite entitlement to
these benefits.
Full civil rights are increasingly viewed as one
of the surest ways to achieve integration goals. This To further protect immigrant populations
is illustrated by new policies adopted in several against xenophobic attacks, legislation recognising
countries. The Finnish constitution was amended in racism as an aggravating circumstance in criminal
1995 to extend coverage of fundamental rights to cases is becoming increasingly prevalent in OECD
foreign nationals. Both Norway and Sweden have countries. After the preliminary results of Spain’s
recently re-affirmed the principle that all persons Plan for the Social Integration of Immigrants
with the right to permanent residence must have (1995-96) were presented to the Council of Minis-
equal rights and opportunities, no matter whether ters, the Penal Code was amended in such a way as
they have immigrated to the country or were born to make racism and xenophobia aggravating circum-
there. In Luxembourg, the Act of 23 December 1994 stances in criminal cases. Judicial assistance and
constituted a decisive event in the country’s politi- legal counsel will be provided to immigrants free of
cal history; it amended a number of articles in order charge. Luxembourg passed a law on 19 July 1997
to allow foreign nationals to exercise certain political increasing the punishment for crimes motivated by
rights, in particular with regard to local elections. discrimination based on ethnicity, nationality, race,
This constitutional amendment was reinforced by or religion.
the Act of 3 July 1995, which abolished the require-
ment that candidates be of Luxembourg nationality e) Integration of immigrants in urban areas
in order to stand for elections to professional bod-
ies. The earlier Act of 28 January 1994 laid down the The arrival of new immigrants, sometimes in
procedure for electing representatives of the Grand sizeable numbers in the OECD Member countries
Duchy of Luxembourg to the European Parliament with high unemployment and where economic
and determined the conditions under which resi- growth remains weak, has created integration
dent foreigners from EU countries would be able to problems for the populations of cities where immi-
participate in elections. grants are already heavily concentrated.
Greece also now permits non-Greek EU citizens France has focused recent measures on improv-
residing in Greece to become candidates and/or ing living and working conditions in disadvantaged
vote in European Parliament elections as well as run urban areas (Pacte de relance pour la ville). The stated
in local municipal and communal elections. Italy’s objectives are to combat exclusion in urban areas
Proposed Law 3240 would give legally registered and encourage the occupational, social, and cultural
68 immigrants from other EU countries the right to vote integration of people living in high-density housing
complexes or in distressed areas. The programme ing partnerships with the immigrant community.
ranks vulnerable areas according to their economic Unfortunately, local initiatives may only have lim-
and social problems and introduces positive dis- ited success in thwarting the consequences of larger
crimination in the areas of finance, taxation, educa- socio-economic developments. Consequently, they
tion and housing. In Belgium, resolutions adopted in need to be linked structurally to policies developed
September 1995 by the Interministerial Conference at the regional or national level. In many cities or
to facilitate the integration of foreigners have nota- districts, the worsening economic situation has
bly signalled the future concentration of financial counter-acted residential mobility and in certain
and human resources on specific projects in large cases phenomena of desocialisation have appeared
urban areas. In Sweden, along with the Bill submit- with the attendant risk of allowing an underclass to
ted to Parliament entitled ‘‘Sweden, the future of a develop.
pluralist society – from immigration policy to inte- Among the measures undertaken by many
gration policy’’ (1997), the government also imple- countries to improve the integration of immigrants
mented an ‘‘all-over-Sweden’’ strategy for settling in cities, the development of transportation sys-
immigrants with the State’s financial support. This is tems, a structural feature key to urban development,
a response to the continuing concentration of for- features prominently. Indeed, the existence of an
eigners in the country’s three principal cities that efficient transport network facilitates and encour-
has the effect of segregating them from the Swedish ages development and with it the creation of socio-
population. In Denmark, some municipalities have economic links. Other measures address the need
established limitations on how many refugees or for greater employment opportunities and a more
immigrants are allowed to settle in certain urban developed public service sector in disadvantaged
districts in order to avoid high concentrations of neighbourhoods. Finally, emphasis is often placed
immigrant groups. on the importance of bringing together immigrants,
In many OECD countries, immigration to cities concerned elements of the larger population, and
has positively contributed to either maintaining key local actors (entrepreneurs, local public service
the urban population or promoting to its overall workers) in defining and implementing urban devel-
growth. Immigrants may slow the disintegration opment and integration policies.
of neighbourhoods as they fill the voids left by
the middle classes. They can invigorate urban econ- 3. Migration, international co-operation
omies and promote economic development through and economic development
the rehabilitation of housing and the creation The challenges raised by immigration are
of small business enterprises in older numerous. The regionalisation and globalisation of
neighbourhoods, investing mostly their own capital. flows has added a geopolitical dimension to migra-
In addition, links between immigrants and their tion that necessitates the implementation of effec-
country of origin may also attract and facilitate tive measures and initiatives in the area of interna-
investment by entrepreneurs residing in those ori- tional co-operation. Partnerships among OECD
gin countries. This will benefit the urban areas in the Member countries and between Member and non-
receiving country where members of the same eth- Member countries have been established since the
nic groups reside. At the same time, in a context of beginning of 1990s. These partnerships seek to bet-
diverse fiscal pressures, debates inevitably arise ter control migration flows by encouraging sustaina-
about infrastructure impacts and the costs of social ble development in emigration countries which will,
service provision for immigrants. While these in the long-term, reduce the incentive to emigrate. It
debates touch on effects that can be felt at the is important for Member countries to share their
national level, they are particularly relevant at the experiences in all of these areas in order that the
city level because of the concentration of immi- analysis of migration phenomena be improved, and
grants in certain cities or districts. the means of rendering migration policies presently
In most countries, general policy instruments at being formulated or implemented more effective be
the national level, such as education or language discussed.
training, play a significant role in attempts at further- In the 1995 edition of Trends in International Migra-
ing integration. Local-level policy, however, is more tion, the importance of international co-operation in
likely to be innovative in targeting the specific gaining a better control of migration flows was given
needs of immigrant groups as it often involves work- particular attention. Two topics were discussed at 69
length: the co-ordination of policy relating to the idea of sustainable development as a means of
right to asylum, and the involvement of CEECs in eventually reducing the incentives to emigrate in
efforts to the control migration flows. In the present those countries with high emigration potential is
report, after a brief discussion of several new policy gaining ground among OECD countries. The original-
developments in the area of flow control, attention ity of this approach lies not in the association of
will be given to an exploration of the links between migration with development but rather in suggesting
migration and development. to policy makers that they need to take greater
account of the impact on migration of measures
a) Co-operation in controlling flows adopted in the context of international economic
relations. Among the more important of these meas-
Recent developments in the area of controlling ures are those relating to trade liberalisation and
flows involves modification or harmonisation of the the acceleration of regional integration. They are
legislative framework (see the country notes taking place, notably, through increased foreign
presented in Part II for more details), notably in the direct investment by OECD countries both in the
case of the CEECs. They are seeking to gradually labour-intensive and high-technology sectors of the
align their laws governing the entry, residence, and developing-country economies. This is being sup-
employment of foreigners with those in place in ported by these countries’ own investments in their
OECD countries, and in particular, those in EU social infrastructure (particularly health care and
countries. education).
Other measures have been carried out with the The OECD, following the proposals debated at
objective of involving a larger number of Member the Conference on Migration and International Co-
countries in activities likely to prevent conflict in operation held in Madrid in March 1993 at the initia-
high-risk regions. Moreover, bilateral co-operation tive of the Canadian and Spanish governments,
remains an active policy area, whether regarding organised two seminars in 1996 on migration, free
readmission agreements which provide for the trade, and regional integration. The first focused on
return of illegal immigrants to their country of origin Central and Eastern Europe, the second on the
or the country of transit, or measures to assist with Mediterranean Basin. The main conclusions of the
the return and re-integration of migrants who were two seminars were presented in the previous edi-
temporarily admitted into OECD countries for tion of Trends in International Migration, (1997). A third
humanitarian reasons (in particular, nationals from seminar on the same theme in North America took
the former Yugoslavia). Finally, the number of train- place in Mexico in January 1998 with the Mexican
ing exchanges, notably for specialists, is growing. authorities and the support of Canada and the
Carried out with a view to strengthening interna- United States. The principal conclusions of this sem-
tional co-operation, these exchanges provide an inar are summarised below. They are followed by a
opportunity to reinforce the links between migration review of the Association Agreements which the
and the acquisition of skills and job experience European Community recently signed with the
abroad. They also play a fundamental role in the Maghrebian countries and with the countries of
process of knowledge and technology transfer Central and Eastern Europe.
between developed and developing countries.
The European Community recently reached Migration, free trade and regional integration
Association Agreements with the CEECs and like- in North America
wise with the countries of the Maghreb. These
The seminar provided an overview of economic
agreements cover both intergovernmental and
developments and migration patterns in North
purely Community spheres: for example, the status
America in the light of the recent implementation of
of workers, the free circulation of merchandise and
the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
the right to set up businesses and supply services
It also offered the opportunity to draw parallels with
(see below).
and make distinctions between North American
regional integration and the regionalisation process
b) Migration and development currently unfolding in Europe.
International co-operation to control flows is Immigration is a important source of population
only a partial response to the intensification of and labour force growth for Canada and the United
70 migration movements. It is for this reason that the States, while emigration and remittances have a sig-
nificant impact on the Mexican economy. Within the domestic market; this is possibly the most impor-
region, the United States is the hub of migration tant ‘‘new’’ pattern of capital flow in the region.
flows. Migration between Canada and the United Many supporters of the Agreement had argued
States (and vice-versa) is mainly temporary and that trade liberalisation would promote the acceler-
largely involves skilled workers, representing a ation of Mexico’s economic development and that
major source of that labour category for each coun- this would in turn facilitate the control of migration
try. Whilst flows between Mexico and Canada are flows originating from there. Trade and capital flows
very low, those from Mexico to the United States are would, it was suggested, substitute over the long-
particularly intense and asymmetrical. They are term for migration flows. Participants at the seminar
largely comprised of unskilled workers and perma- noted, however, that migration flows to the United
nent migrants. States, principally from Mexico, but also from
The implementation of NAFTA (1994) reinforces Canada, preceded any formal trade agreements and
the process of North American integration. With a also seem to be proceeding without, as yet, any
market of over 387 million inhabitants and a com- noticeable difference. Regional integration can be
bined GDP of $9 330 billion in 1996, the North accompanied by an environment which naturally
American free-trade area has a profile comparable counteracts the process of cumulative divergence
to that of the EU. The three NAFTA signatories are, that developing economies typically experience
however, quite dissimilar both socially and econom- during trade liberalisation. The state of the infra-
ically. Per capita GDP in Canada and the United structure and the transport and telecommunications
States is respectively 6 and 8 times greater than that networks are the notable economic features in this
in Mexico. Mexico’s GDP is only 4.3 per cent the environment. As for the social factors, they have an
United States’ and approximately half that of important influence on the accumulation of human
Canada. capital (the level of education and extent of voca-
tional training). Legislation dealing with the protec-
The issue of NAFTA’s endorsement aroused
tion of intellectual property rights promotes innova-
much more controversy in the United States than in
tion and favourises technology transfer mechanisms.
either Canada or Mexico. Most of the fears
Co-ordinated measures must therefore be under-
expressed in the United States (which were shared
taken to promote technological catch-up, the devel-
to some extent by Canadian opponents of the
opment of physical infrastructure and investment in
Agreement), concerned the possibility that produc-
human capital. Against a background of sustained
tion would be relocated southwards (and with it
development accompanied by significant employ-
jobs) due to wage differentials and the weaker regu-
ment creation the incentive to emigrate declines.
latory environment in Mexico. Since 1994, the US
trade deficit with Canada and Mexico has increased. Another issue which received a great deal of
Most of Canada’s initial hesitations have abated, attention during the Mexico seminar was the link
and there is currently strong support for NAFTA. between trade liberalisation and migration move-
Other concerns specific to the US focused particu- ments. Can the free circulation of persons accom-
larly on the issue of migration. pany the successive stages of regional economic
integration or should it be considered as an impor-
At the seminar, it was generally agreed that
tant objective to be achieved only once economic
agreements opening trade and capital flows were
convergence has reached a sufficiently high level?
effective in promoting greater economic integration
through the intensification of intra-regional trade. The absence of free circulation does not consti-
Indeed, Mexico has clearly benefited from NAFTA, tute an obstacle to migration movements between
enjoying significant inflows of Canadian and US the members of this regional trading bloc. The
direct investment, increased technology transfer, United States, like Canada, continues to accept each
and the diffusion of management expertise. Despite year a high number of new permanent immigrants,
the fact that some US investment has, as a conse- the majority of whom in the case of the US come
quence of NAFTA, been diverted away from Canada from Mexico. NAFTA contains an annex which pro-
towards Mexico, US investment in Canada has vides for the facilitation of movements by specific
increased since 1994 as has that from Mexico to the categories of personnel (businesspeople, investors
rest of the world. Moreover, Canadian investment in and company transferees) within the North
Mexico (which has increased at a brisk pace since American area. That in the main agreement empha-
1994), seems to be directed to serving Mexico’s sis was placed on the liberalisation of trade and 71
capital flows, with no reference to the free circula- ify in the common statement that the granting,
tion of workers, can be interpreted in two ways. On renewal, and refusal of residence permits is regu-
the one hand, this liberalisation is the product of lated solely by the legislation of member States and
the signatories’ desire to guard against the possibil- the bilateral agreements between these States and
ity that the sensitive subject of migration might hold each country. The initiation of a social dialogue is
back the deepening economic and financial integra- planned, addressing notably ‘‘all the problems relat-
tion between the United States and Mexico. On the ing to the quality of life and work of migrant commu-
other, it reveals that one of the implicit objectives of nities, migration movements, illegal immigration,
trade liberalisation within the framework of NAFTA and policies and programmes favouring the equal
is to reduce the incentive to emigrate from Mexico treatment between the nationals of third Mediterra-
towards the two other countries, principally to the nean countries and EU countries’’. In addition, the
United States. re-insertion of nationals in irregular situations who
have been repatriated to their country of origin is
Migration has and will continue to play an
considered a priority issue.
important role in the process of regional integration.
It occupies therefore a central place in the process
of globalisation. Several of the participants under- d) Association Agreements between
lined that immigrants bring with them a diverse the European Community
range of resources to their host country and noted and the Central
that policies directed towards promoting their inte- and Eastern European countries
gration were not only to the their benefit but also In 1991, the European Community concluded a
help to assure the social cohesion of the country. series of association agreements of a new kind with
If the lack of free movement does not constitute the CEECs, known as ‘‘Europe Agreements’’, which
an obstacle to regional economic integration, it replaced existing co-operation agreements. The first
should remain however a long-term objective. It countries to sign these agreements were the four
could be accomplished in phases for well-defined Visegrad countries (Poland, Hungary, the Czech
categories of workers. Conversely, a free-trade Republic, and the Slovak Republic), followed by
agreement cannot constitute a credible alternative Romania, Bulgaria, the Baltic States, and Slovenia.
to a proper migration policy. The Europe Agreements established a bilateral
association between the European Community and
each CEEC, covering both intergovernmental and
c) Association Agreements between purely Community spheres: political dialogue,
the European Community movement of goods and workers, establishment and
and the Maghrebian countries supply of services, payments and capital, competi-
The agreements signed by the Community, tion and government subsidies, harmonisation of
Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco in 1976 simply provide laws, and economic, financial, and cultural co-
for the non-discriminatory treatment of workers from operation.
these countries with respect to working conditions, While free movement is enjoyed by nationals of
wages, and social benefits. Recent judgements of the EEA, the Europe Agreements remain cautious in
the European Community Court of Justice confirm their approach to this issue. The provisions relevant
the desire to provide enhanced protections at the to movement are even less generous than those
Community level for immigrant workers from made for nationals of Turkey and the Maghrebian
Maghrebian countries. countries as part of the Association Agreements they
Three new Association Agreements based on a signed with the European Community.
uniform model have been established in place of The Europe Agreements are part of an overall
the co-operation agreements of 1976. The Agree- ‘‘pre-accession strategy’’, which was adopted in prin-
ments with Tunisia and Morocco were signed on ciple at the Copenhagen European Council in
17 April 1995 and 10 November 1995, respectively, June 1993 and more fully developed at the Essen
and negotiations on an Agreement with Algeria are Council in December 1994. The Commission opened
ongoing. The measures for workers remain largely accession talks in March 1998 with five CEECs
similar to those of the earlier agreements, with the (Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Estonia, and
addition of the principle of non-discrimination for Slovenia), as well as with Cyprus. At the same time,
72 dismissal from employment. The agreements spec- it decided to evaluate annually the preparedness
each of the five countries that was not considered During the ten-year transition period, which is
with this first group of admissions (the Slovak divided into two five-year stages, CEEC nationals in
Republic, Bulgaria, Romania, Latvia, and Lithuania) an EU Member State remain subject to the country’s
for future accession. The CEECs are currently in an legislation on entry and stay. The Agreements con-
intermediary and uncertain phase, between a closer tain an article encouraging Member States to pre-
association with the EU and a differentiated acces- serve and improve existing facilities of access to
sion process that would entail a longer transition employment accorded under bilateral agreements,
period. In this context, the movement of persons and to conclude similar agreements. The Commu-
proves to be an important but sensitive issue. nity/CEEC Association Council will, during the sec-
ond stage of the transition period, examine further
ways of improving movement of workers, taking into
e) Rules on movement and employment consideration the economic circumstances of the
in the European Union applicable CEECs and the employment situation in the Com-
to CEEC nationals munity, and proceed to make recommendations to
Member States. These are policy provisions only,
Right to entry and to a short visit
and are not legally binding or in any way automatic.
Nationals of Poland, Hungary, the Czech As in the new association agreements with the
Republic, the Slovak Republic, and Slovenia are not Maghreb countries, Article 37 of the Europe Agree-
required to obtain a visa to enter the EU and/or the ments provides for equality of treatment in working
Schengen Area for a short visit (less than three conditions, remuneration, and dismissal for workers
months) or for transit. Once the three-month period legally employed in an EU Member State. It also
has elapsed, however, CEEC nationals who have not lays down that the legally residing spouse and chil-
obtained a long-stay visa are considered illegal dren of a worker legally employed in a Member
immigrants in the EU or Schengen Area and are sub- State have access to the labour market of that State
ject to expulsion. To make it easier to expel illegal during the worker’s authorised period of residence.
immigrants, the Schengen States may sign bilateral However, unlike the Maghreb agreements, it does
re-entry agreements with third countries. Poland, for not grant equality of treatment with respect to social
example, has committed to readmitting foreigners protection.
who used Poland as a transit country when illegally
crossing into the Schengen zone. The Europe Agreement with Poland contains a
special provision that does not appear in the other
While most CEEC nationals are not required to
Europe Agreements: Article 41 §3 provides that ‘‘the
hold a visa for a short visit to the European Union,
Member States will examine the possibility of grant-
long-term visas remain a matter for each Member
ing work permits to Polish nationals already having
State to administer, under both Community law and
residence permits in the Member State concerned
the Schengen Agreements. The right to take up paid
with the exception of those Polish nationals who
employment is also governed by each Member
have been admitted as tourists or visitors’’.
State’s own legislation; the Association Agreements
Depending on a country’s legislation, this provision
do not alter that.
might be applied to students and au pair workers,
among others. This paragraph, though, is essentially
Provisions of Europe Agreements regarding movement of a policy nature and is in no way binding on
of workers, establishment and supply of services Member States.
The provisions on workers and the self- As regards establishment, Article 44 of the
employed that are contained in each of the Europe Europe Agreements lays down that each Member
Agreements concern the movements of workers, the State must grant CEEC companies and nationals
establishment of business, and the supply of ser- treatment no less favourable than that accorded its
vices. However, the Association Agreements make own companies and nationals. Some activities, in
no reference to the Treaty of Rome’s provisions on particular financial services, real estate agencies,
the free movement of persons and do not recognise and participation in privatisation operations, will not
an automatic right of access to the labour market or be liberalised until 2004. Others, including farming
freedom to reside in EU Member States. The meas- and the legal profession, are altogether excluded.
ures on the establishment of business and the sup- Under Article 52, CEEC enterprises that freely
ply of services are somewhat more liberal. establish themselves in a Community Member State 73
are entitled to employ or have employed by one of rights, institutional reform, improvement of adminis-
their subsidiaries both Community nationals and trative co-operation and in the strengthening control
nationals of their own State, provided that these of external borders. They are supported in these
employees are key personnel and are employed measure by technical assistance provided by the
exclusively by the companies that enjoy the right of EU. They have also demonstrated their willingness
free establishment. This measure grants an ‘‘indirect to respect Schengen policies, and in the case of
right’’ of movement to CEEC workers and constitutes certain countries, to participate in the Agreement.
an exception to the chapter of the Europe Agree-
ments on workers. The question of refugees and of the right to
Under Article 55 of the Agreements, the free asylum raises particular challenges: transit countries
supply of services only concerns CEEC nationals for asylum seekers who wish to enter the EU, and
established in their State of origin who wish to pro- candidate countries are themselves becoming desti-
vide a service in a Member State of the Community. nation countries. They have, for the most part, rati-
It does not apply to a CEEC national established in fied the Geneva Convention of 1951 on refugee sta-
a Member State who wishes to provide a service in tus as well as the international treaties concerning
another Member State. Human Rights. They still must endorse the Dublin
The Amsterdam Treaty introduces certain co- Convention of 1990 on the determination of the
operation issues in matters of justice and internal state responsible for examining asylum requests,
affairs into the purview of the Union. Among other which is now in force among Member countries of
things, it integrates the Schengen Agreement into the EU. They must also adopt measures that will
the European Union Treaty. Henceforth, all coun- bring the asylum procedures of Member countries in
tries that are candidates for accession must adhere closer alignment. Furthermore, the absence of visa
to Community decisions and will consequently be requirements within an expanded European Union,
required to secure their external borders and which will mean new responsibilities for future
respect international norms for asylum, visas, and Member countries with regard to managing external
immigration. Certain candidate countries have border controls, will require them to direct particu-
already undertaken substantial reforms: new legisla- lar attention to these matters and to allocate sub-
tion concerning the right to asylum and foreigners stantial resources to them.
74
Part II
(COUNTRY NOTES)
AUSTRALIA figures in Table II.1 and Table A.1.1 of the Statistical

Annex, the latter referring to actual inflows to
Introduction
Australia.
The new government elected in March 1996 has
initiated a number of changes to immigration policy.
These include a greater focus on economic immi- Refugees and asylum seekers
grants, stricter entry and selection polices and In 1996/97 about 12 000 permanent residence
increased efforts to reduce illegal immigration. In visas were granted under the Humanitarian Pro-
addition, there have been reductions in the number gramme (around 9 700 off-shore and the remainder
of permanent residence visas issued. on-shore). Priority candidates were those from the
It is too early to assess the full impacts of the former Yugoslavia, the Middle East and North Africa.
‘‘Asian crisis’’ on travel and immigration to Australia. For 1997/98 a similar number of intakes are planned
Besides the effect on short-term business and tour- but with more emphasis on the Refugee category.
ist travel, intakes of overseas students may be
reduced and the economic difficulties of the region The number of applications for protection visas
may induce an increase in applications for perma- (formerly refugee status) lodged in Australia has
nent residence. fallen substantially from a high of 16 350 principal
applicants in 1990/91. According to the figures of the
United Nations Commissioner for Refugees, the
Migration and settlement number of protection visa applications lodged in
Australia requires the vast majority of foreign 1996/97 was nearly 11 100 (see Table II.1). Note that
citizens entering Australia, for whatever reason, to both principal applicants and their dependants are
have a visa. An overview of this ‘‘universal’’ visa included in the data from 1995 onwards.
system is described in the Box below.
Issues of permanent residence visas have been Illegal migration
reduced by about 20 per cent since 1995/96 with the
planned number of issues for 1997/98 set at 68 000. The lack of land borders in Australia and its
There is also increasing emphasis on admitting universal visa system means that most illegal
immigrants under skills-based programmes rather migrants are persons who entered the country
than family-based programmes. In 1995/96 the total legally, then remained beyond the period allowed
number of acceptances under the Preferential Fam- by their visa. Recent estimates suggest the number
ily group was nearly 49 000, whilst in 1997/98 the of so-called ‘‘overstayers’’ has stabilised at about
planned intake is only 32 000, representing a reduc- 45 000, having fallen from relatively high levels ear-
tion of about 35 per cent (see Table II.1). It should lier in the decade. The decline indicates a degree of
be emphasised that because these figures relate to success in the detection and dissuasion of over-
the number of visas granted, not to the number of stayers. However, some of the decline is attributa-
arrivals within the relevant timeframe, individuals ble to legislative changes in September 1994 which
may arrive in a year subsequent to that of the visa’s resulted in individuals applying for visas no longer
acquisition or they may never actually take up resi- being counted as overstayers. A comparatively small
dence. This accounts for differences between the but significant number of people attempt to enter 75
An overview of the structure and approach of Australia’s immigration program
The ‘‘universal’’ visa system

Australia operates what is often referred to as a universal visa system, i.e. in the vast majority of cases, entry
into the country (for whatever reason) can only be made by having an appropriate visa. There are two main ways
of entering Australia for longer periods than those allowed under short-term tourist and business travel visas:
i) with permanent residence status, administered by the Australian Migration Program (AMP) and the Humanita-
rian Program, and ii) with a temporary visa. In addition, there are some groups, notably New Zealanders, who are
not subject to visa restrictions under the Trans Tasman Travel Arrangement.
The main categories of entry under the AMP are: Preferential Family (family ties), Consessional Family
(family ties with assessment by a points system), Independents (assessment by a points system), Employer
Nomination and Labour Agreements, Business Skills (entry for top management, business owners and investors)
and Special Talents.
Each year, targets are set for the number of visas to be issued under the AMP. Achievement of these targets
is facilitated by a provision for capping of visa issues over the course of the year.
The Humanitarian Program provides opportunities for permanent residence to successful on-shore asylum
seekers through the Protection Visa system. The off-shore programme consists of the Refugee Category, the
Special Humanitarian Program and the Special Assistance Category. The latter two categories are characterised
by providing assistance to those with close links with Australia, either through family or community.
Unlike permanent immigration under the AMP, no specific quotas are generally applied to the number of
temporary residents although visa issues are governed by a set of detailed regulations which specify the
objectives of each visa class and the conditions of entry. In the case of the Skilled Employment visa class, these
include safeguards to ensure that the employment rights of Australians are protected, labour market testing,
employer sponsorship, and varying periods of stay, generally from two to four years. Other significant entries
under the temporary visa system are students and those entering under the Working Holiday Maker Program
which consists of reciprocal agreements with other countries allowing young people to work whilst travelling or
on holiday. In recent years a limit has been placed on the maximum number of entries allowed under this
Program.
Naturalisation and Integration Policy

Similar to other ‘‘settlement’’ countries, Australian citizenship is generally awarded after a specified period
of residence with permanent status. Specifically, individuals must have been living in Australia as a permanent
resident for two years out of the previous five, including twelve months in the last two years.
The focus of settlement programmes is on general support, such as the Grant-In-Aid scheme which is
designed to help migrants settle in Australia and grants to non-profit organisations under the Immigration
Advisory Services Scheme (IASS). Linguistic training is provided under the Adult Migrant English Program.
Australia without authority. In 1996/97, 1 715 people entries under the Working Holiday Maker (WHM)
arrived without authority, 1 350 by air and 365 by Programme with the number of visas issued in other
boat. Unauthorised arrivals are generally held in categories having fallen in recent years. Note that
detention until any claims to stay in Australia have since 1994/95 a cap has been placed on the number
resolved. of WHM visas granted. In 1996/97 the cap was set at
50 000 and is set at 55 000 for 1997/98. The reason for
the cap is linked to concerns that the WHM pro-
Temporary migration gramme may limit the job opportunities of the long-
Australia’s temporary entry residence pro- term unemployed.
gramme (excluding student flows) has issued an The number of student visas continue to grow
increasing number of temporary visas since 1992/93 rapidly with nearly 69 000 visas being granted in
with 90 500 visas issued in 1996/97 (see Table II.1). 1996/97 (see Table II.1). The largest groups come
76 The increase is largely accounted for by additional from Indonesia, Korea and Japan. As of Decem-
Table II.1. Permanent and temporary migration programme outcomes, 1994-1997,1 and 1998 planning levels
for permanent settlers, by category, Australia
Thousands
Actual Planned
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Migration Programme2 (excluding the Humanitarian Programme) 62.8 76.5 82.5 73.9 68.0
Family 43.2 44.5 56.7 44.6 40.0
Preferential family 33.8 36.8 48.7 37.2 32.0
Concessional family 9.4 7.7 8.0 7.3 8.0
Skill 18.3 30.4 24.1 27.5 27.3
Employer nomination/labour agreements 4.0 3.3 4.6 5.6 5.8
Business skills 1.9 2.4 4.9 5.8 6.0
Special talents 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3
Independents 11.8 15.0 10.6 15.0 14.7
Other 0.4 9.6 3.8 0.9 0.5
Special eligibility 1.3 1.6 1.7 1.7 0.7
Humanitarian Programme2 12.8 13.3 15.1 12.0 12.0
Refugees and special humanitarian 6.8 7.7 8.2 5.9 6.8
Special assistance 5.8 5.6 6.9 3.7 3.2
Other 0.1 – – 2.4 2.0
Temporary Resident Programme3 (excluding students) 78.8 77.4 83.0 90.6 –
Skilled temporary resident programme4 14.2 14.3 15.4 12.5 –
Independent executive 0.1 0.2 0.4 .. –
Executive 3.3 3.7 4.3 .. –
Specialist 9.1 8.5 8.5 .. –
University teacher 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.8 –
Medical practitioner 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.8 –
Social/cultural programme 25.4 18.3 16.9 15.3 –
International relations programme 38.4 44.6 50.7 62.8 –
of which: Working Holiday Maker (WHM) 29.6 35.4 40.3 50.0 –
Other 0.8 0.2 – – –
Student Programme 41.5 51.4 63.1 68.6 –
1. Data refer to fiscal years (July to June of the given year).

2. Figures include persons who change status (temporary to permanent).
3. Including Long Stay Temporary Business Programme from 1995/1996.
4. Accompanying dependents are included.
Source: Department of Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs.
ber 1995, students from some countries are able to remaining relatively constant. One general feature of
apply for a visa that covers a series of educational net migration gain in the 1990s is an increase in the
courses rather than a single course. importance of long-term migration compared to per-
manent migration.
Net migration
The foreign-born population and labour force
‘‘Net migration gain’’, a statistic based on the
intended length of stay of arrivals – permanent Data on the characteristics of the population
migration, as well as movements of more than one and labour force of overseas born are available from
year (long-term) – was about 30 000 persons in both labour force survey and census data. The 1991
1992/93, nearly 84 000 in 1994/95 and is estimated to census indicated the presence of about 3.75 million
be 115 000 in 1996/97. These recent rises in migra- foreign-born residents in Australia, representing
tion fit into the general pattern of cyclical migration 22 per cent of the total population.
in Australia (see Chart II.1). Changes in permanent According to survey data for August 1997, the
and long-term immigration account for most of the overseas-born, a little under 60 per cent of whom
growth in net migration gain, with emigration were from a non-English-speaking background, 77
◆ Chart II.1. Flows of permanent and long-term residents,1 Australia

Fiscal years 1982/83-1996/97
Thousands
A. Net migration gain B. Inflows of permanent residents by entry class
Permanent and long-term flows Family Skill2

Permanent flows Long-term flows Humanitarian2 Total3
160 160
140 140
120 120
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1983 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 1997 1983 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 1997
C. Inflows of permanent residents

by main country or region of origin
New Zealand United Kingdom

Asia4
60
50
40
1. The classification into permanent, long and short term is based on the purpose
30 of travel as stated by the traveller on arrival to or departure from Australia.
Permanent movement consists of persons arriving with the stated intention
to settle permanently. Long-term movement consists of the arrival and the
20 departure of persons with the stated intention to stay (in Australia or abroad,
respectively) for 12 months or more. The net effect of persons whose travel
intentions change (category jumping) is not included.
10 2. Including accompanying dependents.
3. Including non-visaed entry class (mainly New Zealand citizens).
4. China, Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong (China), India, Philippines, Malaysia and
0
Sri Lanka.
1983 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 1997 Source: Department of Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs.
accounted for about a quarter of Australia’s labour pared to those born in Australia. The reasons for this
force. The general pattern of overseas born employ- are complex but are generally linked to factors such
ment across industry is similar to that of the Austra- as English language proficiency, length of residence
lian-born except that there is a relatively small pro- in Australia, age, skill levels and qualifications as
portion of immigrants in agriculture and a relatively well as migration category.
large proportion in manufacturing.
Evidence from the Longitudinal Survey of Immi-
The overseas born have lower rates of labour grants to Australia, starting in March 1994, provides
force participation compared to those born in further insight on this issue. The data confirm that
Australia and experience higher levels of unemploy- labour force participation tends to rise with
ment. Hence, overall, the proportion of the over- migrants’ duration of residence, whilst rates of
78 seas-born population in employment is lower com- unemployment tend to fall. For example, the data
indicate a fall in unemployment rates for migrants a higher burden of settlement costs, such as demon-
from 38 per cent after six months residence in strating that they have sufficient capital to cover the
Australia to 21 per cent after 18 months residence. period of initial entry when they search for work.
Correspondingly, participation rates rise from 57 per
cent to 63 per cent. The data also confirm expecta-
tions that those who entered under the points-
based categories of the Migrant Programme tend to AUSTRIA
perform better in these terms than other groups
Introduction
such as the Preferential Family category and those
entering under the Humanitarian Program. One Net migration to Austria remains at a relatively
exception appears to be those entering through the low level, largely reflecting the decline in humanita-
Concessional Family category (now renamed rian arrivals that occurred since the early 1990s.
Skilled-Australian Link), whose visas are based on a Although legislative provisions formally indicate that
points system; they perform only marginally better refugees and asylum seekers should only stay tem-
(unemployment rates only) than those in the Prefer- porarily, there is little evidence to-date that earlier
ential Family category whose visas are on the basis waves of such immigrants have returned to their
of family ties. native countries.
Recent policy developments include allowing
Policy developments family members of foreign residents greater access
to the labour market and a tightening of checks on
The government elected in March 1996 has, in the validity of marital status and income for foreign
broad terms, embarked on a tightening of immigra- residents.
tion policy and is placing greater emphasis on skills-
based immigration. As well as the reductions in
grants of permanent residence (especially in the Migration and settlement
Preferential Family category), a number of other ini-
Data from population registers indicate a con-
tiatives have been taken, including:
tinuing fall in the net migration of foreigners from
– Legislative restrictions on access to benefits by about 90 000 in 1991 to 10 000 in 1996. It has now
illegal immigrants and some non-citizens includ- reached levels similar to those in the mid-1980s,
ing a two year waiting period before newly arrived prior to the collapse of the former Soviet Union and
immigrants can access most social security bene- the civil war in the former Yugoslavia. The net migra-
fits and student study assistance. tion of Austrians in 1996 is estimated to be –5 000
– The ‘‘Concessional Family’’ category has been (see Chart II.2.A and Table II.2).
renamed the ‘‘Skilled-Australian Linked’’ (SAL) Inflows of citizens from non-EU member states
category and from 1997/98 will be included in the are regulated by a system of quotas which are
skilled stream. In its new form there is greater decided jointly by the governors of the federal
emphasis on skills compared to family links states and the Ministry of Domestic Affairs. The quo-
including additional points for English language tas apply to the issue of various categories of resi-
skills. dence permit, including foreign workers, family
– The List of Occupations Requiring English (ORE) reunion, foreign students and refugees. The admin-
has been expanded to cover around 80 per cent of istration of the residence permits is at the state
occupations. level, rather than the federal level, leading to some
In March 1998, the Immigration Minister con- differences in the treatment of applications.
firmed that he was considering the use of a tempo- Comprehensive accounts on residence permits
rary residency system for parents. This measure only became available in 1993 following the estab-
would make sponsoring families responsible for the lishment of a centralised alien register. The data
entire upkeep of migrating parents. In addition show that about half of the residence permits issued
there may also be a bonus points test for skilled each year are related to employment. This propor-
migrants possessing ‘‘high demand’’ skills and those tion is declining, however. Family reunion is gaining
who have studied in Australian universities. Another in importance, accounting for 32 per cent of permits
likely reform to the skills based category is the intro- issued in 1993 and about 41 per cent in 1996 (see
duction of a requirement that skilled migrants bear Table II.2). 79
◆ Chart II.2. Components of population change,1 Refugees and asylum seekers

1983-1996, Austria
Thousands As a result of the crisis in the former Yugoslavia
and political changes in Central and Eastern Europe
A. Net migration and total change in population and the former Soviet Union, substantial numbers of
Total change (foreigners) Net migration (foreigners) persons have sought asylum in Austria. By the end
Total change (Austrians) Net migration (Austrians) of 1991, there were approximately 27 300 asylum
100 100 seekers registered. The democratisation process in
the Central and Eastern European countries led the
80 80
government to reform asylum legislation in 1992.
The legislative reform, undertaken with intergovern-
60 60
mental co-operation among EU countries, focused
on harmonising admission policies for foreign
40 40
migrants in general and for asylum seekers in partic-
ular. This resulted in a substantial reduction in the
20 20
number of asylum seekers in 1992 and 1993 to about
5 000. Since then there has been a gradual increase
0 0
with a total of 7 000 asylum seekers in 1996 (see
Table II.2).
-20 -20
1983 84 86 88 90 92 94 1996 In addition to those requesting asylum, it is
estimated that since April 1992, 100 000 refugees
from former Yugoslavia have fled to Austria. The
B. Natural increase and naturalisations
formal position of these refugees is that they may
Natural increase (Austrians)
Natural increase (foreigners) reside and work in Austria on a temporary basis until
Acquisition of Austrian nationality
20 20
circumstances permit the return to their native coun-
try. To-date, there is little evidence that many have
15 15
returned to their native countries and a large pro-
portion of them currently have the right to stay for at
10 10 least another two years in Austria.
In the past, asylum seekers and refugees (the
5 5 majority from Central and Eastern Europe) used
Austria as a stepping stone for emigration else-
0 0 where. However, this role as diminished as the
countries bordering Austria to the East have them-
-5 -5 selves become safe countries for asylum seekers.
-10 -10
Labour migration
1983 84 86 88 90 92 94 1996
Over the course of time, a highly differentiated
1. Components of national and foreign population change are: natural increase, net system of work permits for foreigners has developed
migration and naturalisations. in Austria. The work permits fall into two groups,
Source: Austrian Central Statistical Office.
those which allow work only with a specific employer
and more flexible permits which allow for changes in
employer. There are three types of employer-
specific work permits; first entry permits (Erstantrag),
At present, a foreigner may become naturalised re-entry permits (Neuantrag) and extensions. In all
after 10 years of stay in Austria, or, in some cases, cases the permit is granted to the employer for a
after five years of stay with a valid work permit particular job, initially allowing up to one year of
(moves are being made, however, to shorten this employment. The first entry permits are issued for
period). As a result, the wave of immigration that those entering employment for the first time. The
occurred in the late 1980s and early 1990s re-entry permits are issued for those re-entering
(Chart II.2.A) is not yet seen in naturalisation data employment after a period of unemployment
80 (Chart II.2.B). exceeding six months or those changing their place
Table II.2. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Austria
All figures in thousands unless otherwise indicated
1994 1995 1996 1994 1995 1996 1994 1995 1996
Components of population change1 Residence permits issued, by category2 276.9 308.6 224.2 Stocks of foreign workers, by nationality3 291.0 300.3 300.4
Total population Dependent employment (%) 49.5 48.8 44.8 Former Yugoslavia (%) 48.9 49.2 49.3
Population (annual average) 8 029.7 8 046.5 8 059.4 Self employment (%) 1.9 1.8 2.0 Turkey (%) 18.6 18.2 17.8
Population increase from beginning to end of year 24.8 14.9 13.0 Own account (%) 2.2 1.6 1.8 EU (%) 6.3 7.0 7.8
of which: Student (%) 3.0 3.5 3.9 Other (%) 26.2 25.6 25.0
Natural increase 11.7 7.5 8.0 Retirement (%) 0.8 1.2 1.4 Share of foreign employment in total employment (%) 9.5 9.8 9.9
Net migration 13.1 7.4 5.0 Family reunification with foreigner (%) 33.5 37.7 40.1
Family reunification with Austrian (%) 3.4 4.1 0.4 Total of employed workers, by category of permit4 268.8 269.7 257.2
Austrians Other (%) 5.7 1.2 5.7 Short-term work permits 78.4 58.8 43.7
Population (annual average) 7 316.2 7 323.1 7 331.2 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Work entitlements 97.9 109.1 92.3
Population increase from beginning to end of year 10.3 9.5 8.4 Permanent licences 92.6 101.9 121.2
of which: Asylum seekers and refugees
Natural increase 1.0 –2.8 –2.2 Asylum seekers 5.1 5.9 7.0 Work permits issued to foreigners, by category 143.8 131.7 127.5
Net migration –6.0 –2.0 –5.0 Outflows of refugees 1.8 1.2 1.3 Initial permits issued 75.9 56.1 51.9
Naturalisations 15.3 14.4 15.6 Extensions issued 58.2 48.6 35.8
Legal measures taken against foreigners Permanent licences issued 9.7 27.0 39.8
Foreigners Total rejections at border 142.4 134.7 134.0
Population (annual average) 713.5 723.5 728.2 Removals to home country 4.1 3.9 3.5 Unemployment rate, total5 6.5 6.6 7.0
Population increase from beginning to end of year 14.6 5.4 4.6 Refusals of residence 11.2 12.7 12.9 Unemployment rate, foreigners 8.0 7.7 8.4
of which: Expulsions from Austria 15.5 17.9 22.0
Natural increase 10.7 10.3 10.2 Total 173.2 169.2 172.4 Employment of Austrians abroad6
Net migration 19.1 9.4 10.0 Austrian employees in Germany 88.7 83.6 79.4
Naturalisations –15.3 –14.4 –15.6 Austrian employees in Switzerland 14.9 14.4 13.7
1. Results are based on the 1991 census. The naturalisations refer to persons residing in Austria.
2. Figures include all types of residence permits. A first residence permit is usually granted for 6 months maximum (renewable once). Then a 2-year permit (renewable) can be granted. After five years working in Austria, a permanent residence permit can be issued.
Data refer to July of the given year through June of the next year.
3. Annual average. Employment of foreigners based on social security data records.
4. Data given as an annual average. The data exclude the unemployed and self-employed, and from 1994 on, citizens of the European Economic Area (EEA).
Several types of permits are issued:
– Short-term permits: granted to an enterprise for a maximum duration of one year (renewable) and for a specific activity. Data include persons entering the labour market for the first time, seasonal workers, those who are changing jobs or taking up activity after a
period of unemployment of at least six months and holders of provisional permits (when the application process takes more than four weeks). Extensions of permits are also included.
– Work entitlements: granted for a maximum duration of two years (renewable). May be obtained after one year of work in Austria.
– Permanent licences: granted after five years of work and valid for five years (renewable).
5. Data are based on the unemployment register.
6. Data as of June for Germany, August for Switzerland.
Sources: Central Alien Register; Central Statistical Office; Ministry of the Interior; Ministry of Labour, Health and Social Affairs; Social Security database on labour force.

81
of work. The extensions enable continuation of increased pressure for reductions in work permits in
employment beyond one year. order to remain within the quota which sets a limit
on the percentage of third-country foreigners in the
After a period of one year of work, the
labour force. Those from former Yugoslavia consti-
employer-specific permit may be transformed into a
tute roughly half of foreign workers, followed by
‘‘work entitlement’’ (Arbeitserlaubnis), issued to the
Turks (18 per cent). Employment of foreigners
person rather than the firm, which allows free move-
remains relatively concentrated in agriculture, cloth-
ment of labour within regional state boundaries.
ing, tourism and cleaning services.
After five years of work a permanent permit may be
issued which allows free movement in the labour Between 1995 and 1996 the unemployment rate
market in Austria. The work entitlements were intro- for foreigners fell, a consequence of decreased
duced in 1989. unemployment benefit eligibility as well as chang-
ing registration practices of employment offices in
In the past, the stock of foreign workers corre- order to keep the labour supply of foreigners below
lated strongly with the issue of Initial and Re-entry quota limits. However, between 1996 and 1997 the
permits. However, since the early 1990s there have unemployment rate among foreigners rose from 7.7
been falls in the number of Initial and Re-entry work to 8.4 per cent. Foreign workers from the main
permits but continuing growth in the stock of foreign source countries, Turkey and the former Yugoslavia,
employees (see Chart II.3). This divergence between have unemployment rates of nearly 11 per cent and
the series is thought to be driven by three factors: 8 per cent respectively.
first, the introduction of work entitlements enables
foreign workers to remain longer in Austria under
less stringent permit conditions; second, evidence Illegal migration
suggests that many immigrants, notably those from Austria’s long land border with non-EU coun-
Turkey and the former Yugoslavia, are remaining on tries inevitably makes it susceptible to illegal immi-
a more permanent basis; third, the integration of gration. A number of sources suggest an increase in
Austria into the European Economic area (EEA) and organised trafficking of immigrants. However, it is
subsequent European Union membership has extremely difficult to estimate the actual number of
meant that only non-EEA citizens need a work per- illegal entries being made in this way. Reports sug-
mit in Austria. gest that the objective of many illegal immigrants is
The rising stock of foreign workers has resulted to reach Germany. Whether Austria forms part of
in the proportion of foreigners in the total employed their route probably depends on the risks of appre-
reaching unprecedented levels: in 1996 the share hension. For example, some evidence points to a
was 9.9 per cent of total employment. This is placing switch to using a route which involves entering
◆ Chart II.3. Work permits1 and foreign employment, 1980-1996, Austria

Thousands
300 Initial permits issued Extensions issued

Permanent licences Work entitlements
250 Total foreign employment 2
200
150
1. Data on work permits are given as an annual average (except for

100
short-term permits which relate to the number of permits issued
in the given year). Figures exclude the self-employed and from 1994
50 on, citizens of the European Economic Area.
2. Figures are given as an annual average and are based on Social
Security records.
0
Sources: Ministry of Labour; Social Security Department; Labour Market
82 1980 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 1996 Service.
Austria via Italy in response to tightened control of Belgian nationals. The overall net migration (of for-
Austria’s eastern border. eigners and nationals) was positive in 1996, at 12 700
(see Chart II.4).
Policy developments As of 1 January 1997, nearly 912 000 foreigners
were on the national population register, accounting
Last year’s SOPEMI report for Austria noted a
for 9 per cent of the total population (see Chart II.4).
number of policy developments including: imple-
European Union nationals represented more than
mentation of the Schengen Agreement (Decem-
ber 1997), changes to the residence permit system
and changes in policy with regard to the provision of
social benefits to foreigners. Other recent develop- ◆ Chart II.4. Population and net migration change,
ments included: 1983-1996, Belgium
– New legislation (August 1997) regarding foreigners’ access
A. Change in total and foreign population1
to the labour market. According to this new legisla-
tion the family members of persons who have Total population (left scale)
Share of foreigners (right scale)
been residing in Austria for four or more years
10.2 11
have the right to access the labour market (i.e. a
work permit cannot be denied). However, the
effect on the supply of foreign workers is unlikely
10.1 10
to be substantial due to application of the quota
% of total population
for the share of foreign workers in total labour
supply.
Millions
10 9
– Increased control of existing residence permits. Measures
have been taken to increase the checks on the
income and marital status of foreigners which may 9.9 8
lead to a removal of the right of residence for a
substantial number of them.
9.8 7
BELGIUM 1983 84 86 88 90 92 94 1996
Introduction B. Change in net migration2 by group of nationality
After having slowed in mid-1995, economic Belgians Foreigners Total population

growth has begun to pick up. GDP should increase 30 30
by around 2.5 per cent in 1998, but the labour mar-
ket remains a source of concern. The standardised
unemployment rate is still high (9.5 per cent in 20 20
1997), and Belgium has one of the lowest unemploy-

Thousands
Thousands
ment outflow rates of the OECD countries.

10 10
Migration flows and foreign population

Inflows of foreigners increased sharply in the 0 0
late 1980s, but since 1991 they have become more
stable. In 1996, there were close to 52 000 arrivals,
compared to about 38 000 in 1988. As for the outflow -10 -10
of foreigners through emigration, the figures have 1983 84 86 88 90 92 94 1996
remained relatively stable since the end of the
1980s, and stood at some 32 000 in 1996. The net Note: Data are from population registers and refer to the population on the
31 December of the years indicated.
migration of foreigners is therefore positive. Since 1. In 1985 and 1992, following changes in nationality laws, the stock of foreign
1992, alongside an increase in the emigration flow of population dropped sharply. The decrease in 1995 can be explain both by the
continuation of the effects of the change in nationality laws and the removal from
Belgian nationals, there has been a reduction in the the register of almost 11 000 asylum seekers awaiting a decision on their application.
number of returning Belgian emigrants, which has 2. Figures include some asylum seekers up to 1995.
contributed to increasing the net migration level of Sources: Population Register, Institut national de la statistique. 83
60 per cent of the foreign population. Among other from the United States and Japan were essentially
nationalities, Moroccans made up the largest temporary, while those issued to Moroccans were
group, followed by Turks (see Statistical Annex, generally permanent.
Table B.1.6). The number of work permits issued to resident
The implementation of legislation allowing the immigrants has fallen greatly since 1993, when there
second- and third-generation descendants of immi- were around 9 000, to some 2 500 in 1996. In 1996,
grants to acquire Belgian nationality brought about a the main recipients of these permits were refugees
significant increase in the number of naturalisations and stateless persons, followed by Moroccans,
in 1985. The following year, the average number of Turks, and nationals of the former Zaire. Most of the
naturalisations returned to its usual level of around permits issued to resident nationals of these three
8 500. However, beginning in 1992, a further liberal- countries were of a permanent nature.
isation of Belgium’s naturalisation procedures
Belgium does not count cross-border workers
prompted an increase in the number of naturalisa-
by nationality, but by country of residence for
tions granted each year. In 1996, just under
inflows (non-residents) and by country of employ-
25 000 people were naturalised, of whom around a
ment for outflows (residents), since not all cross-
third were of Moroccan origin, and 27 per cent Turk-
border workers are necessarily nationals of the
ish.
country in which they live. Since 1970, the net flow of
After a period of steep decline, the number of cross-border workers has always been negative, it
mixed marriages has been stable since 1992. As the was estimated at –28 600 for 1996. Cross-border
total number of marriages in Belgium is falling, the workers come mainly from France. The main country
proportion of mixed marriages (about 12 per cent in of destination for workers living in Belgium and
1996) has actually been increasing since 1989 (see working in a neighbouring country is Luxembourg,
Table II.3). There is still a fertility differential whereas in the past it was France (until the
between foreign women and Belgian women. In mid-1980s), and the Netherlands (until 1990).
1992, foreign women had an average of 2.2 children,
The data available on the foreign labour force
compared with 1.6 for Belgian women. The gap is
come from two sources: the national census and the
narrowing each year, however. In the Walloon
annual Labour Force Survey. At the last census
Region, which has a long history of immigration, the
(March 1991), the foreign labour force numbered
fertility rate for foreign women is very close to that
327 000, of whom 80 000 were unemployed. While
of Belgian women. In Flanders, on the other hand,
the Labour Force Survey indicates a large rise in the
where immigration is more recent, the fertility
number of economically active foreigners since the
differential is still substantially higher.
beginning of the 1990s, the rate of increase has
slowed since 1993. The foreign labour force stood at
Work permits, the labour force and 335 000 in 1994, including 232 000 European Union
unemployment nationals. The very marked increase in unemploy-
With the exception of European Union nation- ment since the beginning of the 1990s has affected
als, all foreigners wishing to work in Belgium require all nationalities, but particularly foreign workers
a work permit. Two types of permit are issued: one from non-European Union countries (see Table II.3).
to new immigrants entering the labour market (per- Although it has been rising since 1992, the activity
mit with immigration); the other to foreigners rate of non-European Union nationals is lower than
already living in Belgium who are entering the that of Belgian and European Union nationals.
labour market for the first time (permit without
immigration). Since 1991, the annual number of per- Asylum seekers and refugees
mits issued to new immigrants has been steadily
declining, from some 4 600 in 1991 to 2 200 in 1996. The number of asylum seekers has declined
The largest number of permits for new immigrants sharply, from around 27 000 in 1993 to some 12 400
was issued to nationals of the United States, fol- in 1996. The largest group of asylum seekers con-
lowed by Japanese nationals and Moroccans. The sisted of nationals of the former Yugoslavia, fol-
decline in the number of permits issued to new lowed by citizens of the former Soviet Union and the
immigrants between 1995 and 1996 affected all of former Zaire. The recognition rate (the ratio of suc-
the main nationalities, except citizens of the United cessful applications for asylum to the total number
84 States. The work permits issued to new immigrants of decisions taken each year) fell from nearly 40 per
Table II.3. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Belgium
1993 1994 1995 1996 1993 1994 1995 1996
Components of population change Initial work permits by kind of permits and by group of nationality2 13.4 13.2 8.5 4.6
Total population Permits with immigration 4.2 4.1 3.0 2.2
Population (on 31 December) 10 100.6 10 130.6 10 143.0 10 170.2 Asia 1.4 1.4 0.9 0.7
Population increase from beginning to end of year 32.3 29.9 12.5 27.2 America 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.7
of which: Africa 1.2 1.2 0.9 0.5
Natural increase 13.2 11.8 9.6 11.1 Europe 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.3
Net migration 18.9 17.6 13.4 12.7 Oceania – – – 0.1
Statistical adjustment 0.1 0.5 –10.5 3.4 Region not specified – – – –
Permits without immigration 9.2 9.1 5.5 2.5
Nationals Africa 4.6 4.5 2.5 0.7
Population (on 31 December) 9 180.1 9 208.2 9 233.3 9 258.3 Asia 3.1 3.1 1.6 0.4
Population increase from beginning to end of year 21.0 28.2 25.0 25.0 Europe 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3
of which: America 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1
Natural increase 7.8 6.8 5.4 7.2 Oceania – – – –
Net migration –2.9 –4.2 –6.6 –6.7 Region not specified 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Acquisitions of nationality 16.4 25.8 26.1 24.6
Statistical adjustment –0.2 –0.1 0.1 – Migration flows of cross-border workers by country of origin/destination
Inflows by country of origin 16.0 15.7 15.7 17.3
Foreigners France 11.0 11.0 11.0 12.0
Population (on 31 December)1 920.6 922.3 909.8 911.9 Netherlands 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.8
Population increase from beginning to end of year 11.3 1.7 –12.6 2.2 Outflows by country of destination 43.7 44.9 44.7 45.9
of which: Luxembourg 15.1 16.2 17.2 18.3
Natural increase 5.4 5.0 4.2 3.9 Netherlands 14.4 14.0 13.3 13.5
Net migration 21.8 21.9 20.0 19.5 France 6.3 6.4 5.8 5.9
Acquisitions of nationality –16.4 –25.8 –26.1 –24.6
Statistical adjustment 0.4 0.6 –10.7 3.4 Labour force (March 1991 Census) by nationality3
Employed labour force 3 651.7
Inflows of foreigners by group of nationality 53.0 56.0 53.1 51.9 Belgium 3 404.3
EU 26.4 27.0 26.6 28.7 Other EU countries 185.5
Other European countries 4.8 4.1 6.9 3.4 Morocco 22.0
Africa 9.3 10.9 7.4 7.7 Turkey 13.7
Asia 7.6 8.4 6.6 6.7 Other 26.2
America 4.4 4.8 4.9 4.9 Unemployed 521.4
Oceania 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 Belgium 442.1
Region not specified 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.3 Other EU countries 45.4

Morocco 13.0
Asylum seekers 26.7 14.3 11.4 12.4 Turkey 9.8
Other 11.2
Mixed marriages 6.4 6.3 6.3 6.2
% of total marriages 11.8 12.0 12.2 12.3 Recipients of unemployment benefit by nationality4 461.2 496.5 490.3 465.0
Marriages with a EU citizen 3.7 3.5 3.4 3.3 Belgium 386.8 419.1 413.1 390.2
Other EU countries 43.3 44.9 44.5 42.0
of which: Italy 24.9 25.3 25.1 23.8
Morocco 14.3 15.3 15.5 15.4
Turkey 10.4 10.7 10.7 10.8
Other 6.5 6.6 6.6 6.6
Note: Figures on European Union include the 15 members of the Union from 1994 on.
1. The decrease in 1995 can be explained by the removal from the register of almost 11 000 asylum seekers awaiting a decision.
2. Work permits are issued either for unlimited periods (A permits) or for limited periods (B permits). EU citizens do not need a work permit.
3. Note that on the March 1991 Census a total of about 250 000 persons did not state their employment status.
4. Data refer to the number of recipients of unemployment on the 30 June of the years indicated.
Sources: Institut national de la statistique and Registre national de la population; ministère de l’Emploi et du Travail; Office des étrangers; Census (March 1991).
85
cent in 1988 and 1989 to under 10 per cent from 1993 were reached with socio-professional training and
to 1995. This decline was largely due to 1993 legisla- placement organisations in order, inter alia, to help
tive amendments that tightened the conditions for low-skilled job seekers find employment. Action is
entry, residence and settlement in Belgium for for- being taken in close collaboration with local job cen-
eigners, and particularly asylum seekers. tres, particularly in distressed neighbourhoods.
Any candidate for refugee status who wishes to Approved organisations receive subsidies for their
settle in Belgium must find a place to live and apply work. The integration policy was recently amended
to the Office for Foreign Nationals. If the Office to encourage partnerships between town officials
declares the application inadmissible, the refugee and local associations for the setting up of pro-
can appeal to the General Commission for Refugees grammes to combat exclusion and to develop har-
and Stateless Persons (CGRA), which also decides monious links between the various communities.
whether or not admissible applicants are granted Since 1996, the Flemish region has been imple-
refugee status. If the CGRA rejects the appeal, a menting a strategic plan for the integration of immi-
further appeal may be made to the Standing Refu- grants and refugees. This plan comprises three main
gee Appeals Board, or even to the Conseil d’État. Any- features: making local facilities more accessible to
one refused asylum is ordered to leave Belgium. It immigrants; welcoming newly arrived foreigners; and
appears, however, that a considerable number of encouraging immigrants to learn the language and
such people try to avoid deportation by staying on providing them with training and information in
clandestinely. order to make it easier for them to enter the labour
market. The plan includes help for the long-term
unemployed, a job seeker’s charter which protects
Policy developments workers against all forms of discrimination, repeal of
The CGRA has sped up the asylum process, and the nationality requirement in the Flemish civil ser-
the conditions for admissibility have been tight- vice and, lastly, special measures to help foreign
ened. Under the July 1996 Act governing the entry, workers and workers of foreign origin who are self-
residence, settlement and deportation of foreigners employed.
(known as the Vande Lanotte Act), asylum seekers The Belgian Centre for Equal Opportunities and
are assigned to specific areas where they must the Fight Against Racism co-ordinated in 1997 the
remain during the initial stage of their application. If Belgian activities devoted to the European Union-
they fail to comply with this, they are not entitled to sponsored European Year Against Racism. In Nov-
receive social benefits. ember of that year, it organised a general assembly
Other sections of the 1996 Act focus on imple- on equal opportunities and the combating of racism.
mentation of the Schengen Agreement, and particu- The Centre formulated a series of propositions
larly external border controls of the Schengen Area. which were presented to the inter-ministerial con-
This Act brings Belgian law into line with the com- ference on immigrant policy. These propositions
mitments made under the Dublin Convention deter- range from simple recommendations concerning
mining the State responsible for examining applica- modifications to legislation relating to racism and
tion for asylum lodged in one of the Member States xenophobia through to such domains as the fight
of the European Union. The Act also gives the Office against racial discrimination in employment, hous-
for Foreign Nationals broader discretionary powers ing and continuing vocational training.
on entry and deportation. It extends the maximum
period of administrative detention for undocu- BULGARIA
mented immigrants and unsuccessful asylum seek-
ers to eight months, allowing for further extension if Introduction
necessary. Lastly, in an effort to tackle illegal immi- In 1996, Bulgaria faced its most severe political
gration more effectively, heavier penalties have and economic crisis since the beginning of the
been introduced for people who assist illegal immi- reform process. The economic crisis reached its
grants, including carriers, and particularly airlines. apex in February 1997, by which time output was
Numerous steps were taken in 1996 and 1997 to declining rapidly and monthly inflation had
improve the integration of immigrants into Belgian exceeded 200 per cent. Following the implementa-
society and to increase their chances of finding tion of an ambitious comprehensive programme of
86 employment. In the Brussels region, agreements stabilisation and structural reform monthly inflation
fell dramatically, averaging close to 3 per cent from migrants heading towards the West. Two main flows
April through to September 1997. Although prelimi- can be identified: one from the Middle East towards
nary data indicate that output and employment Germany and Austria via Romania and Hungary;
have continued to decline through to the end of another from the CIS and Romania towards Greece.
1997, the prerequisites have been created for at
least a modest turnaround during the course of 1998.
Refugees and asylum seekers
Emigration The regulations require that those seeking asy-

lum declare that intention within 48 hours of their
Prior to the political, economic and social entry into the country. It is also possible to apply for
upheavals of 1989, official restrictions on move-
asylum at Bulgarian diplomatic and consular mis-
ments abroad rendered the documented emigration
sions abroad. In most cases the asylum seekers
flow negligible. The undocumented flow is likely to
approach the authorities after their entry visa has
have been significant however, in particular of eth-
expired and the request for renewal has been
nic Turks following the implementation of an assimi-
rejected. The procedure generally takes from one to
lationist policy in the mid-1980s. Approximately
three months although provisions exist for the
220 000 people left in 1989, the majority of whom
implementation of an accelerated procedure for
were Bulgarians of Turkish origin who settled perma-
manifestly unfounded applications. In the over-
nently in Turkey. According to the National Statisti-
whelming majority of cases their ultimate objective
cal Institute, which defines emigrants as all those
is to obtain refugee status in Western Europe.
who leave the country for more than one year (this
group includes students, employees under fixed The recent progress in establishing a system of
term contracts abroad, Bulgarian diplomats, etc.), procedures for the granting refugee status and the
the flow then declined markedly, to 85 000 in 1990 implementation of social integration programmes for
and to 45 000 in 1991. Between 1992 and 1996 the recognised refugees (which include a programme for
outflow fluctuated at between 54 000 and 65 000. It is social aid; a programme for vocational training; an
believed that a high proportion of these emigrants educational program for Bulgarian language; and a
are highly skilled. programme for psychological aid) have led to an
increase, albeit from a very low base, in the number
of applications. Since the establishment of the
Immigration
National Bureau for Territorial Asylum and Refugees
In principle, immigrants require official permis- (NBTAR) in October 1992, almost 350 foreigners
sion to stay in the country for more than six months. have been granted refugee status of whom almost
According to the records on those requesting such one third were minors. Approximately half of the
permission (the majority of whom are students, bus- refugees from the former Yugoslavia have left the
inessmen and accompanying family members), country. In 1996, almost 300 persons sought asylum
Greek nationals predominate followed by Russians, of whom just under half were granted refugee status.
Syrians, Turks and Lebanese. Approximately 40 per cent of the application proce-
The preliminary estimate from the Ministry of dures were suspended or abandoned (in all likeli-
the Interior suggests that in 1997 the number of hood because the applicant had left the country).
undocumented migrants in Bulgaria decreased by On receipt of refugee status the individual has,
over 20 per cent on 1996 to just over 22 000. This with the exceptions of the right to vote, the right to
would be due mainly to the deterioration in the be appointed to certain civil service posts, the right
economic situation. The strengthening of visa con- to join the Bulgarian Army and the right to acquire
trol is also believed to have made a contribution: ownership over land and forest, the same rights and
following the imposition in 1993 of restrictions on obligations as a Bulgarian citizen. In particular, refu-
the entry of citizens from 79 countries from Asia, gees are entitled to travel documents and may be
Africa and the ex-Soviet Union (not the Baltic states, joined in Bulgaria by their immediate families (in
however), in October 1997 certain restrictions on 1996, only five such cases of family reunion took
the entry of citizens from CIS countries were place). The family members are accorded the same
implemented. rights and obligations as the refugee. Upon comple-
Bulgaria’s central location and relatively porous tion of three years of refugee status the individual
borders render it an important staging post for may apply for Bulgarian citizenship. 87
Naturalisations for refugees at border checkpoints and at Sofia

International airport.
The number of successful applications for
naturalisation registered a marked upwards shift in
An office of the International Organisation for
1993, reflecting the growth in number of the ethnic
Migration has been established. It will support the
Bulgarians applying from Ukraine, Greece, Turkey,
development of migration policy as well as the tight-
Moldova and Bessarabia. Over the period 1993-96,
ening-up of the legal and institutional framework as
between 1 800 and 2 700 persons annually were
it relates to migration. A new visa centre has been
granted citizenship. (The figure does not include
established at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. This
those who reacquired Bulgarian citizenship.) This
centre is a stage of the Phare Programme for visa
trend appears to have continued into 1997; as of the
control. Steps in this direction are to be undertaken
end of October over 2 100 citizenship applications
together with the measures to more efficiently com-
had been granted.
bat illegal forms of migration. In early 1997 the care-
taker Government announced that citizens of the
Employment of foreigners European Council and the European Free Trade
The majority of foreign workers in Bulgaria are Association may now stay in Bulgaria for up to
either self-employed or work in small and medium 30 days without a visa.
sized enterprises. The self employed are primarily
engaged in the service and trade sectors as they
require a relatively small initial investment. Work Bilateral Labour Agreements
permits were only introduced in 1994. The proce-
Despite Bulgaria’s continually expressed inter-
dures for their obtention remain very restrictive. As
est in labour agreements as an efficient instrument
of the end of October 1997 fewer than 1 000 had
of migration policy and as a means of limiting illegal
been issued. Of this total, teachers and trainers
migration, at present the only active agreement is
accounted for 20 per cent and managers, typically of
with Germany. The numbers sent there, already neg-
foreign based multinationals, a further 15 per cent.
ligible in the mid-1990s, have recently declined.
Permit holders from the transition economies of
central Europe are employed mainly as engineers
Pursuant to Art. 51 of the European Association
and technicians.
Agreement, the exchange of specialists is consid-
ered an important prerequisite for European inte-
Policy developments gration. Negotiations on bilateral governmental
agreements with, among others, France, Greece and
An important aspect of migration policy is the
Italy for the granting of work permits to specialists
attitude towards ethnic Turks who have emigrated
who are in demand in the receiving country have
from Bulgaria to Turkey. Liberalisation of the visa
regime between the two countries as well as the been in progress for several years. They are still
opening of a free trade zone are expected shortly. awaiting conclusion. It is expected that the ratifica-
The Turkish citizenship of approximately tion and implementation of the recently signed
150 000 Bulgarian Turks currently residing under bilateral agreement with Greece which is designed
temporary residence permits is still not settled, but to facilitate seasonal employment there will, in con-
is expected to be soon. It has been proposed that junction with Greece’s regularisation process, lead
they should be given the right to choose between to a normalisation of the migration flow to this
either acquiring Turkish citizenship or returning to country.
Bulgaria.
Bulgaria and the Czech Republic are still con-
The draft of a Refugee Law has been prepared sidering the draft of a bilateral treaty for the
by an official working party of Bulgarian experts. In exchange of workers, proposed in 1994. The draft
December 1996, it was the subject of a round table treaty covers such issues as social benefits, travel
discussion between experts from the UNHCR, the expenses and the legal and professional require-
NBTAR and members of the 37th Bulgarian National ments which the applicants should fulfil. The conclu-
Assembly dealing with human rights issues. Inter alia, sion of such an agreement would have a positive
it provides for improved efficiency in the decisions impact on the regulation of migration flows and on
88 procedure and the establishment of transit centres the reduction of illegal migration.
CANADA Employment related migration
Introduction Data on temporary employment authorisations

is currently under review. The main trends identi-
Although data for immigrant landings in 1996 fied in data up to 1995 indicated a decline in num-
indicate an increase on the previous year, estimates bers, explained in part by the effects of the Backlog
for 1997 suggest a decrease to 216 000, indicating Clearance programme and also the relatively weak
that the generally downward trend in permanent state of the Canadian economy. Since 1994, in addi-
immigration to Canada is continuing. Recent policy tion to employment authorisations under the usual
developments include the tightening of family spon- channels, about 10 000 to 12 000 authorisations have
sorship regulations and the introduction of special been given under the NAFTA. These figures imply
provisions for undocumented refugees. In addition, that the provisions for labour movement under
a recently published independent report to the NAFTA have so far been of relatively little signifi-
Minister of Citizenship and Immigration recom- cance compared to the overall volume of inflows.
mends extensive revision of the immigration
system.
Following the fairly large rise in grants of refu-
Permanent immigration gee status between 1994 and 1995, the figures for
Similar to other settlement countries, Canada 1996 and 1997 only show a slight decrease to 24 100.
has a comprehensive system of immigration which In 1996 the number of asylum applications received
includes mechanisms for allowing independent within Canada (including ports of entry) was 25 700,
entry to Canada on the basis of skills or investment with significant numbers originating from Sri Lanka
as well as family and humanitarian reasons (see and Chile.
Box below).
Net migration
The total number granted permanent residence
status in 1997 was 216 000 (see Chart II.5 and Official statistical sources use the number of
Table II.4), indicating a continuation of the broadly landed immigrants as the measure of total immigra-
downward trend in immigration in recent years. tion to Canada. Emigration is based on a number of
sources. Over the last decade the annual estimates
There is a continuing shift in the composition of have fluctuated quite considerably but have tended
landed immigrants most notably a shift away from to be in the range of 40 000 to 50 000 in recent years.
entries under family classes towards economic clas- Preliminary estimates put the 1996 immigration fig-
ses. In 1997, the composition was as follows: family ure at 48 800, giving an estimated net migration
class, 28 per cent; skilled worker class, 49 per cent; of 175 300.
business class, 9 per cent; and refugees, 11 per cent.
However, the family class does not cover all
dependants, since, within the business and skilled Foreign-born population and labour force
worker classes, only about 40 per cent enter as the Detailed analysis of the foreign-born popula-
principle applicants, the rest being dependants of tion and labour force in Canada can only be made
those applicants. periodically through census data. Comparing the
1991 and 1996 census data, the stock of immigrants
Asia continues to be the dominant sending
in Canada grew from 16.1 per cent of the Canadian
region with Hong Kong, China, India and Mainland
population to 17.4 per cent. However, the propor-
China being the top three sources in 1996. Last
tion of immigrants of European origin fell from 54 to
years’ SOPEMI report indicated a rapid rise in the
47 per cent while that of immigrants of Asian origin
number of landed immigrants from Bosnia-
increased from 25 to 31 per cent over the same
Herzegovina. This trend appears to have been
period, reflecting the rapid rise in intakes from the
reversed in 1996 with a fall in the number of govern-
Asia-Pacific region.
ment sponsored refugees from Bosnia-Herzegovina
from about 5 200 in 1995 to 4 400 in 1996. This trend Examination of the 1991 census data shows that
is more an indication of a fall in applications rather the foreign-born represent roughly 18.5 per cent of
than a shift in policy. the labour force in Canada. In aggregate terms, their 89
An overview of the structure and approach of Canada’s immigration program
There are two main mechanisms through which foreigners may legally enter Canada for periods longer than
allowed under short-term tourist and business travel arrangements: i) with permanent residence status through
the permanent immigration program and ii) on a temporary basis as students, refugee claimants or for temporary
employment. It is possible to transfer from temporary to permanent residence status, therefore the total issues
of permanent residence (often referred to as ‘‘landed immigrants’’) include some who have been in the country
for some length of time as temporary residents. About 15 per cent of applications for permanent residence are
processed in Canada; the remainder are processed overseas.
Permanent immigration
Acquisition of permanent residence status is possible under three main classes of entry: i) the ‘‘family class’’
who enter on the basis of having close relatives in Canada; ii) those entering for employment and business
reasons, the ‘‘skilled worker and business classes’’; iii) and those entering as refugees. The system works through
a highly developed set of rules of entry for each class of entry. There are no numerical limits, or other
mechanisms for capping the number of permanent immigrants, the source of control being solely through the
rules of entry. As a result, there is no mechanism for effecting immediate and precise determination of the
numbers granted permanent residence status (in contrast to the system used in Australia). In November of each
year, the Minister for Citizenship and Immigration issues a statement on the ‘‘planned’’ migration intake for the
following year which is based on an assessment of the numbers who are likely to enter under the existing set of
regulations. Note that Canadian authorities often refer to issues of permanent residence as immigrant landings.
Entry under the family class is based on sponsorship by a Canadian citizen or permanent resident. There
must be evidence of the sponsor having a bona fide relation with the applicant. In addition, the sponsor must
demonstrate an ability to provide financial support for those sponsored.
Entry under the skilled worker class is based on a selection test consisting of criteria against which points
are awarded, to determine whether they can become successfully established in Canada. The mix of specific
selection criteria and their weighting pattern are designed to reflect what is needed to succeed in Canada’s
labour market. Note that only the principal applicant is assessed.
Entry under the business class is based on a requirement to make a minimum investment in a Canadian
business (or business investment fund) or a requirement to establish, purchase or invest in a designated
business that will create employment opportunities for others.
Refugee status is granted to both Geneva Convention refugees and those who do not quite satisfy
Convention refugee requirements, but are nonetheless admitted for humanitarian reasons. There are three
major sub-groups of refugees: government-assisted refugees selected abroad; privately sponsored refugees
selected abroad; and, asylum seekers who come to Canada and claim refugee status and who subsequently
receive a positive determination on their claim. Asylum seekers are issued an employment authorisation for a
period of nine months once certain requirements are met such as a credible basis for their claim and also having
undergone a medical examination.
Temporary immigration
Temporary immigration to Canada is tracked through data on employment authorisations (by law, no person
other than a Canadian citizen or permanent resident is permitted to be employed in Canada without an
employment authorisation). The motivation for issuing temporary employment authorisations is both humanita-
rian and economic. Some authorisations have to be ‘‘validated’’, i.e. Human Resources Development Canada
ensure that there is no Canadian citizen or permanent resident available to fill the position. However, the
majority of authorisations are exempt from validation. Those exempt include a wide variety of applicants such as
persons awaiting results of application for permanent residence from within Canada and asylum seekers seeking
refugee status.
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) allows for temporary entry to Canada by citizens of the
United States or Mexico under four categories of employment: ‘‘trader and investor’’, ‘‘business visitor’’, ‘‘profes-
sional’’ and ‘‘inter-company transferee’’. Most of the entries under NAFTA are in the ‘‘professional’’ category
where entry is based on an agreed list of specific professions.
(continued on next page)

90
(continued)
Naturalisation and Integration policy
Landed immigrants may apply for citizenship after three years of residence. As a result, trends in naturalisa-
tion tend to closely follow those of permanent immigration with a lag of about three years.
The Canadian Government has in place several programmes designed to facilitate the integration of
immigrants. The more important of these programmes are: ‘‘Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada
programme, (LINC)’’; ‘‘The Resettlement Assistance Programme (RAP)’’ which provides assistance such as tem-
porary accommodation and interpretation to persons admitted under the Annual Refugee Plan; The ‘‘Host
Programme’’ and the ‘‘Immigrant Settlement and Adaptation Programme (ISAP)’’ which provide funds to commu-
nity-based organisations to assist newcomers to integrate (e.g. interpretation, employment-related services and
understanding cultural differences).
involvement and performance in the labour market Extension of the Interim Immigrant Investor
as indicated by participation and unemployment Program
rates is very similar to the Canadian born: the partic-
The Interim Immigrant Investor Programme
ipation rates of the foreign born tend to be slightly
which was scheduled to expire on 31 Decem-
lower but the unemployment rate is virtually the
ber 1997 was extended again, until 31 Decem-
same.
ber 1998. The development of new regulations for
this programme remains a high priority, along with
Illegal immigration new selection criteria for the skilled worker program.
Legislative changes, which became effective on
10 July 1995, deny access to the refugee determina-
tion system for multiple or fraudulent refugee claim- Stricter eligibility requirement on family
ants or criminals. To combat the growth in illegal sponsorship
immigrant smuggling rings, carbon-dioxide detectors
New regulations were introduced for family
have been used in ship containers to detect
sponsorship on 1 April 1997: i) sponsors must
stowaways. In addition, legislation was enacted in
demonstrate that they have met the required
1995 which authorised the inspection of interna-
income threshold for the twelve months prior to
tional mail and the seizure of identity documents
their application; ii) sponsorships will be binding for
that could be used to circumvent immigration
a ten year period; iii) sponsors and family members
requirements.
being sponsored must sign an agreement confirming
understanding of their mutual obligations and
Recent policy developments responsibilities; and iv) sponsors are denied future
Report of the Legislative Advisory Group sponsorships if they are in default of an undertaking,
a transportation loan, or the Right of Landing fee
In December 1996, the Minister of Citizenship loan. The new provisions mark a departure from pre-
and Immigration Canada appointed a three member vious policy where sponsorship undertakings were
Legislative Advisory Group which was tasked with of variable length and were not generally enforced
reviewing existing immigration and refugee legisla- due to the lack of information systems capable of
tion to develop recommendations on how Canada verifying applications.
can continue to meet its immigration objectives. The
Group reported back to the Minister on 31 Decem-
ber 1997. The report covers all aspects of immigra-
Special provisions for undocumented refugees
tion to Canada, with major changes proposed for
virtually all elements of the current programme. The New regulations relating to Geneva Convention
recommendations are currently under review by the refugees from certain countries took effect in 1997.
Minister who expects to announce new directions for These allow those who are unable to obtain satisfac-
the programme by late 1998 or early 1999. tory proof of identity to proceed with applications to 91
◆ Chart II.5. Inflows of permanent settlers by entry class and region of origin,
1980-1997, Canada
Thousands
A. Main entry classes B. Main regions of origin

1
Family Humanitarian Asia and the Pacific Europe
Economic Africa and the Middle East America
140 140
120 120
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1980 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 1997 1980 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 1996
C. Economic permanent settlers D. Permanent settlers from Asia and the Pacific
Main economic classes Main countries of origin
Independents2 Assisted relatives3 Hong Kong (China) India

Business classes4 China Others
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
1980 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 1997 1980 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 1996
Note: Except for the family class, counts include both principal applicants and their accompanying dependants, if any. Figures include backlog clearance.
1. Immigrants sponsored by Canadian residents (spouses, dependent children, parents and persons in their charge).
2. Immigrants able to pass a selection test based on economic criteria.
3. Family members in the broad sense (primarily siblings of Canadian residents and independent children), subject as well to a selection test based on economic criteria.
4. Entrepreneurs, self-employed and investors.
Source: Citizenship and Immigration Canada.
become permanent residents five years after a posi- Replacement of the Adjustment Assistance
tive decision by the Immigration and Refugee Program
board. This measure was taken largely in response
to problems encountered by refugees from Somalia The Adjustment Assistance Programme (see
and Afghanistan who have been unable to obtain Box above) was replaced by the Resettlement Assis-
documentation due to continuation of civil strife and tance Programme on 1 April 1998. The scheme con-
lack of effective government. tinues to provide assistance to refugee and other
92 humanitarian cases but differs in that service deliv-
Table II.4. Immigrant landings1 by type, 1993-1997, Canada
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Family 110 581 93 693 77 101 68 330 59 956

Refugees 24 787 19 724 27 707 28 351 24 101
Government assisted2 6 924 7 629 8 113 7 872 7 663
Privately sponsored2 4 775 2 828 3 213 3 067 2 593
Recognised refugees3 13 088 9 267 16 381 17 412 13 845
Skilled workers4 62 901 69 141 81 430 97 829 105 569
Principal applicants 29 819 28 619 34 537 42 095 44 913
Accompanying dependents 33 082 40 522 46 893 55 734 60 656
Business 32 626 27 365 19 428 22 462 19 924
Accompanying dependents 24 328 20 341 14 134 16 253 14 342
Live-in-Caregiver5 3 001 4 951 5 446 4 756 2 723
Accompanying dependents 42 208 792 927 470
Retirees 7 733 7 426 304 147 46
Other6 – – 423 3 949 3 402
Backlog Clearance7 14 183 1 560 652 247 318
Total 255 819 223 875 212 491 226 071 216 039
1. A landing corresponds to a person obtaining the right of permanent residence, either within Canada or from abroad.
2. Including persons in ‘‘designated classes’’, who do not strictly satisfy the United Nations convention on refugees criteria but are resettled for humanitarian
reasons.
3. Asylum seekers who have been granted the refugee status.
4. Figures include the Independent class and the Assisted Relatives class. Selection criteria are only applied to the principal applicants.
5. Program for child care workers and assistants for elderly people in private households.
6. Mainly the Deferred Removal Order Class.
7. The aim of this programme is to process the backlog of asylum requests that built up between 1986 and 1988. This backlog forms part of the total of
95 000 asylum seekers who entered Canada during that period. The programme started in January 1989 and ended in June 1993.
Source: Citizenship and Immigration Canada.
ery will be ‘‘outsourced’’ rather than provided by undocumented – has been playing an increasingly
Citizenship and Immigration Canada directly. important role in the labour market. Lastly, emigra-
tion of Czech citizens has fallen off sharply and now
CZECH REPUBLIC seems to consist mainly of frontier-zone workers
who commute to Germany or Austria.
Introduction
Despite a slowdown in economic growth, immi-
gration flows rose significantly in 1996. A number of Emigration
factors underlay this trend: the persistence of a con-
siderable disparity between the Czech Republic’s Because the available sources lack reliability, it
level of development and that of migrants’ main is impossible to gauge accurately the volume of
countries of origin, low unemployment, sustained emigration flows (see Table II.5 for greater detail
wage growth and Czech law’s relatively few restric- concerning definitions). However, the observed ten-
tions on temporary work by foreigners. The predom- dency leaves no doubt that permanent emigration,
inant immigration flows involved persons of Czech including outflows to the Slovak Republic, has tailed
origin and foreigners arriving from neighbouring off since the early 1990s. In addition to the fact that
countries (the former USSR, Poland and the Slovak the available figures greatly underestimate the flow
Republic), but there was some diversification (see of emigrants, it can be postulated that departing
Table II.5). Czech workers anticipate only a temporary stay away
As in countries with a longer tradition of immi- from home – one that does not require them to
gration, immigrant labour – both documented and report a permanent change of residence. 93
Table II.5. Current figures on flows and stocks of migrants, Czech Republic
Thousands
1993 1994 1995 1996
Total population1 10 331 10 330 10 321 10 309

Total population change from beginning to end of year 9 –1 –9 –10
Natural increase 3 –11 –21 –22
Net migration 6 10 12 12
Inflows2 12.9 10.2 10.5 10.9
Arrivals (excluding those from Slovak Republic) 5.6 6.1 6.7 7.4
Arrivals from Slovak Republic 7.3 4.1 3.8 3.5
Outflows3 7.4 3.4 1.9 1.5
Departures (excluding those to Slovak Republic) 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.5
Departures to Slovak Republic4 7.2 3.1 1.5 1.0
Net migration 5.5 6.9 8.6 9.3
Inflows of asylum seekers 2.2 1.2 1.4 2.2
Stocks of foreign residents by type of permits and nationality
Holders of a permanent residence permit
Poland 12.6 11.9 12.1 12.1
Slovak Republic5 .. 3.0 6.5 9.9
Bulgaria 2.9 2.6 2.7 ..
Ukraine .. 1.6 2.1 2.8
Other 15.0 13.4 15.1 21.0
Total 30.4 32.5 38.6 45.8
Holders of a long-term residence permit
Ukraine .. 12.7 26.0 43.5
Slovak Republic .. 13.8 33.2 40.3
Vietnam 6.8 8.6 12.7 15.1
Poland 8.7 8.1 11.0 12.4
Other 30.6 28.1 37.1 41.5
Total 46.1 71.2 120.1 152.8
Registered foreign workers by nationality6
Ukraine 7.7 12.7 26.7 42.1
Poland 10.6 8.7 12.1 12.8
Bulgaria 0.7 0.6 0.8 2.8
United States 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.6
Other 8.0 9.4 11.1 11.7
Total 28.2 32.9 52.5 71.0
Slovak workers7 23.3 39.2 59.3 72.2
Holders of a business authorisation by nationality
Vietnam .. .. 7.7 17.0
Slovak Republic .. .. 2.9 5.9
Ukraine .. .. 0.8 2.7
Germany .. .. 0.6 1.2
Other .. .. 24.9 18.7
Total .. 18.6 37.0 45.5
Czech workers employed in Germany
Contract workers 1.3 2.6 2.5 2.3
Seasonal workers 12.0 3.5 3.7 3.4
Illegal migrants caught at the border 43.3 20.5 19.2 23.7
1. Population on the 31 December of the given year.

2. Permanent residents who had their change of address registered.
3. Czech and foreign citizens leaving the Czech Republic permanently are supposed to report their departure to the authorities. Figures represent the total
number of registered departures.
4. From 1994 on, the data are issued by the Slovak Statistical Office and refer to the registrations of permanent residence in the Slovak Republic.
5. Up to 1 January 1993, Czechoslovak permanent residents were registered in the National Population Register. Since the split of the Czech and Slovak
Republics, Slovak citizens residing in the Czech Republic are subject to the same rules as any other foreign resident and they are therefore registered in the
Central Register of Foreigners.
6. A foreigner can be employed only as the holder of a residence permit and an employment permit. A written offer by the employer is needed to apply for a
work permit. These rules do not apply to Slovak citizens.
7. Under the Treaty on Mutual Employment of Citizens signed by the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic in October 1992, nationals of the two Republics
have free access to both labour markets. The estimates of the number of Slovak citizens are made by the local labour offices.
Sources: Statistical Yearbook of the Czech Republic (Czech Statistical Office); Ministry of the Interior; Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs.
94
Today, most Czech citizens employed abroad Asylum seekers

are cross-border workers in mostly low-skilled jobs,
concentrated in the construction and service indus- Due to the fact that the former CSFR did not
tries, in Austria and in Germany. Flows of contractual ratify the Geneva Convention until 1992 (the agree-
and seasonal Czech workers to Germany have ment being recognised the following year by the
declined considerably since 1993. Rising unemploy- Czech Republic), the flow of asylum seekers is not at
ment in Western Europe and the adoption of more all on the scale recorded in some European Union
countries. Some 2 000 applications have been filed
restrictive provisions for the employment of foreign-
each year since 1992. In March 1997 a new law aim-
ers in those same countries have in all likelihood
ing to expedite the processing of applications for
contributed to this switch in trend.
asylum was adopted. In addition, there are special
provisions to give temporary shelter to war refugees
from the former Yugoslavia. Between January 1992
Permanent immigration and temporary and May 1996, over 5 000 former Yugoslavs (the
immigration large majority Bosnian) obtained temporary refugee
The fall-off in emigration and rise in immigra- status. Following the Dayton Agreement in 1995, and
tion (due largely to the break-up of the Czech and because the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Slovak Federal Republic (CSFR), which was antici- has improved, a voluntary repatriation programme
pated and took effect on 1 January 1993) explain why for temporary refugees was drawn up; it took effect
the Czech Republic’s net migration has been posi- on 30 September 1997.
tive since 1990.
Labour migration
In addition, the growing foreign presence is
revealed by the trend in the number of people with After having declined appreciably in 1990-92,
long-term residence permits, which are generally due in particular to the departure of workers whose
granted for work-related purposes for a maximum of contracts had been obtained under agreements
one year (renewable): since 1994 the number of such between the CSFR and other former communist
permits has more than doubled, rising to over countries (especially Poland), temporary immigra-
150 000 in 1996. The number of permanent residents tion of foreign workers has risen substantially in
rose as well (to about 45 000 in 1996). The break- recent years (see Table II.5). The breakdown by
down by nationality is highly diversified and differs nationality of persons holding work permits shows
significantly from one type of permit to another. the high volume of Slovak workers (who account for
Ukrainian, Polish and Slovak citizens are involved in nearly half the total and are present in all sectors) as
both permanent and long-term migration, whereas well as Ukrainians and Poles. A majority of Ukrainian
the Vietnamese and, to a lesser extent, the Chinese workers hold low-skilled jobs in construction or
usually have long-term migrant status (see the chap- industry and as a rule are less well paid than Czech
ter on the temporary employment of foreigners). citizens doing equivalent work. The attraction these
The many bilateral agreements which were signed workers hold for local employers undoubtedly
with South Asian and Central and Eastern European explains the unprecedented growth in the number
countries before the break-up of the Soviet bloc of permits issued to them over the past four years.
provide a partial explanation for the current diver- A community of South Asians – primarily
sity of migrants’ countries of origin. Vietnamese and Chinese – has also taken root in the
Czech Republic. They tend to occupy unskilled posi-
Return migration tions, concentrated in the small business and res-
taurant sectors. Another group of foreign workers is
In 1995, for the first time, the National Statistics constituted by holders of business authorisations,
Institute distinguished entries of Czech citizens on which Czech law imposes relatively few restric-
among permanent inflows. Czech citizens accounted tions. Such permits are valid for as long as a busi-
for nearly half of total permanent entries (10 500), ness is conducted in the Czech Republic, and they
coming from the Slovak Republic, Germany, North confer entitlement to (renewable) long-term resi-
America and, to a lesser extent, other European dence permits. Some 45 000 foreigners hold this
countries (including Switzerland, Austria and type of authorisation; Vietnamese, Slovaks and
Bulgaria). Ukrainians comprise the majority. 95
Illegal migration DENMARK
The employment situation, which is relatively Introduction

favourable in the Czech Republic, prompts a great The Danish economy has continued to expand
many migrants – in particular from Russia, Ukraine since the recovery of 1993. In 1996 GDP grew by
and the former Yugoslavia – to work illegally. The more than 3 per cent, while employment rose by
only available data suggesting the magnitude of ille- approximately 1 per cent and unemployment fell,
gal immigration relate to the number of persons standing at roughly 8 per cent in January 1997 (four
apprehended at the border. This figure was down points lower than in January 1994).
sharply from the level reached in 1992. Many of the
illegal foreign workers who enter the country legally
Migration movements
as tourists come from the Ukraine or Russia. This
pattern is facilitated by the fact that citizens of many Those who enter Denmark as long-term immi-
countries may enter the Czech Republic without a grants are only recorded in immigration statistics
visa. Inter alia, this holds true for Russia and the after they have lived in the country for a full year. As
Baltic States. Most illegal migrants exit via the Ger- a result, information concerning long-term entries for
man border, opting to continue their way westward 1995 did not become available until 1997. Asylum
once they have accumulated enough money. seekers and refugees admitted temporarily as war
refugees are not included in long-term immigration
statistics, even if they have resided in Denmark for
Policy trends
more than one year.
In October 1997 a report outlining the In 1995, inflows were still greater than outflows.
difficulties besetting Gypsies and proposing special The substantial increase in inflows led to a particu-
solutions was submitted to the government. The larly large net migration gain (nearly 28 000), which
report highlighted the need for emergency policy was more than twice the annual average of recent
measures to educate and bring gypsy minorities into years.
the labour market. Classes will be set up and addi- The number of long-term immigrants remained
tional resources earmarked for gypsy children who stable between 1990 and 1994 at approximately
have failed at school. Steps are to be taken to com- 29 000 entries per year (see Table II.6), but rose
bat employment practices which discrimination sharply to roughly 46 000 in 1995. One-quarter of
against Gypsies. these immigrants had Danish nationality, while a
In order to align migration policy with that of further 15 per cent were nationals of Nordic or other
the European Union countries, a new law on the EU countries. Among European nationals, immi-
entry and residence of foreigners is under prepara- grants from former Yugoslavia were the largest group
tion: inter alia, it will limit opportunities for tourists (36 per cent of the total), and Somalians accounted
wishing to enter the labour market to alter their for two-thirds of the flow from Africa. The sudden
status, by requiring that prior application be made jump in long-term immigration was mainly due to
at Czech embassies in their home countries. In addi- the fact that a large number of asylum seekers and
tion, a minimum stay of eight to ten years is to be refugees temporarily admitted to Denmark in previ-
required of persons wishing to obtain permanent ous years were granted refugee status in 1995 and
resident status. thereby obtained a long-term residence permit.
The law on refugees has been amended in Outflows remained stable over the 1990-95
order to accelerate the processing of applications for period, with departures ranging between 17 000 and
asylum and to strengthen the protection of refugees. 18 000. In 1995, almost 90 per cent of emigrants were
either Danes or nationals of EU or Nordic countries.
Finally, ways to counter the presence of foreign-
ers who are in the country illegally are gradually
Residence permit trends
being put in place. Readmission agreements have
already been signed with Austria, Poland, the Slovak Some 32 000 residence permits were issued in
Republic, Germany, Hungary and Romania. Other 1996 (Nordic country nationals are exempted from
accords will soon be signed with France and this requirement). Approximately 30 per cent were
Slovenia, and negotiations have begun with the granted for the purpose of family reunion and
96 Ukraine and Belarus. slightly over one-quarter were issued to refugees.
Table II.6. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Denmark
Figures in thousands unless otherwise indicated
1993 1994 1995 1996 1993 1994 1995 1996
Long-term immigration by group of nationality1 28.2 28.9 45.9 .. Acquisition of Danish nationality, by region of origin 5.0 5.7 5.3 7.3
Denmark 12.8 13.4 12.9 .. Nordic countries .. 0.4 0.3 0.3
Other Nordic countries 1.9 2.5 3.2 .. Other EU countries .. 0.3 0.2 0.3
Other EU countries 3.0 3.7 3.5 .. Other European countries .. 1.9 1.5 2.1
Other European countries 2.3 2.2 18.72 .. Asia .. 2.0 2.2 3.1
Africa 2.2 2.2 2.3 .. Africa .. 0.3 0.3 0.5
Asia 4.3 3.5 3.8 .. Other regions .. 0.8 0.7 1.0
Other regions 1.8 1.5 1.4 ..
Long-term emigration by group of nationality1 17.1 17.7 18.0 .. Total population, by labour force status 5 196.6 5 215.7 5 251.0 ..
Denmark 12.1 12.7 12.7 .. In the labour force (%) 56.0 55.5 54.7 ..
Other Nordic countries 1.3 1.3 1.4 .. Self-employed (%) 5.0 4.7 4.6 ..
Other EU countries 1.4 1.6 1.6 .. Wage and salary workers (%) 39.0 39.3 38.9 ..
Other European countries 0.6 0.5 0.6 .. Unemployed (%) 6.2 5.3 4.3 ..
Africa 0.2 0.2 0.3 .. Not stated (%) 5.7 6.1 6.9 ..
Asia 0.8 0.7 0.7 .. Out of the labour force (%) 44.0 44.5 45.3 ..
Other regions 0.6 0.7 0.7 ..
Nationals, by labour force status 5 007.6 5 019.0 5 028.3 ..
Grants of residence permits, by category3 17.6 20.3 37.9 31.9 In the labour force (%) 56.5 56.1 55.5 ..
Refugee 3.4 2.8 20.32 8.3 Self-employed (%) 5.1 4.8 4.7 ..
EU provisions 2.8 4.3 3.8 6.0 Wage and salary workers (%) 39.8 40.1 39.8 ..
Family reunification 5.6 6.7 6.8 9.3 Unemployed (%) 6.0 5.1 4.0 ..
Employment 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.7 Not stated (%) 5.7 6.1 6.9 ..
Others 3.7 4.3 4.7 5.6 Out of the labour force (%) 43.5 43.9 44.5 ..
Asylum seekers by region of origin 14.3 6.7 5.1 5.9 Foreigners, by labour force status 189.0 196.7 222.7 ..
Europe 9.9 2.1 1.2 1.2 In the labour force (%) 41.1 40.8 37.6 ..
of which: Former Yugoslavia 8.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 Self-employed (%) 3.5 3.7 3.7 ..
Africa 2.0 2.4 1.7 1.2 Wage and salary workers (%) 19.1 19.0 18.2 ..
of which: Somalia 1.0 1.6 1.2 0.9 Unemployed (%) 12.6 11.6 9.0 ..
Asia 1.6 1.6 1.6 2.0 Not stated (%) 5.9 6.5 6.8 ..
of which: Iraq 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.7 Out of the labour force (%) 58.9 59.2 62.4 ..
Other regions 0.8 0.6 0.6 1.5
Stock of foreigners, immigrants and descendants4

Foreigners 189.0 196.7 222.7 237.7

Refugees 61.3 65.0 72.6 79.9
Europe and North America 50.3 52.8 68.6 72.3
Other regions 77.5 78.9 81.6 85.5
Immigrants and descendants, by region of origin .. 283.7 314.6 336.7

Nordic countries .. 36.8 38.3 38.8
Other EU countries .. 51.9 53.4 53.8
Other European countries .. 74.3 93.9 103.8
Asia .. 84.5 89.6 95.4
Other regions .. 36.2 39.3 44.8
1. A long-term immigrant/emigrant is defined as a person who has lived in/out of the country for over one year.
2. Including former Yougoslavs who have been recognised as refugees after 2 years of temporary residence in Denmark.
3. All foreigners (except Nordic countries citizens) who want to reside for more than 3 months in Denmark need a residence permit. The duration of the permit depends on the reasons for granting it but it generally does not exceed two years.
4. An immigrant is defined in Danish statistics as a foreigner or a Danish citizen born abroad. A descendant is a person born in Denmark with parents who are either immigrants or descendants of immigrants.
Source: Danmarks Statistik.
97
The introduction of stricter family reunion rules in Foreigners and the labour market
1992 led to a levelling off in the number of permits
The share of foreigners in the labour force
granted in this category (an average of 7 000 per
(2.9 per cent) was lower than their share of the total
year). However, in 1996 the family reunion flow rose
population (4.7 per cent). At 1 January 1996, the
again to over 9 000.
number of foreign workers was slightly under 84 000
(see Table II.6). The participation rate of foreigners
Asylum seekers and refugees was 38 per cent, compared with 55 per cent for
Whereas in 1992 and 1993 Denmark experi- Danes. The low participation rate of refugees was
enced close to triple the number of asylum seekers partly due to the fact that they have to follow an
of previous years, with 14 000 in each year, the num- integration programme lasting 18 months or longer
ber fell dramatically in 1994 and levelled off at before they may enter the labour market. Thus, the
slightly under 6 000 in 1996. The largest groups are low participation rate of certain nationalities is
from Somalia, Iraq and the former Yugoslavia. In explained by the large number of refugees in those
1994, Denmark introduced visas for nationals of groups. For example, nationals of the former
Bosnia-Herzegovina and a number of African coun- Yugoslavia have a 23 per cent participation rate and
tries and created a new channel for asylum seekers Asian nationals 29 per cent, while the participation
to apply directly as refugees to a Danish govern- rates of Nordic country or EU nationals are compara-
ment office in Zagreb (3 300 applied in 1994). ble to that of Danish nationals.
The number of individuals granted refugee sta- On the whole, while immigrants from Nordic
tus has varied considerably since the beginning of countries, EU member countries or North America
the 1990s. It fell gradually from 4 000 in 1991 to 2 800 have an employment status comparable to that of
in 1994. There was a sudden jump in 1995 (to over Danish workers, foreigners from Turkey, Pakistan
20 000), followed by a sharp decline in 1996. Nation- and other Asian countries are more frequently self-
als of the former Yugoslavia were still the largest employed.
group in 1996, and accounted for over half of those Recent research on integration and mobility of
who obtained refugee status. ethnic minorities has pointed to the duration of resi-
dence in Denmark as a key factor for labour market
Foreign population integration. The unemployment rate has been
increasing in Denmark for the last decade, and even
Statistics on resident foreigners are based on faster for recently arrived immigrants and refugees.
population registers and cover foreigners perma- However, since 1994, the total number of unem-
nently resident in Denmark. Asylum seekers, per- ployed has fallen continuously. In 1996, it was 20 per
sons who are ‘‘provisionally resident’’ and other for- cent lower than in 1995, for both Danes and foreign-
eign temporary residents are excluded. Foreign ers. Nevertheless, unemployment remains very high
residents account for 4.7 per cent of the total popu- for foreigners at 24 per cent, as compared with 7 per
lation: their numbers have grown steadily since cent for Danes. Foreigners’ greater vulnerability to
1984, rising from 108 000 to slightly under 238 000 at unemployment is partly due to the fact that they
1 January 1997. An unusual feature of Denmark’s for- more often hold unskilled jobs, which are diminish-
eign resident population is the fact that one-third ing in number.
are refugees, mostly nationals of the former
Yugoslavia, Iraq, Iran and Sri Lanka. Other foreign
residents are from Nordic countries, the European Policy development
Union or North America (30 per cent of the total), The issue of the integration of foreigners is
while the remainder come mainly from Turkey, the receiving growing attention in Denmark. In
former Yugoslavia (not including refugees) and June 1994, measures were taken to improve the situ-
Pakistan. ation of refugees from the former Yugoslavia. These
The number of naturalisations (7 300 in 1996) included more linguistic and other training, better
has risen considerably compared to the annual aver- housing, increased employment opportunities and
age at the beginning of the 1990s (slightly more than more leisure activities. Under an Act of January 1995,
5 000). Over 40 per cent of those granted Danish most of the Bosnian war refugees will be granted
nationality in 1996 were of Asian origin, and 13 per residence and entitled to the same integration pro-
98 cent of Turkish origin. grammes as recognised refugees. Also, a strategy to
dismantle labour market barriers to immigrants and Emigration and immigration

refugees was introduced in autumn 1994. At the
Finnish emigrants went mainly to the United
same time, some municipalities have limited the
States until the Second World War, and subse-
number of refugees and immigrants allowed to stay
quently to Sweden. The range of host countries then
in certain urban districts in order to avoid high con- broadened to include the other Nordic countries
centrations of immigrant groups. and later the EU. Total emigration has risen sharply
In 1995, several changes were made to the since 1993, when it stood at 6 400, to 10 600 in 1996.
Aliens Act concerning asylum seekers. A procedure In 1994 and 1995, the number of Finnish emigrants
was introduced to enable applications to be speed- increased, whereas in 1996 the increase was in for-
ily refused if unfounded or based on insufficient eign emigrants. But the number of Finns emigrating
information. Administrative procedures for process- is still more than double that of foreigners.
ing applications were streamlined, and the number Between 1989 and 1991, Finland saw a rapid
of applications from ‘‘safe’’ countries diminished. rise in immigration, largely due to the inflows of
Also, the terms of admission were tightened by refugees and of ethnic Finns (Ingrians) returning
requiring further information from applicants and from Russia and Estonia. Since 1991, however, there
policies were developed to allow for the detention has been a general downward trend in the inflow of
of asylum seekers and for a new procedure to regis- foreigners, while the inflow of Finns has begun to
ter asylum seekers through a computerised finger- rise since 1993. Between 1995 and 1996, total immi-
printing system. In addition, the Danish government gration rose from 12 200 to 13 300, with an 18 per
has decided to fix an annual quota for residence cent increase in Finnish nationals and 3 per cent in
permits given to persons from the former foreigners. By nationality, the largest immigration
Yugoslavia. flows in 1996 were from Russia, followed by Estonia
and Sweden (see Table II.7). Among non-European
In December 1996 an amendment to the Aliens immigrants, Iraqis predominated.
Act reinforced provisions for the expulsion of for-
eigners charged with drug trafficking. As from Since 1994, net migration has fallen to 3 000,
from around 9 000 in the early 1990s. Recent trends
June 1997, foreigners who are unco-operative during
indicate that Finnish emigrant flows exceed immi-
the expulsion procedure will be placed on file,
gration flows, although this is offset by the fact there
which will enable the police to investigate the back-
are more foreigners entering than leaving the
ground of asylum seekers more thoroughly and
country.
enforce the law more effectively. The Danish ser-
vices in charge of immigrants are also authorised to Estimates of illegal immigration are based on
carry out DNA tests on family reunion applicants statistics relating to illegal immigrants apprehended
and on unsuccessful asylum seekers who are unco- at the border. Most of them attempt to enter via the
operative at the time of their expulsion, in order to border with Sweden (fewer controls owing to free
prevent them from reapplying. circulation between the Nordic countries) rather
than Russia (stricter controls). At the request of the
In June 1997, the Danish Parliament ratified a Ministry of the Interior, a working party has, since
co-operation agreement signed in 1996 with the 1 November 1997, been looking into the issue of
countries enforcing the Schengen Agreements. illegal immigration in Finland.
FINLAND Foreign population

Introduction The foreign population is relatively low com-
pared to that of other OECD countries in Europe,
The recession in the early 1990s, fuelled by the but continues to grow. As a share of the total popu-
disruption in the trade relationship between lation it stood at 1.4 per cent at the end of 1996.
Finland and the Soviet Union, adversely affected Foreigners number 74 000, almost half of them
the Finnish economy. Since 1994, annual GDP women. The single largest group of immigrants
growth has been averaging around 4 per cent and residing in Finland is from the former Soviet Union
the Finnish economy has been making up for the (17 000), followed by Estonians and Swedes. EU
earlier loss of output. Although unemployment is on nationals number 14 000 (including 7 300 Swedes).
the decline, it still exceeded 14 per cent in 1997. On average foreigners are younger than Finns, with 99
Table II.7. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Finland
1993 1994 1995 1996
Inflows by main nationality 14.8 11.6 12.2 13.3

Nationals 3.9 4.0 4.9 5.8
Foreigners 10.9 7.6 7.3 7.5
of which:
Former USSR1 2.2 1.9 2.0 2.0
Estonia1 2.0 1.4 1.0 0.7
Sweden 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6
Net migration by main nationality 8.4 2.9 3.3 2.7
Nationals –1.0 –3.2 –2.6 –1.8
Foreigners 9.4 6.1 5.8 4.5
of which:
Former USSR 2.0 1.7 1.7 1.6
Estonia 1.9 1.2 0.8 0.4
Sweden 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3
Foreign population by main nationality2 55.6 62.0 68.6 73.8
Former USSR1 13.3 15.1 15.9 17.0
Estonia1 5.9 7.5 8.4 9.0
Sweden 6.5 6.7 7.0 7.3
Somalia 2.9 3.5 4.0 4.6
Former Yugoslavia 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.6
Other countries 24.6 26.9 30.9 33.3
Acquisition of nationality by region of former nationality 0.8 0.7 0.7 1.0
Europe 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4
Asia 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3
Africa 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Foreign workers by main nationality .. 24.4 26.9 ..
Former USSR .. 6.0 6.6 ..
Estonia .. 3.0 3.3 ..
Sweden .. 2.5 2.7 ..
United Kingdom .. 0.9 1.0 ..
Germany .. 0.8 0.9 ..
Other countries .. 11.1 12.5 ..
Mixed marriages 2.3 2.2 2.1 ..
% of total marriages 9.3 8.8 8.8 ..
1. A great part of the Russians and of the Estonians have Finnish origins.
2. Data are from population registers and refer to the population on 31 December of the years indicated.
Source: Statistics Finland.
80 per cent of the foreign population under 45 years were the most numerous applicants for asylum
of age, compared with 60 per cent of Finns. in 1996.
Around 1 000 people acquired Finnish citizen- The Finnish Parliament establishes a quota
ship in 1996, 300 more than the previous year. The every year for the attribution of refugee status. Set
increase is due to the high proportion of naturalisa- at 500 for 1996, the quota was substantially
tions among Asians, up from 22 per cent in 1995 to exceeded (the final figure reached 1 200) because of
33 per cent in 1996. Nationals of the former Soviet exceptional cases from the former Yugoslavia and
Union still account for the largest share of naturalisa- Iraq. Nationals from these two countries accounted
tions, followed by Vietnam and Sweden. for 70 per cent of all refugees.
Asylum seekers and refugees Migration and the labour market

The number of asylum seekers has been falling At the end of 1996, the labour force participa-
100 steadily, from 2 000 in 1993 to 700 in 1996. Somalis tion rate was 54 per cent for foreigners, compared
with 71 per cent for Finnish nationals. Unemploy- basis of race, nationality, ethnic origin, language,
ment was much higher for foreigners than for nation- sex, age, family ties, religion or political opinion. In
als, 47 and 17 per cent respectively. The very high addition, the Advisory Board for Refugees and Immi-
rate of unemployment among foreigners is to some gration Affairs has developed measures to promote
extent attributable to the requirement that refugees co-operation between government bodies, the
register as jobseekers, although they do not neces- media and non-governmental organisations as well
sarily speak Finnish. By nationality, unemployment as political parties and decision-makers in order to
rates of over 70 per cent are found among those who prevent discrimination.
typically enter Finland as refugees, i.e. Iraqis, Irani- In 1996 Parliament approved amendments and
ans, Vietnamese, Somalis and nationals of the for- addenda to the Aliens Act as proposed by the Com-
mer Yugoslavia. Of the 13 600 foreign unemployed, mittee for Policy on Immigration and Refugees. They
32 per cent are from the former USSR and 14 per relate to the delivery of residence permits for ethnic
cent from Estonia. Finns returning from the former Soviet Union. These
Since March 1994, an amendment to the Aliens persons are recognised as being of Finnish origin if
Act has involved employers in the procedure for they themselves, a parent or at least two of their
issuing work permits. The local labour market situa- grandparents hold official documents indicating that
tion must now be taken into account when issuing they are Finnish citizens. Proof of other links with
work permits. Employers must consult with the local Finland or Finnish citizens, even if unsupported by
employment office before either employing foreign official documents, may be sufficient. Thus resi-
workers or applying for their work permits to be dence permits are granted to the spouses/co-
extended. habitees and children of those meeting the above
requirements.
On 16 October 1997 the Council of State
Policy developments
approved the Committee’s policy proposals on
In order to improve the integration of foreigners immigrants and refugees. The following decisions
already in Finland, the Government has started a were taken:
four-year (1995-99) project financed by the Euro- – the refugee quota would be raised year by year
pean Social Fund. The project, which promotes (up to an annual figure of 1 000);
access to employment for the socially excluded,
– decisions relating to quotas for each nationality
focuses on specific measures to help those who are
would be transferred to the Directorate of Immi-
at risk of being marginalised and establishes a new
gration in order to simplify decision-making
style of co-operation between the various authori-
procedures;
ties and organisations concerned. In addition, a pilot
project to improve the employment situation of – steps would be taken to improve the integration
immigrants by means of a human capital database of immigrants into Finnish society over the long
was launched in the Helsinki region in 1995. The term.
database, which contains information on an
immigrant’s educational background and vocational FRANCE
and language skills, is designed to help small and
medium-sized enterprises recruit immigrants with Introduction
special skills.
In 1996, there was another drop in permanent
In March 1995, a new Directorate of Immigration inflows, confirming the trend which began in the
was established within the Ministry of the Interior. early 1990s, albeit at a slower rate. The main reason
The Ministry has overall responsibility for defining for entry was family reunion in the broad sense,
the conditions of immigration and residence, asylum whereas inflows of workers and persons with refugee
and Finnish citizenship. The Directorate is responsi- status (see below) were significantly smaller. Migra-
ble for issuing individual permits and processing tion policy remained focused on two major objec-
applications for asylum and citizenship. tives: to limit inflows and integrate segments of the
The Ministry of Labour has taken action against population already living in France. In 1997, there
discrimination in recruitment and at the workplace. were major amendments to the Nationality Act, and
The Criminal Code, amended in 1995, states that it it was decided to implement an exceptional regu-
is against the law to practise discrimination on the larisation procedure. In addition, a number of 101
amendments were proposed with regard to the that Italians account for a quarter of the foreign
entry and residence of foreigners; these are labour employed in the hotel and restaurant trades.
expected to be adopted in 1998.
Inflows by category
Permanent immigration Permanent immigration can be divided into
Permanent immigration encompasses inflows of four main categories: people entering for the pur-
foreigners who have obtained residence permits pose of family reunion, permanent workers, people
valid for a minimum of one year; this includes certi- granted refugee status and ‘‘visitors’’ – which need
fied refugees but excludes asylum seekers and stu- to be distinguished from tourists inasmuch as for-
dents. The reduction in migratory flows, which began eigners belonging to the ‘‘visitors’’ category hold
in the early 1990s, was confirmed. Permanent immi- resident permits, which are renewable and, from a
gration by nationals of the European Economic regulatory standpoint, similar to the authorisation
Area (EEA), who enjoy freedom of movement within issued to (for example) permanent wage earners.
the area formed by the 17 States that adopted the The figures cited below apply exclusively to non-
EEA Agreement in Oporto, is underestimated; it is EEA nationals.
possible to estimate actual flows from the data pro- Family reunion encompasses three types of
vided by OMI (Office des migrations internationales) on entries: family members of foreigners (i.e. family
the basis of a statistical treatment of the residence reunion in the strict sense), family members of
permits issued by the Ministry of the Interior. French nationals and family members of refugees
According to that estimate, there were around 74 000 and stateless persons. Except for this last sub-cate-
permanent immigrants (from EEA countries and gory, immigration flows declined in 1996, feeding
elsewhere) in 1996 (see Table II.8) – down from the through to a drop in the aggregate number of entries
estimated volumes of the two previous years for family reunion (down 3.7 per cent compared to
(respectively 77 000 and 91 500). 1995). At around 30 400 entries, aggregate family
reunion accounted for two-thirds of total permanent
inflows. With regard to family reunion in the strict
Permanent immigration by region of origin
sense, and in the case of refugees and stateless
The reasons for entry vary by geographical ori- persons, a large majority of entering spouses (about
gin (EEA and elsewhere). EEA nationals break down 80 per cent) were women, whereas over 40 per cent
fairly equally into three categories: workers, family of entering spouses of French citizens were men. A
members and ‘‘visitors’’ (see below). In contrast, majority of family members were of African origin
non-EEA nationals enter primarily as family mem- (about 60 per cent), except in the case of family
bers (60 per cent) or ‘‘visitors’’ (17 per cent), with members of refugees and stateless persons, where
other categories accounting for less than 10 per cent Asians predominated (60 per cent), although the
of the total. Of immigrants from non-EEA countries, numbers involved were very small. Since family
over half come from Africa, roughly a quarter from reunion increasingly involves spouses without chil-
Asia and the balance from the Americas (14 per dren, it can be assumed that there is a growing trend
cent) and non-EEA Europe (11 per cent). towards the constitution of new families.
Within the category of workers, the profile of The second category is that of workers, which
EEA citizens varies by nationality. A substantial pro- combines wage earners and the self-employed. This
portion of immigrants admitted for the purpose of particular inflow, like the overall total, declined:
work are low-skilled (40 per cent, versus only 18 per 4 500 permanent wage-earners were recorded in
cent for foreigners from non-EEA countries). This 1996. These workers were either regularised (in
stems from the predominance of Portuguese work- about two-thirds of the cases) or brought in under
ers in agricultural jobs, in the construction industry recruiting procedures. By broad region of origin, the
and in domestic service. No such concentration is discrepancies are sharper: 90 per cent of immigrants
evident for other nationalities, in terms of level of from the African continent counted under perma-
skills or type of employment. It can be seen, how- nent immigration were regularised, versus 50 per
ever, that nearly half of the German workers admit- cent of those from Asia but only 15 per cent of those
ted as permanent immigrants are managers (cadres) from the Americas. Socio-demographic profiles also
or engineers, that 43 per cent of the permanent differ by nationality. In all, just under a third of the
102 immigrants working in education are British, and workers admitted were women; the proportion rises
Table II.8. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, France
1994 1995 1996
Permanent immigration
Registered flows by category
Family reunification (broadly defined) 37.7 31.6 30.4
Family members of French nationals 16.1 16.5 15.6
Family members of foreigners 20.6 14.4 13.9
Family members of refugees 0.8 0.7 0.9
Workers 19.6 14.1 11.9
Wage earners 18.3 13.1 11.5
Self-employed 1.2 1.0 0.5
Visitors 5.2 6.4 8.9
Refugees 7.0 4.7 4.3
Total 69.4 56.7 55.6
of which: EEA 11.4 7.9 7.2
Estimated flows by category1
Family members of foreigners 6.0 4.3 6.5
Visitors 2.1 2.4 7.5
Other 5.4 5.0 4.4
Total 13.5 11.6 18.4
of which: EEA 10.0 8.2 15.4
Total registered and estimated flows 82.9 68.3 74.0
Temporary immigration by category
Asylum seekers 26.0 20.4 17.4
Students 16.3 15.1 16.0
Holders of a provisional work permit2 4.1 4.5 4.8
Trainees 0.6 0.4 0.5
Total 46.9 40.4 38.7
Registered outflows of foreigners3
Expulsions 1.2 1.0 1.2
Actual removals to the borders 11.3 10.1 11.6
Assisted departures 1.3 1.6 1.6
Foreigners involved in an assisted departure procedure by main status or nationalities
(cumulated figures since 1984) .. .. 73.1
of which:
Family members .. .. 40.6
Maghrebians .. .. 37.8
Portuguese .. .. 16.2
Acquisition of French nationality
Legal procedures 49.4 40.9 58.1
of which: Naturalisation 29.1 24.7 34.7
Declarations 43.6 21.0 21.9
of which: Decision following a wedding 19.5 16.7 19.1
Declaration of becoming French4 33.3 30.5 29.8
Total 126.3 92.4 109.8
Stocks of foreigners aged 15 and over according to work status
Total foreign population 2 805.7 2 803.0 2 836.1
Labour force 1 593.9 1 573.3 1 604.7
of which: Employment 1 202.8 1 232.2 1 217.0
Participation rate (%) 56.8 56.1 56.6
Unemployment rate (%) 24.5 21.7 24.2
1. Estimates made by the Ministry of the Interior on the basis of residence permits issued.
2. Provisional work permits (APT) are granted for a 9 month period and are renewable.
3. In the absence of a population register, the only available data on the departures of foreigners are those which are due to administrative decisions and
judicial orders concerning expulsions, removals of illegal immigrants to the border and voluntary departures assisted by the State.
4. People born in France to foreign parents who declared their intention to become French in accordance with the legislation of 22 July 1993.
Sources: Office des migrations internationales (OMI); Office français de protection des réfugiés et apatrides (OFPRA); Ministry of the Interior; Labour Force
Survey.
103
to 46 per cent for Algerians, and is less than 10 per Temporary immigration and seasonal immigration
cent for Japanese. The service sector is becoming
increasingly predominant, accounting for over three- Temporary immigration
quarters of all work-related entries, for wage earners
and the self-employed (85 per cent in the case of This category combines foreigners who have
Africans). Lastly, the breakdown by qualifications entered France for widely differing reasons (e.g. to
shows an overall rise in skills levels, but also sharp seek asylum, temporarily exercise an activity, study,
disparities between nationalities. The proportion of etc.) but who all hold permits that are limited to less
technicians, engineers and managers has grown than one year, barring extension or a change in
steadily: in 1996 it exceeded 46 per cent. This aver- status.
age rate covers figures of over 90 per cent for Japa-
nese and citizens of the United States, and of less The number of temporary workers (around 4 900
than 5 per cent for citizens of the former Zaire and of in 1996), who were predominantly male and fairly
Haiti. Flows of self-employed workers were still skilled, increased in 1996, to a point where it
declining, to fewer than 500 persons in 1996. exceeded the flow of permanent workers from non-
Roughly half were tradespeople, and for the other EEA countries.
half no occupation was specified.
The number of entering students (around
The third category is that of certified refugees, 16 000) also rose slightly in 1996 (by more than 6 per
i.e. foreigners who have obtained refugee status and cent). Africa was the leading continent of origin
been granted residence permits for longer than one (36 per cent), even if the number of African students
year. The numbers have been trending downward was down from the previous year. Next came Asia,
since the early 1990s. These flows could be esti- the Americas, non-EEA Europe and the former
mated more precisely by adding the number of peo- USSR, all of which showed an increase over 1995.
ple (spouses and children) who accompany refu- The students entering France in 1996 were predomi-
gees, which averages 0.6 people per refugee. In nantly female, with women accounting for 56 per
contrast, the stock of refugees was up from earlier cent of the total.
years, due to the growing proportion of adolescents
reaching adulthood, and of spouses already in In contrast to the two previous categories, flows
France, who obtain refugee status themselves. The of asylum seekers declined for the seventh consecu-
decrease in 1996 was divided unequally between tive year. In 1996, the French Office for the Protec-
the continents. Europe showed the sharpest tion of Refugees and Stateless Persons (OFPRA)
decline, due in particular to a fall-off in applications recorded 17 400 applications for asylum, or 3 000
from nationals of the former Yugoslavia (and espe- fewer than in 1995. Because registration figures
cially Bosnia and Herzegovina), as well as from include adults only, the actual flow was probably
Asians, whereas inflows from the African continent slightly greater. The geographic origin of would-be
were up very slightly. In all, 59 per cent of the refugees has changed in recent years: the propor-
inflows were from Asia (primarily Sri Lanka and tion of Africans (and especially Algerians) has
Turkey), 20 per cent from Africa, 18 per cent from declined, as has that of Turks and Chinese, among
Europe and 2.5 per cent from the Americas. Asians, and citizens of the former Yugoslavia, among
Lastly, the fourth category – that of ‘‘visitors’’ – Europeans. In all, 40 per cent of asylum seekers
comprises a variety of flows. Since 1994, it has came from Asia, 34 per cent from Europe (including
included ascendants and collaterals, who are no the former USSR) and fewer than 25 per cent from
longer eligible for family reunion (which is limited to Africa. The refusal rate decreased slightly in 1996, to
spouses and children), along with spouses of French 80 per cent. This rate was higher for applicants from
citizens who have been married for less than a year, Africa (87.9 per cent) than for those from other conti-
and parents of French children who were regularised nents and was particularly low (10 per cent) for
at the end of 1996. These flows were the only ones South-East Asian countries (Cambodia, Laos,
to increase in 1996, in contrast to other permanent Vietnam). These rates must be reduced slightly on
inflows. This increase, which had already been account of appeals and regularisations that could
noted in 1995, was even sharper in 1996, with entries ultimately allow some of these people to become
rising from just under 6 400 to more than 8 900 for permanent workers, but in this case there would be
104 citizens of non-EEA countries. no recognition of refugee status.
Seasonal immigration of foreigners representing a very modest percentage

of France’s total foreign population.
This flow counts workers from non-EEA coun-
tries only, and it has declined continuously, to fewer The foreign population
than 9 000 persons in 1996. These entries are con-
centrated on a small number of nationalities: the Foreigners make up 6.3 per cent of the total
majority of seasonal workers come from Morocco population of France. The foreign population makes
and a third of them from Poland; far behind, Tuni- a double contribution to French demographic
sians make up the third-largest group (7 per cent). growth – through births and the migration balance.
Ninety-five per cent of seasonal work is in agricul- In 1994, 711 000 births were recorded; of these chil-
ture, with clear specialisation by nationality: multi- dren, 7.8 per cent were born to two foreign parents
task farm work for the Moroccans, grape picking for and 5.7 per cent to one foreign parent. The migra-
the Poles and market gardening and glasshouse cul- tion balance for 1996 has been estimated at
tivation for the Tunisians. In contrast, recruitment for 40 000 entries, accounting for 17 per cent of total
fruit and vegetable harvesting is split more evenly population growth in France.
among the three nationalities.
The foreign labour force
Departures from France The foreign labour force numbered 1.6 million
as of March 1997 (according to the Employment Sur-
Because France does not keep population reg- vey, see Table II.8), down 2 per cent on the previous
isters, in contrast to most other countries of the year. The proportion of foreigners had been declin-
European Economic Area, the only departures to be ing for twenty years, but in 1997 it levelled off at
recorded are those that are prompted by adminis- 6.2 per cent. At the same time, the number of work-
trative action, i.e. expulsions and being physically ing foreigners has continued to drop, even though
escorted to the border, along with government the number of self-employed persons has stabilised
assisted departures. at around 127 500. Over a third of the workforce are
In 1996, expulsions and escorts to the border women – substantially unchanged from 1996. The
increased slightly (to 12 800, versus 11 100 in 1995). number of Algerian women and women from sub-
Since 1994, there have been more than a thousand Saharan Africa, as well as of those from Poland, is on
expulsions per year. While the number of adminis- the rise as a percentage of the total labour force. By
trative and judicial orders to escort people to the nationality, the largest group of foreign workers is
border diminished, the proportion of such decisions made up by the Portuguese, followed by Algerians
actually carried out rose by 5 percentage points as and Moroccans and then by nationals of sub-
compared with 1995. For this reason, the number of Saharan African countries.
actual departures rose in 1996 (to 11 600, from While the service sector is the main employer
10 100 in 1995, see Table II.8). of foreign wage earners, large numbers of foreigners
The number of assisted departures has always still work in agriculture and manufacturing, as well as
been very small. The two main schemes are govern- in construction. A detailed analysis of salaried
ment aid for the placement of certain wage earners employment by industry shows that it is real estate
and job seekers, and aid for the placement of for- activities and construction that employ the highest
eigners who are invited to leave France. The first percentage of foreigners, followed by personal ser-
type of aid was supplied in 1996 to 311 persons vices, agriculture and the automobile industry (see
(fewer than in 1995), including 205 workers, most of Chart II.6).
whom were job seekers or wage earners under In 1997, foreigners were still affected more by
threat of redundancy. Such aid is conditional upon unemployment than the French: 364 600 foreign
preparation of a plan for economic placement in the workers, or nearly a quarter of the foreign labour
home country. The second measure applies to for- force, were unemployed. Foreigners accounted for
eigners invited to leave France, a majority of whom 11.5 per cent of the unemployed – double their
are asylum seekers whose applications have been proportion of the working population. However, the
denied. In 1996, only 1 600 persons received this proportion of foreign jobless is declining slightly,
aid, whereas 5 700 invitations to leave France were helping to narrow the unemployment gap with the
conveyed to OMI. Assisted departures therefore French labour force. The aggregate foreign unem-
involve only a very small, and diminishing, number ployment rate masks substantial differences 105
◆ Chart II.6. Share and concentration of foreign employees by economic activity, 1997, France
Percentages
0 5 10 15 20
Share of foreign employees by economic activity
1
Share of foreign employees in each economic activity
2
6
Share of foreign employees 1. Construction
7 2. Domestic services
in total employment (all activities)
3. Industrial services
8 4. Trade
5. Education, health and social work
9
6. Manufacture of intermediate goods
10 7. Administration
8. Manufacture of consumption goods
11 9. Real estate services
10. Transport
12 11. Agriculture, hunting and forestry
12. Manufacture of equipment goods
13 13. Manufacture of motor vehicles
14. Others
14 Note: Economic activities are ranked by decreasing stock of foreign
employees.
0 5 10 15 20 Source: Labour Force Survey, March 1997.
depending on nationality, gender and age. While in Algeria prior to 1962 (when Algeria became inde-
the unemployment rate for foreigners from Euro- pendent) on grounds of dual jus soli. In all, nearly
pean Union countries is slightly lower than for 117 600 persons acquired or were granted French
French citizens, the rate is much higher for non-EU nationality in 1996.
nationals (at over 30 per cent, versus 11.6 per cent In 1996, by nationality, the largest groups to
for the French). On the whole, women are hit harder acquire French nationality through all procedures
by unemployment, especially among non-EU combined were Moroccans (who accounted for one-
nationals (36.8 per cent in March 1997). Lastly, young quarter of the total), Algerians, Portuguese, Tuni-
people aged 15 to 24 from non-European Union sians, Turks and nationals of countries in South-East
countries are the primary victims of joblessness, Asia (particularly Cambodia and Viet Nam) and
with an average unemployment rate of 50 per cent, French-speaking Africa. In all, over half of the acqui-
and even higher for Algerians and other Africans. sitions involved African nationals and around a quar-
ter Europeans.
Acquisition of French nationality
In 1996, a total of 109 800 foreigners (see Policy developments
Table II.8) acquired French nationality through all
The international dimension of immigration policy
procedures combined, either by decree
(50 700 naturalisations and 7 400 restorations of Since late 1995 and through mid-1997, the pri-
French nationality), by declaration (21 900, mostly mary framework for international activities involving
upon marriage to a French citizen) or by formal immigration and the presence of foreigners in
statement (29 800) on the part of young people born France was the European Union. On 28 June 1996,
in France between 1976 and 1980 of two foreign France ratified an agreement (in connection with
parents. Adding to these naturalisations were ongoing negotiations with the World Trade Organiza-
approximately 7 500 attributions (at birth) of French tion) whereby employees of a foreign company
nationality, which since 1994 have been reserved to wishing to establish a subsidiary in France are
106 children born in France of at least one parent born exempted from restrictions imposed because of the
employment situation. Work permits are issued to marrying a French citizen to obtain French national-
such employees, provided that they have been ity from two years to one. Lastly, the law restores the
working for the parent company for at least a year right to automatic acquisition of French nationality
and belong to one of the occupational categories at birth to children born in France of a parent born
stipulated in the agreement: senior executives, in Algeria prior to 1962 (when Algeria became
highly qualified technicians and ‘‘transferred independent).
employees’’. In addition, France made a number of In June 1997, it was decided to carry out an
other commitments, extending these special exceptional regularisation campaign which was to
arrangements to four other categories of workers: terminate on 20 April 1998. The campaign was aimed
researchers, teachers in higher education, assem- primarily at regularising the unlawful status, with
blers and technicians, and performing artists. regard to entry or residence, of people married to
Two Euro-Mediterranean agreements were rati- French citizens or to foreigners having entered
fied, creating an association between the European France legally outside of the family reunion proce-
Union and its Member States and, respectively, dure, spouses of people with refugee status and
Tunisia (in July 1996) and Morocco (in July 1997). long-established foreign families. It also applied to
certain categories of children who had entered
France, which is part of the Schengen Area, had
France outside of the family reunion procedure and
invoked the safeguard clause to restore internal bor-
other clearly specified categories of foreigners
der controls with the six other signatory States
under certain conditions (foreigners with no family
(Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
responsibilities, foreigners who were ill, students
Portugal and Spain) but decided, on 18 April 1996,
pursuing higher-level studies and people denied
to remove internal controls from its borders with
asylum). According to the earliest available informa-
Germany and Spain. At the end of 1997, the
tion, around 150 000 regularisation applications had
Schengen Area was extended to include three new
been examined and 23 450 residence permits
partners: Italy, Austria and Greece.
granted as of 31 January 1998. Approximately
16 500 people had received acknowledgements of
The domestic dimension of immigration policy their applications pending receipt of their residence
permits and 22 500 denials had been issued. To
Two bills – one on the acquisition of French date, nearly 85 per cent of the regularisations have
nationality and the other on the entry and residence been granted on family-related grounds, whereas
of foreigners – were introduced and examined in nearly half of the applications were from people who
1997. To date, only the first bill has been adopted. It are single. Of all the permits issued (23 450), 15 per
was decided that same year to conduct an excep- cent have been granted to Algerians, 11 per cent to
tional regularisation campaign. Moroccans, 10 per cent to Chinese and 9 per cent to
The Nationality Act was finally adopted in nationals of the former Zaire.
March 1998. It reaffirms the right to French national-
ity by virtue of birth in France, providing for acquisi-
tion of French nationality at three age levels by chil- GERMANY
dren born in France of foreign parents. At age 13,
Introduction
such children may become French with their par-
ents’ consent, provided they have lived in France for In 1997, unemployment hit record levels and
at least five years. At age 16, they may ask to employment declined. At the same time, the skill
become French without their parents’ consent, but levels required by employers tended to rise. For-
subject to the same residence requirement. At age eigners, usually less skilled than the rest of the pop-
18, they will be automatically entitled to French ulation and hence more vulnerable to unemploy-
nationality if they have lived in France for at least ment, were severely affected; their unemployment
five years since the age of 11; they may, however, rate rose to 18.9 per cent (annual average) in 1997,
decline French nationality at any time between the compared to 10.1 per cent for the population as a
age of 171/2 and 19. The new law also changes other whole. This led to a decrease in entries of foreign
rules concerning the attribution of nationality. It nationals and in the number of new work permits
requires the government to respond to applications issued. Despite faster growth during the third quar-
for naturalisation within 18 months. In addition, it ter of 1997, the unemployment rate is not expected
reduces the amount of time required for a foreigner to stabilise until 1998. 107
The total population of Germany continued to falling to 148 900 in 1996. There has even been
increase despite a marked decrease in entries of a net outflow of migrants from Croatia, Bosnia-
ethnic Germans (Aussiedler) and foreigners. With Herzegovina, Romania and Bulgaria.
regard to migration policy, the government is main- Foreign births (on the rise again after a two-year
taining its efforts to introduce effective schemes to decline) and entries of foreign residents and ethnic
promote the cultural and economic integration of Germans account for a large part of the increase in
first, and more especially, second-generation the total population (see Chart II.8). The proportion
immigrants. of foreigners in the total population, rising steadily,
stood at 8.9 per cent in late 1996. The proportion of
Migration and settlement nationals from Central European countries is falling
all the time, whereas that of nationals from Euro-
All persons (including asylum seekers) occupy- pean Union countries and Turkey is increasing.
ing a private residence for a period exceeding three
months are required to register their entry and
departure. Because of this broad definition of immi- Naturalisations
gration flows, net flows need to be considered rather The Aliens Act, amended in July 1993, facilitates
than just inflows, so that the extent of migration is the naturalisation procedure for long-standing for-
not inflated compared to flows recorded in other eign residents or those with proof of German origin.
countries. Since 1989, most naturalisations have in fact con-
Over the last 25 years, foreign immigration has cerned ethnic Germans (see Statistical Annex,
moved cyclically, following the pattern of economic Table B.1.7). The requirements for a discretionary
and political events (see Chart II.7). High net flows decision are more restrictive, particularly when it
up until the early 1970s were attributable to recruit- comes to knowledge of the German language. Turks
ment agreements signed with a number of countries, were the main group naturalised by discretionary
mostly in Europe (Yugoslavia, Italy, Greece, Spain, decision in 1996.
Turkey, Portugal, Morocco and Tunisia). The volume
of flows fell considerably after the first oil crisis, with
Asylum seekers
family migration becoming the main form of migra-
tion. Finally, since 1989, upheavals in the Central Following an amendment to the Basic Law,
and Eastern European countries have generated tougher legislation was introduced on 1 July 1993 to
exceptionally high inflows, especially of asylum clarify who is entitled to apply for asylum. This has
seekers and ethnic Germans (Aussiedler). Since 1993, drastically reduced the number of valid applica-
net migration figures have steadily diminished, tions. Nonetheless, over 116 000 applications were
◆ Chart II.7. Migration flows of foreigners,1 1960-1996, Germany

Thousands
1 200 Net migration of foreigners

Inflows of foreigners
1 000
800
600
400
200
0
1. Registered inflows (foreigners staying in Germany more than
3 months) and outflows of foreigners. Including registered asylum
-200
seekers. The data cover western Germany up to 1990 and Germany
as a whole from 1991 on.
108 1960 65 70 75 80 85 90 1995 Source: Federal Statistical Office.
◆ Chart II.8. Components of German population change,1970-1996

National and foreigners
Thousands
A. Nationals1 B. Foreigners
Net migration Total change3 Net migration Total change3
Natural increase Natural increase
Acquisition of German nationality2 Acquisition of German nationality2
700 700
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
-100 -100
-200 -200
-300 -300
-400 -400
1970 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 1996 1970 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 1996
Note: The data cover western Germany up to 1990 and Germany as a whole from 1991 on.
1. Aussiedler are considered as nationals in statistics on migration. They can reside in Germany and acquire German nationality as soon as their German origins are recognised.
2. Including naturalisations on the basis of a claim.
3. Net migration, natural increase and acquisition of nationality.
Source: Federal Statistical Office.
made in 1996. The biggest flows in 1996 were still The recruitment of temporary foreign workers is
from Turkey and the former Yugoslavia but also from highly contingent on the economic climate inasmuch
Iraq, Afghanistan and Sri Lanka. Flows from Iraq as the employment situation is generally taken into
were up sharply on 1995. consideration. The employment of contract labour,
and that of guest workers, perceived as a form of co-
operation with the Central and Eastern European
Migration and the labour market
countries, is an exception to the rule of prior entitle-
Any foreigner from a country outside the Euro- ment, but here too quotas are set for each national-
pean Economic Area requires a work permit in order ity and each sector of economic activity, depending
to take up paid employment in Germany. In 1996, on the situation on the labour market. In 1996, the
nearly 440 000 new permits were issued, over half to quotas were lowered. The number of cross-border
new arrivals to Germany (see Chart II.9). The decline workers, who are subject to the rule of prior entitle-
in the number of work permits delivered can be ment, fell by nearly 60 per cent between 1995 and
attributed to slower economic growth and high 1996. Conversely, the employment of seasonal work-
unemployment. The majority of new permits, known ers rose once again in 1996 (see Table II.9).
as ‘‘ordinary’’ permits, are subject to the rule of prior The total workforce has been on the decline
entitlement for German workers and foreigners with since 1992. Since employment has mirrored this
comparable status. In addition they are only valid trend, even more sharply (see Chart II.9), unemploy-
for a specific activity. The remaining permits are ment has substantially increased in Germany. Fur-
‘‘special’’ permits which grant unrestricted access to thermore, viewed over a long period, fluctuations in
the labour market, for a limited or unlimited period, the employment of foreign workers have been
with no geographical or occupational restrictions. greater than for the population as a whole. The gap
109
◆ Chart II.9. Change in employment and unemployment in 10.1 per cent for the population as a whole, but from
Germany, 1981-1997 16.6 to 18.9 per cent for foreigners. However, the
Total population and foreigners
Percentages rate conceals wide disparities depending on nation-
ality and the sector of economic activity. Turks are
A. Employment and labour force the hardest hit (24.4 per cent at the end of the year),
Labour force (nationals and foreigners) Employment
followed by Italians (20.6 per cent) and Greeks
Employment (nationals and foreigners) (foreigners1) (19 per cent).
7.5
7.5
Illegal migration
5.0
5.0 The illegal employment of foreign labour per-
2.5 sists, despite numerous efforts to combat the entry
Annual change
2.5 of illegal foreign immigrants. Criminal trafficking

0 organisations are developing, especially those
0 smuggling workers in from the Central and Eastern
-2.5 European countries. Since 1994, some 30 000 foreign
-2.5 nationals have been apprehended each year after
-5.0 entering the country illegally, most frequently via
-5.0
the borders with Poland and the Czech Republic.
-7.5 Breaches of labour legislation on the illegal employ-
1981 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 1997 -7.5 ment of foreign workers have risen sharply (86 800 in
1996 compared with 79 500 the previous year). In
B. Unemployment rates2 order to improve the effectiveness of measures to
Total population Foreigners restrict the flow of non-EU foreign nationals, particu-
20.0 20.0 larly through the asylum seeker channel, Germany is
endeavouring to sign readmission agreements with
17.5 17.5 the main countries from which the illegal migrants
come.
15.0 15.0
% of labour force
Policy developments
12.5 12.5
While new policies are being developed to
10.0 10.0 tighten entry for new immigration from outside the
European Union, the Federal Government, in co-
7.5 7.5 operation with the Länder and the municipalities, is
actively facilitating the integration of long-time resi-
5.0 5.0 dent foreign workers and their families. In particular,
1981 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 1997 the Federal Ministry of Labour is financing language
courses for immigrants and their families, and
1. Figures represent, for a given year, percentage change in the stock of employed schemes to help second-generation immigrants find
foreigners compared to the previous year. Data are from Social Security records
(in June of the given year). The data only cover western Germany.
employment by enhancing their technical and lin-
2. Figures on unemployment are given as an annual average and correspond to the guistic skills. Some 1 800 young foreigners have
national definition based on the register of unemployed people. The data only cover already benefited from vocational training schemes,
western Germany.
Sources: Federal Statistical Office and OECD Economic Outlook, No. 62, December 1997. co-financed by their countries of origin and the Fed-
eral Ministry of Labour. These initiatives are aimed
at using the linguistic and cultural skills acquired by
young people from immigrant families and at devel-
oping their specific skills. Those completing the
between unemployment rates in the national and course are awarded a diploma from the Chamber of
foreign populations has continued to widen since Commerce and Industry and are eligible for a train-
the early 1980s, indicating that the foreign popula- ing course in the country of origin. Nineteen new
tion are more vulnerable in this respect. Between projects involving Greece, Spain, Italy, Portugal and
110 1995 and 1996, unemployment rose from 9.3 to Turkey are under consideration.
Table II.9. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks
of foreign population and labour force, Germany
1993 1994 1995 1996
Components of population changes

Total population (Total change) 372.3 205.8 288.6 195.4
Natural increase –98.8 –115.1 –119.4 –86.8
Net migration 471.1 320.8 408.0 282.2
Germans (Total change)1 204.1 224.0 288.1 256.5
Natural increase –189.8 –203.4 –206.3 –179.7
Net migration 194.5 168.3 180.7 133.3
Acquisition of German nationality 199.4 259.2 313.6 302.8
Foreigners (Total change) 168.2 –18.3 0.6 –61.1
Natural increase 91.0 88.3 86.9 92.8
Net migration 276.6 152.6 227.2 148.9
Acquisition of German nationality –199.4 –259.2 –313.6 –302.8
Migration of foreigners2
Inflows by nationality 986.9 774.0 788.3 708.0
of which:
Poland 75.2 78.6 87.2 77.4
Turkey 67.8 63.9 73.6 73.2
Italy 31.7 38.7 48.0 45.8
Portugal 12.9 26.5 30.5 32.0
Russian federation 29.4 33.4 33.0 31.9
Net migration by nationality 276.6 152.5 227.2 148.9
of which:
Turkey 22.3 17.6 30.4 29.7
Portugal 10.0 23.6 27.6 29.1
Russian federation 21.7 21.1 19.5 19.3
Italy 0.7 6.6 14.5 9.0
Poland –26.6 12.9 16.5 5.7
Inflows of ethnic Germans from Central and Eastern Europe 218.9 222.6 217.9 177.8
of which:
Former USSR 207.3 213.2 109.4 172.2
Romania 5.8 6.6 6.5 4.3
Poland 5.4 2.4 1.7 1.2
of which:
Turkey 19.1 19.1 25.5 23.8
Iraq .. 2.1 6.9 10.8
Afghanistan 5.5 5.6 7.5 5.7
Stock of foreign population by duration of stay
(31 December of the year indicated)2 6 878.1 6 990.5 7 173.9 7 314.0
Less than one year (%) 9.0 6.3 7.9 5.6
1 year to less than 4 years (%) 23.8 23.9 23.1 18.2
4 to less than 10 years (less than 11 from 1994 on) (%) 17.8 22.3 24.5 27.7
10 years or more (11 years or more from 1994 on) (%) 49.5 47.4 44.5 48.5
Total (%) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Acquisition of German nationality3 199.4 259.2 313.6 302.8
111
Table II.9. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks
of foreign population and labour force, Germany (cont.)
1993 1994 1995 1996
Issuance of work permits for a first employment4 555.8 419.4 470.0 440.0
of which:
Asylum seekers 64.5 44.1 40.3 21.3
Contract workers 70.0 63.5 76.6 54.5
By duration of stay in Germany
Newly entered 325.6 221.2 270.8 262.5
of which: Polish workers .. 126.2 181.6 180.8
Not newly entered 230.2 198.2 199.2 177.5
By kind of permit5
General permit 388.8 323.1 374.7 346.3
Special permit 167.0 96.3 95.3 93.4
Stock of employed foreign workers by economic activity
(Western Germany)6 2 131.6 2 168.0 2 155.9 2 084.7
Agriculture 24.0 24.7 25.3 27.3
Energy, mining 28.6 26.3 24.0 21.9
Manufacturing industry 953.0 885.1 863.6 823.1
Construction 188.9 202.5 203.9 196.1
Commerce 211.4 220.2 215.1 217.3
Transport and communication 99.1 101.8 100.2 103.4
Intermediary services 21.0 22.8 22.7 22.6
Non-profit organisations, private households 29.7 32.2 33.2 35.5
Regional authorities, Social Security 54.8 54.0 49.0 48.9
Other services 521.1 557.5 562.3 588.6
Not specified 0.1 40.9 56.6 0.1
Stock of contract workers by nationality7 63.3 48.4 56.2 47.3
of which:
Poland 11.5 19.2 28.8 24.3
Hungary 15.2 9.2 10.2 9.1
Croatia 8.3 5.3 5.2 5.0
Czech Republic 1.3 2.6 2.5 2.3
Turkey .. .. 1.8 1.8
Seasonal workers by nationality8 179.9 154.5 192.0 220.9
of which:
Poland 143.9 136.7 170.6 196.3
Slovak Republic 7.8 3.9 5.4 6.3
Croatia 7.0 5.8 5.6 5.7
Romania 3.9 2.3 3.9 5.0
Hungary 5.3 2.5 2.8 3.5
Czech Republic 12.0 3.5 3.7 3.4
Unemployment (national definition)
Total number of unemployed workers (Germany as a whole) 3 419.1 3 698.1 3 611.9 3 965.1
Total number of unemployed workers (western Germany) 2 270.3 2 556.0 2 564.9 2 796.2
Unemployment rate (%) (western Germany) 8.2 9.2 9.3 10.1
Total number of foreign unemployed workers
(western Germany) 344.8 408.1 424.5 496.0
Foreigners’ unemployment rate (%) (western Germany) 15.1 16.2 16.6 18.9
Note: The data cover Germany as a whole, unless otherwise indicated. Data for Former Yugoslavia cover Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia in
1993 and exclude Republic of Macedonia from 1994 on.
1. Figures include ethnic Germans whose German origins have been recognised.
2. Data are from population registers.
3. Statistics include naturalisation claims, which concern essentially ethnic Germans.
4. Citizens of EU members States are not included.
5. A general permit is only granted if no domestic worker is available. This is not the case for the issuance of a special permit. Activity of holders of a special
work permit is not restrictive.
6. Data are for 30 September of each year and include cross-border workers but not the self-employed.
7. Contract workers are recruited under bilateral agreements and quotas by country of origin are revised annually.
8. Seasonal workers are recruited under bilateral agreements and they are allowed to work 3 months per year.
Sources: Bundesanstalt für Arbeit; Statistiches Bundesamt.
112
Foreigners hold a greater proportion of This latter development may to some extent be due
unskilled or low-skilled jobs and are therefore more to the Greek government’s support for its overseas
concerned by job losses. The Ministry of Labour and communities. Confirming recent trends, asylum
the federal labour services are accordingly encour- seekers remain few in number. Greece continues,
aging the development of a programme of life-long however, to constitute for many asylum seekers and
vocational training (and where appropriate, re- refugees a stopover point on the way to other coun-
training), both within and outside company tries. At present the stock of documented immi-
structures. grants, 305 000, is believed to be more than
The Federal Government is also supporting ini- matched by those who are undocumented. It is
tiatives by some foreigners (particularly Turks) who hoped that this situation will be remedied by the
wish to return to their country of origin. It provides regularisation programme which is in the course of
information about the conditions of their return implementation.
and the opportunities for salaried work or self-
employment. In addition, technical training courses Emigration
recognised by the country of origin are offered in
Germany. The Federal Government and industry Greece’s National Statistical Service ceased col-
have together funded measures to promote return lecting data on emigration in 1977. Any estimate of
migration and the development of self-employment the magnitude of recent emigration flows has there-
in the home country. A centre was opened in Turkey fore to be obtained through the records of receiving
in June 1995. In co-operation with Hungary, the countries. After considerable emigration in the 1950s
Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic, Germany and 1960s, flows to the United States, Canada and
has created upskilling programmes for guest workers Australia are now almost negligible and are primarily
(Gastarbeiter) who, upon completion of their chosen linked to family reunion. The outflow to the United
programme, will return to their country of origin. States, for example, amounted to only 1 450 people
in the 1996 fiscal year, an over 40 per cent reduction
As well as facilitating the integration of immi- on the corresponding figure for 1986. In contrast, the
grants and young people from immigrant families, emigration flow to Germany, historically also an
the Ministry of Labour also attempts to combat important receiving country for Greeks, remains sig-
racism by promoting better intercultural under- nificant averaging approximately 19 000 annually
standing. between 1993 and 1996.
Between 25 000 and 35 000 Greek students are
GREECE currently studying in overseas universities. A
Introduction decline is believed to have taken place in recent
years due, inter alia, to the expansion of Greek uni-
The Greek economy continues to strengthen. versities, a reduction in the number of scholarships
Robust output growth has not, however, been and difficulties in gaining recognition upon return for
accompanied by a decrease in registered unem- diplomas from certain countries.
ployment. This is in all likelihood a reflection of Greek emigrant remittances transmitted
continued company restructuring and of enhanced through official sources amounted to slightly less
incentives to register. The unemployment rate is than US$3 billion in 1996, a 2.4 per cent fall on the
expected to increase in the medium term from its 1995 figure. This is attributable largely to slow
present level of just over 10 per cent as firms strive growth in Germany (whence approximately one
to attain productivity gains in order to offset the quarter of the remittances are transmitted), the re-
impact of the recent sustained increase in real evaluation of the US dollar against the drachma and
wages. to the increased assimilation of overseas Greeks.
Estimates of the magnitude of recent emigra-
tion movements indicate that the flow to non-
Migration and settlement
European countries is diminishing; flows to Euro-
pean countries, by contrast, appear to be increasing. The Ministry of Public Order’s estimate of the
The inflow of ethnic Greeks is diminishing. This total foreign population in Greece, 305 000, indi-
would appear to reflect both a fall in the potential cates no substantial change in 1996. This estimate
pool of ethnic migrants and an increased desire on only includes, however, those in possession of a
their part to remain in their countries of settlement. valid or expired permit and those who are on the 113
waiting list. To the above figure should be added a Table II.10. Residence permits issued to foreigners,1
further 250 000 to 500 000 undocumented by country of origin, 1993-1996, Greece
Thousands
immigrants.
of which:
Women
1993 1994 1995 1996
Residence permits issued 1995 1996
Residence permits are valid for one year but Russian Federation 14.3 17.0 17.3 13.9 9.7 8.2
may be renewed annually for a period of up to five Georgia .. .. 2.9 5.3 1.4 2.8
years. After five years of legal residence and Bulgaria 2.6 3.5 3.7 4.3 2.4 2.8
Albania 2.4 3.7 4.2 3.4 2.2 2.4
employment, a foreigner can request authorisation Egypt 3.0 3.6 3.6 3.1 0.5 0.4
for family members to enter Greece. Former Yugoslavia 1.5 2.9 2.9 2.9 1.7 1.8
Romania 2.5 3.5 2.6 2.7 1.9 2.0
During 1996 just over 70 000 new residence per- United Kingdom 3.6 3.2 3.1 2.7 1.8 1.5
mits were issued (ethnic and non-ethnic migrants United States 2.3 2.8 2.8 2.4 1.5 1.3
combined), an almost 8 000 decrease on the 1995 Turkey 5.1 6.2 5.1 2.3 2.6 1.1
Cyprus 5.6 5.5 4.7 2.1 2.1 1.0
figure (see Table II.10). With the notable exceptions Philippines 3.1 2.7 2.3 1.9 2.0 1.6
of the Arabic countries, females predominate; over- Poland 1.4 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.2 1.4
all they outnumbered males by a ratio of four to Germany 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.5 0.9 0.9
Ukraine .. .. 0.5 1.4 0.4 0.9
three. Significant reductions were observed in the Lebanon 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 0.4 0.4
entries of citizens from Russia, Turkey, Cyprus and Syria 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.1 0.3 0.3
Albania, countries with large numbers of ethnic Italy 0.4 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.3
Other 18.4 15.6 15.9 15.7 8.7 8.9
Greeks. On the other hand those from Georgia and
the Ukraine marked substantial increases (the latter Total 70.1 77.2 78.2 70.4 42.2 39.9
albeit from a very low base). 1. Data refer to total number of permits issued. One person can be
granted several work permits per year. However a large majority of the
permits are delivered for one year and only a small number of persons
receive more than one permit. Data include ethnic Greeks.
Settlement of ethnic Greeks Source: Greek Ministry of Public Order.
Continuing the declining trend which started in

1993, fewer than 6 000 ethnic Greeks from the former
Soviet Union (Pontians) entered under a ‘‘returnee’’
visa in 1996. Factors which could account for this
include: relative political stabilisation in the Com-
monwealth of Independent States; integration Naturalisations
difficulties encountered by Pontians in Greece,
government assistance notwithstanding; high unem- The 1991 law on aliens is very restrictive with
ployment; approaching exhaustion of the potential respect to the naturalisation of foreigners not
pool of returnees; and possibly the policies of the related to Greeks. Even for the foreign spouse of a
Greek government in support of Greek communities Greek national, the acquisition of Greek nationality
abroad which may have inadvertently had the effect is far from being a formality: after applying, the
of encouraging Pontian Greeks to remain in their
spouse must wait five years before the application is
host countries.
examined by the relevant authorities. Other foreign-
Ethnic Greeks from Albania have not been ers who apply for Greek nationality must have been
encouraged to settle in Greece and the Greek gov- resident in the country for ten years. No statistics
ernment provides financial assistance and other are available for those who demonstrate Greek
incentives to encourage them to return to Albania. descent as these fall under the jurisdiction of
Recently, the Greek Government has undertaken the Prefects. During the period 1986 to 1994,
initiatives aimed at assisting the economic develop- between 200 and 500 foreigners (of non-Greek des-
ment of Albania, the most important of which is to cent) were naturalised each year. That figure
include Southern Albania in the category of prefer- jumped to close to one thousand in 1995 to fall
ential treatment usually reserved for Greece’s less back in 1996. An increase is again expected in
developed regions. Unlike Pontians, neither Albani- 1997 as the number of naturalisations had by the
ans nor ethnic Greeks from Turkey are encouraged end of September already surpassed that
114 to change their nationality. for 1996.
Refugees and asylum seekers 1995. The Ministry of Labour estimates the total
number of foreign workers (foreign and ethnic) for
For most refugees, Greece has traditionally 1996 at 25 000, a fall of almost 10 per cent. There
been a country of transit. At the end of 1996, Greece exists then an absolute difference of about
had a stock of almost 5 000 ‘‘refugees for resettle- 10 000 migrant workers and a marked difference in
ment to other countries’’. The majority are ‘‘self- the registered trend.
supporting’’. Data show that between 1986 and 1996, In 1996, the five most important countries of
almost 22 000 asylum seekers in Greece were reset- origin for permit holders were the United Kingdom,
tled in other countries, over 90 per cent in the Egypt, Russia, Germany and the Philippines, in that
United States and Canada. In 1996 this outflow fell order. Citizens of these countries together account
sharply due to a steep decline in the number for almost half of all permits. Since 1990, the number
accepted by the United States; it accounted for just of permits going to workers from the Philippines has
over one quarter, a figure matched by Australia. dropped sharply. The influx of Eastern Europeans
However, the possibility of settlement in Greece is and Albanians may have contributed to a displace-
not excluded and new legislation was passed in ment of Asian workers, especially Filipino women in
1991 and in 1996 (see below) which has allowed for domestic services. Sixty per cent of registered for-
the development of procedures for the recognition eign workers are employed in trade, restaurants,
of political refugees, the treatment of asylum seek- hotels and other services.
ers and refugees and the procedures for granting a
work permit. After reaching a high of 2 700 in 1991,
Illegal migration
fewer than 1 600 asylum seekers entered Greece in
1996. Iraq, Iran and Turkey are the principal coun- Illegal migration flows to Greece in many cases
tries of origin accounting in 1996 for respectively 56, involves organised trafficking in migrants. Every few
24 and 10 per cent of the applications. Although firm months the Greek authorities intercept and uncover
statistical evidence is not available, it is assumed organised illegal entry of groups of migrants from
that the largest proportion of these asylum seekers the northern and eastern borders of the country,
are Kurds. However, as in previous years, only a from Turkey or from the Aegean islands.
small percentage (7 per cent) of the applications At over 19 000, the number of deportations
were accepted. Just over one hundred people were increased substantially (over 40 per cent) between
granted regular refugee status and a further 53 were 1995 and 1996. Over half of this increase was due to
granted ‘‘humanitarian’’ status. an almost 120 per cent increase in the number of
Romanians deported. A decrease is expected for
Labour migration and work permits 1997, however, as fewer than 11 500 people had
been deported by mid-November.
The maximum number of work permits granted
each year to foreign migrants by country of citizen-
Illegal foreign workers
ship, occupation and duration of work and for the
various regions of the country is determined by a Various estimates put the number of undocu-
joint decision of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, mented foreign workers in Greece at between
Labour and Public Order after consultation with the 250 000 and 500 000, that is to say at between 6 to
Manpower and Employment Organisation and the 12 per cent of the Greek labour force. Half are
representatives of Trade Union and Employer thought to be Albanian. The strong seasonal charac-
organisations ter of the Greek economy (especially in construc-
Both the Ministry of Public Order and the Minis- tion, tourism and agriculture), acts as an important
try of Labour provide data on legal foreign workers. pull factor. It is expected that the ratification and
The statistics on legal foreign workers obtained from implementation of recently signed bilateral agree-
the Ministry of Public Order are somewhat different ments with Albania and Bulgaria which are designed
from those published by the Ministry of Labour. The to facilitate seasonal employment will, in conjunc-
former estimates the number of foreign workers tion with the regularisation process which is cur-
(non-ethnics) in 1996 to be just under 29 000. If we rently under way, lead to a normalisation of the
add to these the number of ethnic workers with a migration flows.
work permit, 6 000, then the total number of foreign Immigrants without work permits can find jobs
workers is almost 35 000, virtually no change on despite high unemployment; their wages, perhaps 115
three to six times more than they can earn at home, to 40 working days of non-specialised labour. An
are about half the market rate in Greece and they do OAED Committee, after a consideration of the
not have, of course, any social security coverage. It is applicant’s record, the needs of the labour market
expected that many small entrepreneurs who are and the needs of the Greek economy, may then
currently dependent on this cheap labour will go out grant the Residence Card of Limited Duration
of business as a result of the forthcoming regularisa- (‘‘green card’’). The card will be valid initially for
tion process. It is likely, moreover, that following the between one to three years. Subsequent renewals
regularisation programme skilled foreigners cur- for two year periods will be possible. Special provi-
rently in an irregular situation will attempt to take- sions exist for the granting of five year permits. A
up posts more in keeping with their qualifications Special Committee (composed of representatives of
and experience. relevant Ministries, trade unions, employers, the
UNHCR and the Athens Bar Association) will meet to
Policy developments consider appeals against rejection and to oversee
the granting of green cards under exceptional cir-
Regularisation of undocumented foreign workers cumstances, for example, for humanitarian reasons.
Following a long period of consultation, the The regularisation process does not apply to
regularisation process was implemented on 1 Janu- foreign seamen working on Greek flagged ships
ary 1998. The process will be completed in two most of whom come from the Philippines, Pakistan,
steps: a registration phase followed by the issuance India, Sri Lanka, Honduras and Indonesia. As of the
of a ‘‘green card’’. beginning of March 1998, just over 150 000 undocu-
During the initial registration phase, the non- mented foreign workers had registered, roughly one
documented workers must submit an application to third of the estimated total. Fifty-five per cent of
their local Employment and Manpower Organisation those registered were based in the Attica region
(OAED). This involves supplying information regard- (which includes most of the Aegean islands) as well
ing their occupation, level of education, skills, as two provinces in central Greece (Biotia, Evia).
employment experience, age, family status, nation-
ality and country of origin. Upon completion of these
Ratification of the Schengen Agreement
formalities the applicant will receive a Temporary
Residence Permit Card (‘‘white card’’) which will give The Greek Parliament ratified the Schengen
him/her the right to work on the same basis as Agreement in 1997. The fact that the Government
native workers. The applicant must have supplied had passed legislation that same year protecting the
by the end of May 1998 a number of other docu- citizen from electronic abuses of personal informa-
ments. These include a passport or other kind of tion contributed to the ratification process. How-
travel document, a certificate testifying to the non- ever, concern has been expressed regarding
possession of a criminal record and documents Greece’s infrastructure and its readiness to imple-
detailing the previous duration of stay in Greece. It ment the Agreement, especially by older Schengen
is not unlikely that the May deadline will be Agreement members (e.g. Germany and the
extended by two months. Netherlands). That as of 1998 a special border con-
Applications on the part of non-documented trol service will be in operation to prevent illegal
workers do not exempt employers from their obliga- entry into EU territory should help to assuage these
tions to report the employment of non-documented concerns.
workers within the five month period. Neither does
the reporting of undocumented workers by their
New policies for asylum seekers
employers exempt the undocumented workers from
their own responsibility for registration. The provi- A new law was passed in 1996 to extend health
sions of pre-existing legislation allow for penalties to care and temporary employment rights to asylum
be imposed on undocumented workers (e.g. expul- seekers and to foreigners granted refugee status.
sion, payment of travel costs) and on their employ- The new law also contains provisions for the family
ers (e.g. prison, fines, etc.). reunion of recognised refugees, expediting recogni-
During the second phase which will last until tion procedures for asylum seekers as well as grant-
the end of July 1998, the applicants must demon- ing temporary protection status to special categories
116 strate that they have earned an income equivalent of persons who take refuge in Greek territory for
reasons beyond their control (e.g. civil wars, natural Luxembourg, Switzerland, Ireland and, more
disasters etc.). recently, the Netherlands, the latter specifically for
young skilled workers.
HUNGARY The number of Hungarian entrepreneurs emi-
Introduction grating to other countries of Central and Eastern
Europe, the former USSR (mainly Russia) and
During the first half of the 1990s, Hungary went Central Asia is also beginning to increase. Lastly,
through a serious economic and social crisis which migration for the purpose of education and studying
resulted in a sharp drop in GDP (down 20 per cent a foreign language is becoming significant.
between 1989 and 1993), a widening trade deficit, an
increased budget deficit and an acceleration in the
rate of inflation (to 35 per cent in 1991). This poor Permanent and temporary immigration
economic performance led the government to take The data available on temporary immigration
stabilisation measures in March 1995, the effects of concern the issuing and renewal of short-term resi-
which began to be felt in 1996 and were confirmed dence permits (for one, three or six months). The
in 1997. Unemployment fell, from 10.2 per cent in sharp drop since 1992 does not mean that labour
1995 to 8.7 per cent in 1997. Also contributing to immigration has declined, but is mainly the result of
economic recovery were the continuing inflows of the dwindling numbers of temporary war refugees
foreign direct investment: many investors look upon from Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Hungary as a base from which to expand their mar-
ket share in other Central and Eastern European Long-term immigration (i.e. foreigners entering
countries. At present, nearly 40 per cent of the for- Hungary with a residence permit valid for at least
eign capital flowing into the ex-COMECON region is one year) has continued to decline since 1991. The
being invested in Hungary, and most large firms are legislation passed in May 1994 tightening the
financed with foreign capital. However, this invest- requirements for the entry, stay and settlement of
ment mainly benefits the Budapest region. This foreigners has reinforced this trend. The breakdown
merely serves to accentuate the already considera- of immigrants by age and ethnic origin has gradually
ble regional disparities that emerged in the wake of changed since the early 1990s. The average age of
the large-scale job losses of the 1989-93 period. new immigrants has risen due to the fact that, while
at the beginning of the decade inflows consisted
almost entirely of ethnic Hungarian families from
Emigration Romania, former Yugoslavia or the former USSR,
Hungary has not experienced major waves of today it is more common for workers to immigrate
emigration during the period of transition to a mar- without their families. At the same time, the pattern
ket economy. Today, whereas immigration is fre- of countries of origin of new migrants has changed
quently attributable to immigrants’ ethnic or family somewhat. In 1989 and 1990, some 80 per cent of
ties, those who decide to emigrate are most often immigrants were ethnic Hungarians from Romania
individuals leaving alone to work on a temporary (see Table II.11). In 1996, however, although they
basis. were still the largest group of immigrants to
The Hungarian government is continuing to pro- Hungary, Romanians accounted for less than one-
mote the temporary emigration of Hungarian work- third of new arrivals. Because of the war in former
ers to Western European countries in order that they Yugoslavia, there was large-scale immigration from
might gain employment experience and enhance this country in 1992 and 1993. Lastly, with the col-
their skills. Germany is the preferred destination of lapse of the Soviet bloc, nationals of the states of
Hungarian temporary workers with over 9 000 Hun- the former USSR (notably in Ukraine and Russia)
garians having worked in Germany in 1996 under the began to emigrate to Hungary.
programme for the recruitment of sub-contract work- Permanent immigration has also fallen sharply
ers, together with some 3 500 seasonal workers. in recent years, even though the data available for
Nevertheless, the number of Hungarian nationals 1996 on the number of applications filed and immi-
resident in Germany is diminishing, this being gration permits granted showed a slight increase.
explained more by the temporary nature of this The new law on foreigners set an annual quota for
migration than by the number of naturalisations. permanent immigrants at approximately 2 000,
Other bilateral agreements have been signed with although ethnic Hungarian immigrants, who account 117
Table II.11. Current migration figures, Hungary

1993 1994 1995 1996
Long-term immigration by country of origin1

Romania 6.1 4.3 4.7 3.8
Former USSR 1.7 1.9 1.8 1.9
EU countries 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.4
Other 2.4 2.7 3.8 4.4
Total 16.4 12.8 13.2 12.5
of which: Women 7.8 5.7 5.7 5.4
Share of ethnic Hungarians among long-term immigrants, by country
of origin (%)
Romania (%) 94.9 92.3 91.0 93.9
Former USSR (%) 56.2 53.4 48.3 58.6
EU countries (%) 7.9 5.8 7.3 11.5
Former Yugoslavia (%) 92.1 82.8 78.0 67.7
Total (%) 72.1 59.3 56.6 68.6
Grants of residence permits by type of permit
Short-term permits (including renewals) 65.7 51.4 30.3 25.0
Long-term permits (including renewals) 11.5 17.7 22.4 15.1
Permanent permits 7.7 3.4 2.2 2.8
Inflows of asylum seekers and refugees 5.4 3.4 5.9 1.3
Stocks of permanent residents .. 81.9 81.4 77.4
of which: Women .. 44.1 43.8 41.8
Stocks of foreign residents (long-term and permanent residents),
by country of origin
Romania .. 68.3 65.7 61.6
Former USSR .. 15.6 16.1 17.0
Former Yugoslavia .. 15.6 16.8 16.4
Germany .. 7.4 7.8 8.3
China .. 3.5 4.3 6.7
Poland .. 4.6 4.5 4.3
Slovak Republic .. 3.4 3.5 3.7
Other .. 19.5 21.1 24.2
Total .. 137.9 139.9 142.2
of which: Women .. 65.0 65.6 66.1
Acquisition of the Hungarian nationality 11.8 9.9 10.0 12.3
of which:
Romania (% of total acquisitions) 89.7 70.1 70.4 69.7
Former Yugoslavia (% of total acquisitions) 2.3 8.6 11.3 16.3
Former USSR (% of total acquisitions) 4.8 16.0 11.8 10.0
Applications for acquiring Hungarian nationality 13.3 3.8 3.4 2.9
Grants of work permits (excluding renewals), by country of origin
Romania 8.0 8.0 8.9 6.8
Former USSR 2.7 2.3 2.0 2.2
Poland 2.0 1.3 1.8 1.0
Other 6.8 7.0 5.7 4.4
Total 19.5 18.6 18.4 14.4
Registered foreign workers, by country of origin
Romania 7.6 9.0 9.8 8.5
Former USSR 2.0 1.8 2.6 2.2
Poland 1.1 1.0 1.4 1.0
Other 6.9 8.3 7.2 7.1
Total 17.6 20.1 21.0 18.8
Number of deportations and expulsions 2.7 15.6 17.6 14.0
of which:
Romanians 1.7 10.9 10.0 7.9
Former Yugoslavs 0.1 1.3 3.0 2.3
1. Foreigners registering in the given year and holding a long-term permit. A long-term permit is usually granted after one year living in Hungary with a short-
term permit which cannot be extended more than one year. Therefore data on long-term immigrants cannot be fully considered as flow data. 1996 figures
are provisional.
Sources: Registers of foreigners, Ministry of the Interior; Office for Migration and Refugees, Ministry of the Interior.
118
for most of the applications for permanent permits, Table II.12. Demographic characteritics of permanent
are not subject to this restriction. Moreover, despite foreign residents and naturalised persons,
30 June 1997, Hungary
the quota the authorities have thus far never
refused eligible applicants. The legislation will Permanent
Naturalised
Other
probably be repealed in 1998. foreign naturalised Total
since 1993
residents people
Thousands
Total 71.4 37.3 220.5 329.1
In 1995 and 1996, Hungary admitted 5 900 asy- By place of birth
lum seekers and 1 300 refugees (including individu- Natives 5.8 3.0 – 8.9
als fleeing the war in former Yugoslavia). The ethnic Foreign-born 65.5 34.2 220.5 320.2
make-up of these migrants has changed markedly. Percentages
From 1988 to 1990, they were mainly ethnic Hungari-
By age groups
ans from Romania. As of 1991, the growing number of 0-14 12.8 15.3 6.1 8.6
migrants arriving from former Yugoslavia made it 15-39 50.2 52.4 21.9 31.5
necessary to pass special legislation providing for 40-59 26.6 26.2 30.2 28.9
60 and over 10.4 6.1 41.8 31.0
temporary asylum in Hungary. Since 1993, this flow Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
has declined substantially. Nevertheless, the return
% of women by
of nationals of former Yugoslavia to their country of age group
origin is a problem that has yet to be solved. The 0-14 49.0 48.7 48.7 48.8
number of individuals living under temporary pro- 15-39 52.6 52.8 51.7 52.2
40-59 57.9 52.5 54.0 54.7
tection in Hungary was estimated at 5 700 in 60 and over 62.4 57.1 60.6 60.6
mid-1996. Total 54.5 52.3 56.0 55.3
By marital status
Single 36.1 38.1 19.2 25.0
The presence of foreigners and persons Married 53.7 54.5 55.1 54.8
of foreign origin Widowed 4.5 2.4 17.8 13.2
Divorced 5.7 5.0 7.9 7.0
In 1997, according to estimates based on the Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
1990 census, over 3 per cent of people resident in
Source: Central Population Register.
Hungary were foreign born, 20 per cent of whom
were foreign nationals while a further 10 per cent
had obtained Hungarian nationality during the pre-
vious five years (see Table II.12). There is a much
higher proportion of women in this foreign-born Naturalisation
population than in the population as a whole,
The new citizenship laws adopted in Octo-
although taking an identical age structure, the ratio
ber 1993 have led to a sharp drop in the number of
of men to women among individuals born abroad is
applications for Hungarian nationality (see
the same as in the population as a whole. This ratio
Table II.11). However, after special provisions were
does vary quite considerably depending on the
adopted making it possible for some categories of
country of origin, immigration from Romania, and
migrant to be naturalised after three years’ legal
especially from the republics of the former USSR,
residence, the number of foreigners acquiring Hun-
being of a distinctly family nature.
garian nationality again rose in 1996 to reach approx-
In June 1997, there were some 143 000 foreign- imately 12 300. The vast majority of people natural-
ers (holding a residence permit valid for at least one ised were nationals of Romania (70 per cent), former
year) resident in Hungary, or 1.4 per cent of the total Yugoslavia (20 per cent) and Ukraine; most were
population. Almost two-thirds of them had arrived able to provide proof that they were ethnic
after 1989. Their socio-demographic characteristics Hungarians.
have not changed greatly in recent years, foreigners
being on average younger than the population as a
Illegal migrants
whole, and the bulk of them male. Most are from
neighbouring countries, mainly Romania, the former The few estimates available on undocumented
USSR and former Yugoslavia (see Table II.11); over immigration suggest that this problem remains a
half are ethnic Hungarians. cause for concern, despite the harsher penalties 119
imposed on undocumented workers and those who grounds for refusing the issuance of a work permit.
employ them. Almost 10 000 people were appre- Moreover, permits are generally issued for a short
hended at the border in 1996 (compared with 29 000 time and are always for a specific activity. If a for-
in 1991). Two-thirds of them were trying to cross the eigner changes employers, a new permit must be
border into Western Europe, which shows that obtained. Since August 1995, some categories of
Hungary is not so much a country in which these workers (for example, experts from international
migrants wish to reside as a stage on their journey to organisations, managers employed by foreign firms,
Western Europe. The route taken by these migrants refugees living in camps) do not need work permits.
crosses the country from the south or the east (at After levelling off at around 20 000 per year
the borders with Romania and former Yugoslavia) to between 1993 and 1995, the number of new work
reach Western Europe (through Austria) or south- permits issued in 1996 fell to 14 500, for two princi-
western Europe (through Slovenia), a route that pal reasons: the new restrictions on the employment
makes it possible to reach Germany via Italy. In of foreigners and the growing number of exemptions
1996, some 53 000 foreigners were turned back at from the requirement of a work permit for activities
the border, of whom over 14 000 were deported, involving skilled workers. Nearly 90 per cent of per-
mainly Romanians and nationals of the former mits granted during the first half of 1997 (including
Yugoslavia (see Table II.11). renewals) were for periods of six to twelve months,
The fact that there is an informal economy toler- but these figures vary considerably depending on
ated by the authorities has long made it easy to the nationality; for example, Slovak nationals are
employ undeclared Hungarian workers and undocu- more frequently employed as seasonal workers or
mented migrants. Although the recent measures workers paid on a piecework basis in the textile
taken to prevent the employment of undocumented industry, and over two-thirds of them were granted
migrants have proved relatively ineffective, they permits for less than six months during the period
have had the merit of obliging observers to reflect considered. The majority of foreigners coming to
more carefully on the complexity of the problem. work in Hungary are Romanians, but there are also
Undocumented migrants are mainly employed in nationals of the former USSR, the former Yugoslavia,
the construction and textile sectors and in seasonal Poland and other OECD countries (primarily the
activities in agriculture and, more recently, in house- United States, the United Kingdom and Germany).
hold service jobs. These foreigners provide a more
According to the labour force survey, both the
flexible workforce, while the use of undocumented
proportion of people of working age and the partici-
workers enables employers to keep labour costs
pation rate are higher for foreigners than for Hun-
down and simplify hiring. Lastly, employing highly
garian nationals. Contrary to the commonly held
skilled individuals without a work permit is a fairly
impression, foreign residents tend on average to
common practice, which raises the issue of the com-
work in skilled jobs more frequently than Hungarian
plexity of the legislation in force, even though some
nationals. This is true of temporary residents in par-
think it provides protection for native workers.
ticular, who more often come from developed coun-
More generally, these undocumented foreign tries than do permanent residents.
workers are often ethnic Hungarians who return reg-
ularly to their country of residence. According to
many experts, new forms of temporary employment Policy developments
should be developed rather than limiting the num- By the mid-1980s, migration issues had become
ber of work permits, a strategy which would make a major concern. Today, because of the more restric-
possible the promotion of co-operation with the tive admission policies of Western European coun-
principal countries from which undocumented work- tries and the different level of development of its
ers come. eastern neighbours, Hungary is no longer only a
transit country, but is becoming a host country for
Labour migration many migrants, and especially for ethnic
All foreigners legally entering Hungary for the Hungarians.
purpose of work must have a work permit and a visa During the 1990s, the emergence of social and
(which can be obtained at a consulate abroad). economic problems linked to immigration made it
Access to the labour market is strictly regulated. The necessary to adopt a new legislative framework. Two
120 country’s employment situation may constitute acts were passed in 1993 and 1994, each of which
was based on European legislation. The first of 1841, by the beginning of this century it had fallen to
these dealt with citizenship, and set the minimum about 3.2 million. Thereafter the rate of decline
residence requirement to obtain Hungarian nation- diminished, even though it continued with consider-
ality at eight years. The second concerned the entry able variation until 1961. In the 1990s, the popula-
and settlement of migrants, except for refugees and tion has increased at a moderate pace, to reach just
asylum seekers. The financial requirements for the over 3.6 million in 1997.
settlement of foreigners in the country have become
more stringent. Only foreigners who have resided Figures based on the Annual Population and
legally in Hungary for three years are eligible to Migration estimates and the Census show that emi-
settle in the country and obtain a permanent resi- gration has declined steadily in the 1990s from
dence permit. There are exceptions to this legisla- 56 000 in 1990 to 29 000 in 1997 (see Chart II.10). The
tion for many categories of migrant. In addition, the destinations of these emigrants appear to be broad-
immigration police have been given more extensive ening. Whereas in the late 1980s and early 1990s
powers to monitor the entry and stay of immigrants. roughly 60 per cent of all emigrants went to the
Nevertheless, this legislation stipulates that individ- United Kingdom, in 1992 the proportion began to
uals who are sent back or expelled to another coun- decline and in 1997 was about 44 per cent. The 1997
try should not be to ill treated. figures indicate a further 28 per cent go to the
A new law on asylum was adopted at the end of United States and Europe and 27 per cent to other
1997 and entered into force in March 1998. It defines destinations.
three different kinds of status for asylum seekers: In earlier periods, emigration was a permanent
refugees as defined in the Geneva Convention event for most migrants. As they were mainly
(adopted by Hungary in 1989); war refugees, who are unskilled and could obtain only low-wage employ-
eligible for temporary protection; and ‘‘recognised ment there was little prospect of even a temporary
refugees’’, who are victims of persecution in their return in the short term. The position has changed
home country. greatly over time. Today’s emigrants are better
equipped educationally and can avail themselves of
IRELAND better job opportunities. The facilities afforded by
the speed, convenience and relatively inexpensive
Introduction nature of current air travel mean that emigrants are,
There are currently two main issues with regard for the most part, highly mobile with a tendency to
to migration in Ireland. First, reductions in outflows return to Ireland at fairly frequent intervals, either
and increase in inflows in recent years have resulted for leisure purposes, or for intermittent periods of
in positive and increasing net migration. Second, the work. This greater mobility has contributed to the
small but rapidly increasing number of asylum seek- fact that migrants are now much more responsive to
ers has placed the processing of claims under strain changes in relative economic conditions, a feature
and also caused a certain amount of controversy. which helps to explain some of the volatility evident
in migration flows in recent years.
Many elements of the 1996 Refugee Act have,
so far, not been implemented, including the new
administrative structure proposed for dealing with Immigration
applications for refugee status. The government has
introduced interim measures for processing applica- There are now significant migration inflows to
tions and has also used provisions contained in pre- Ireland. This migration consists mainly of returning
vious legislation in an attempt to stem the inflow of Irish emigrants or their families. However, it also
asylum seekers. includes non-Irish nationals coming to reside in
Ireland, in particular persons coming to work or
study, and their dependants. Data on the age-sex
Emigration distribution of immigrants indeed supports the
Ireland was unique among European countries notion of return migration, the largest group of
in experiencing almost continuous population emigrants are those aged 15-24 (about 60 per cent of
decline through emigration over a long period of the total) whilst the largest group of immigrants are
time (see Chart II.10). The population of what is now aged 25-44 (about 40 per cent of the total) (see
the Republic of Ireland stood at over 6.5 million in Chart II.10). 121
◆ Chart II.10. Trends and characteristics of migration, Ireland
A. Components of population change1 B. Migration flows,2 1987-1997

Intercensal periods Thousands
Thousands
Natural Net Total change

increase migration Emigration Immigration Net migration
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
–20 –20
–40 –40
–60
–60
–80
–80
1987 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 1997
-81 -91 901 -11 -26 -36 -46 -51 -61 -71 -81 -91 -96
71 81 -1 01 11 26 36 46 51 61 71 81 91
18 18 891 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
1
C. Age distribution of migrants,2 1997 D. Net migration and unemployment rate

Percentages 1971-1997
Correlation coefficient = 0.67
Emigrants Immigrants
60 30
20
50
10
Net migration (thousands)
40
0
30 –10
–20
20
–30
10
–40
0 –50
0-14 15-24 25-44 45-64 65 and over 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Unemployment rate (%)
1. Annual average.
2. Data are estimates.
Sources: Commission on Emigration, Reports (1954); Census of population of Ireland 1991, Volume 1, Population classified by area; Census of population of Ireland 1996,
preliminary report; CSO.
Net migration quite closely with labour market conditions. For

example, there is reasonably high negative correla-
The growing number of immigrants and the tion between the volume of net migration and the
decline in the number of emigrants has resulted in unemployment rate in Ireland. Chart II.10 shows the
increasing, and positive net migration to Ireland, relationship between the annual volume of net
with the net inflow in 1997 estimated to be 15 000 migration and the annual unemployment rate in
122 (see Chart II.10). These trends appear to be linked Ireland between 1971 and 1997 and indicates a neg-
ative correlation of 0.67 between the two variables. education and catering activities. People from the
Unlike international migration in many other con- United States, Canada, Pakistan and India receive a
texts, the influence of economic conditions is per- relatively large numbers of permits. The majority are
haps more transparent in Ireland. This is due to the skilled or highly qualified workers who enter
fact that a large proportion of flows are with the the country to fill specific posts. Another significant
United Kingdom, a country with which Ireland main- (but smaller) group consists of the self-employed
tains open borders and shares a fairly high degree of in the catering trade (mainly from Asia) who
historic and cultural links. may also employ unskilled workers of the same
Note that the correlation shown in Chart II.10 is nationalities.
largely illustrative. In more sophisticated models,
the relationship has been shown to be somewhat Refugees and asylum seekers
more complex. Usually, the variables used to suc-
cessfully explain changes in net migration have Ireland has not traditionally received many asy-
been both Irish and UK unemployment rates and lum seekers, however numbers are growing rapidly.
the relationship between Irish and UK average The number of applications for refugee status in
earnings. Ireland was nearly 3 900 in 1997, compared to less
than 40 in 1992. Note that these figures do not cover
‘‘programme’’ refugees, such as several hundred
Foreign population and employment in Ireland Bosnians which the Irish Government agreed to
accept in 1992. One of the reasons suggested for this
In comparison to other European countries the
trend is the rather more open policy approach to
total number of foreign residents in Ireland is rela-
asylum seekers as Ireland adjusted legislation in
tively small. Data based on the annual Labour Force
line with the Dublin Convention. Another possible
Survey for 1996 show that out of the current popula-
tion of 3.5 million, it is estimated that there are reason is the tightening of policy in other EU
some 118 000 foreign nationals, i.e. about 3.2 per member-states, leaving Ireland as a more attractive
cent. This represents a significant increase in the target for asylum applications.
number of foreign residents compared with 1995
when the figure was just over 96 000. The great Policy developments
majority (87 000) are European Union passport-hold-
The 1996 Refugees Act provided a number of
ers (most from the United Kingdom) and about
31 000 are from other countries (of which 13 000 are measures to clarify and codify asylum procedures.
from the United States). However, the only significant part of the Act imple-
mented so far is that which enables Ireland to ratify
Given the relatively small size of the non-Irish the Dublin Convention. The principal reason is that
population, assessment of the labour market charac- the measure requiring the appointment of an Appli-
teristics of this group is difficult. Some estimates are cations Commissioner (who can independently
available from the labour force survey, however assess applications for asylum and make recommen-
these are thought to be heavily influenced by sam- dations to the Minister for Justice) has not been
pling issues and may not accurately reflect the posi- implemented as it has been the subject of a High
tion of the non-Irish population in the labour Court challenge.
market.
In the case of non-EU nationals wishing to take- The rapidly increasing numbers of asylum seek-
up paid employment in Ireland, the prospective ers has resulted in interim action by the Govern-
employer must obtain, in advance, a work permit for ment to stem the inflow of persons seeking refugee
the immigrant from the Department for Enterprise status. In June 1997, the Government also enacted a
and Employment. The number of work permits Statutory Order under the 1935 Aliens Act which
issued or renewed has been rising fairly rapidly, gives immigration officers the right to examine per-
from about 2 500 in 1989 to about 4 200 in 1993, but sons (other than EU citizens) arriving from the
has remained more or less constant since that time United Kingdom for the purpose of determining
(see Table II.13). A high proportion of the permits whether they should be allowed to enter the coun-
(about 80 to 90 per cent) are issued to persons try. This is a significant and controversial step for
employed in the service sector including medicine/ two reasons: i) it runs counter to the spirit of the
nursing, commercial/financial, entertainment/sport, 1996 Refugee Act; and ii) it is the first occasion (apart 123
Table II.13. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Ireland
1993 1994 1995 1996
Immigration by country of origin1 34.7 30.1 31.2 39.2

United Kingdom 17.5 15.2 15.6 17.6
Other European countries 6.6 5.8 6.3 7.2
Emigration by country of destination1 35.1 34.8 33.1 31.2
United Kingdom 16.4 14.8 13.3 14.1
Other European countries 7.3 5.5 5.1 5.1
Net migration1 –0.4 –4.7 –1.9 8.0
Total population by nationality2 3 574.1 3 585.9 3 601.3 3 626.1
Irish nationals .. 3 494.4 3 505.3 3 508.3
Total foreign population .. 91.1 95.5 117.8
of which:
United Kingdom .. 58.2 60.0 71.3
United States .. 9.4 8.2 12.7
Other countries .. 11.3 14.3 18.1
% of foreign population in total population 2.7 2.6 2.7 3.2
Asylum seekers 0.1 0.4 0.4 1.2
Labour market
Work permits issued and renewed 4.2 4.3 4.3 3.8
of which:
India and Pakistan 1.4 1.5 1.4 0.6
United States and Canada 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.9
Employment by nationality2 1 152.0 1 188.0 1 248.0 1 297.0
Irish nationals in employment .. 1 156.6 1 213.3 1 253.2
Foreigners in employment .. 31.2 34.3 43.4
of which:
United Kingdom .. 14.0 21.3 27.6
Other countries .. 9.4 4.7 6.3
Employment to total population ratio
Irish nationals (%) .. 33.1 34.6 35.7
Foreigners (%) .. 34.2 35.9 36.8
United Kingdom (%) .. 24.1 35.5 38.7
Other EU countries (%) .. 41.0 43.8 46.1
United States (%) .. 29.8 31.7 23.6
Other countries (%) .. 83.2 32.9 34.8
Note: Figures for the EU refer to the 12 first members of the Union.
1. Figures are provisional and may be subject to revision when the 1996 Census results are available.
2. Estimated from the annual Labour Force Survey. Fluctuations from year to year may be due to sampling error.
Sources: Central Statistical Office; Labour Force Survey.
from war-time restrictions) that any immigration pro- ITALY

cedures have been applied to persons arriving from
the United Kingdom. The justification given for this Introduction
measure is that many asylum seekers have recently Over the past two years, major changes have
been entering via the United Kingdom and there are been seen in Italy with regard to immigration legis-
serious doubts as to whether many of them are gen- lation, the trend and control of flows and the regu-
124 uine refugees. larisation of undocumented foreigners. Immigration
flows have tended to stabilize. In October 1997 Italy than in the previous year). As foreigners residing
joined the group of European Union member coun- and working legally in Italy may be joined by their
tries which apply the Schengen Agreements. spouses, dependent children and parents, family
reunion was the second-ranking reason after work. In
1996, 18 per cent of all residence permits held by
Migration and the resident foreign population foreigners had been issued for family reunion, as
Slightly over one million foreigners held resi- against 13 per cent in 1990.
dence permits at the end of 1996, or about 1.7 per
cent of the total population (see Table II.14). Only
Naturalisations
15 per cent of them were from European Union
countries. A marked change took place between Some 7 000 individuals acquired Italian nation-
1990 and 1996 in the relative sizes of the various ality in 1996 (over two-thirds were women). The
foreign communities. The number of foreigners from breakdown of naturalised immigrants by country of
Central and Eastern European countries rose by a origin shows that Romanian nationals formed the
factor of six, from 43 000 to 250 000, while the largest group, followed by Swiss, Dominican
increase in the number of Africans was lower, from Republic, Moroccan and Polish nationals. Consider-
238 000 to 315 000. Of the latter, almost two-thirds ing the volume of recent immigration flows from
were from North Africa, with a very large majority of countries outside the European Union, the number
Moroccans, whose numbers will probably increase of naturalisations can be expected to decline owing
when all those whose situation was regularised in to the provisions of the new Nationality Act of 1993,
1996 appear in the Ministry of the Interior’s since it has raised from five to ten years, the resi-
statistics. dence requirement before which non-European
The recent arrivals of Albanian nationals Union nationals may apply for naturalisation.
(around 17 000 between March and August 1997)
confirm the trend of the increasing size of this new Asylum seekers
community. In all, almost 65 000 Albanians were res-
ident in Italy in 1996. The number of residents from In 1991, there were some 30 000 asylum seekers
the former Yugoslavia and Turkey has also risen over (including 18 000 Albanians). Asylum applications
the last five years. then fell significantly, to about 6 000 in 1992 and to
almost ten times fewer in 1996. However, owing to
The immigrants, who are unevenly distributed
the deterioration in Albania’s economic and finan-
over the country, are heavily concentrated in
cial situation and the recent arrival of Kurds (of
northern and central Italy where the major manufac-
Turkish or Iraqi nationality), the Italian authorities
turing and urban centres are located. Milan and
granted political asylum or protection on humanita-
Rome are the immigrants’ two principal centres of
rian grounds to a greater number of asylum seekers
residence, with Turin far behind in third position.
in 1997.
The breakdown of foreign residents by gender
shows that the number of women varies greatly from
one country of origin to another. Most immigrants Foreign workers and the labour market
from Morocco, Tunisia, Senegal and Egypt are men, According to Ministry of the Interior data, based
while women predominate among immigrants from on residence permits held by foreigners, the num-
the Central and Eastern European countries. Lastly, ber of foreign workers (dependent and self-
the overwhelming majority of immigrants from the employed, including the unemployed) was approxi-
Philippines and Cape Verde are women. So far, mately 700 000 in 1996, or 27 per cent more than in
immigrants have usually been single, although the previous year. Foreigners from outside the Euro-
recent trends seem to show a marked increase in pean Union are usually employed in unskilled jobs
the number of residence permits granted for family mostly involving hard manual work. In northern and
reunion. central Italy, immigrants mainly work in small and
By using the data available on residence permit medium-sized industrial firms, in the building trade
holders, immigrants can be classified on the basis of and in the tertiary sector (transport, cleaning ser-
the reasons why permits were issued. In 1996, work vices, hotels and catering). In the South they are
was the main reason for the presence of immigrants employed mainly in agriculture, the service sector
in Italy (over 60 per cent of cases, or 10 points more and as attendants for the elderly and sick. 125
Table II.14. Current figures on foreign population, Italy

1993 1994 1995 1996
Foreigners who hold a permit of residence1 987.4 922.7 991.4 1 095.6

By group of nationality
Europe 363.9 367.2 404.3 426.0
Africa 287.6 259.6 265.0 314.9
Asia 172.5 150.4 164.2 195.5
America 157.4 140.4 152.5 154.8
Other 5.9 5.1 5.4 4.4
By reason for presence
Employment2 506.9 516.7 544.2 685.4
Family reunification 152.6 164.5 185.2 204.4
Studies 65.4 55.5 61.8 45.7
Religion 52.3 53.5 57.4 54.9
Tourism (long-term) 64.4 39.7 48.6 30.0
Retirees 46.2 43.3 44.0 43.1
Asylum seekers/refugees 13.4 10.3 10.4 3.9
Other and not specified 86.1 39.2 39.8 28.4
By region of residence
North 475.9 473.3 507.6 552.2
Central 343.6 284.2 320.2 412.7
South 167.9 165.2 163.6 209.4
Acquisition of Italian nationality 6.5 6.6 7.4 7.0
Characteristics of non-EU foreigners who newly obtained
a work permit 85.0 99.8 111.3 129.2
Level of education (%)
No diploma 76.2 76.3 76.7 78.3
Primary level 19.7 20.3 19.6 18.2
Secondary level 3.4 2.9 3.1 2.9
University 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.5
Sector of activity (%)
Agriculture 19.9 21.6 18.5 21.9
Manufacturing 36.0 38.4 44.0 44.2
Domestic work 14.8 13.1 9.3 5.4
Other 29.3 26.9 28.2 28.5
Stocks of foreign employment3 304.8 307.1 332.2 ..
Characteristics of registered foreign unemployed
(excluding EU citizens) 76.3 86.9 98.4 146.9
Length of registration (%)
Less than 3 months 42.0 36.5 34.6 35.9
3 months to 1 year 34.4 34.3 34.6 35.4
More than 1 year 23.6 29.1 30.8 28.8
Age groups (%)
Less than 18 1.6 1.9 1.6 1.5
19-24 17.1 15.2 14.2 15.0
25-29 29.0 27.4 25.4 24.6
30 and over 52.3 55.5 58.8 58.9
Mixed marriages 10.0 11.0 .. ..
Legal action taken against foreigners
Foreigners for whom a penal action has been undertaken 54.2 54.3 54.4 69.0
Foreigners under arrest 22.3 22.4 21.6 23.6
Foreigners who are to be expelled 45.9 56.6 56.0 34.5
Expelled foreigners 5.4 6.1 7.4 5.1
1. Data are from population registers and refer to the population on 31 December of the years indicated. Children under 18 who are registered on their
parents’ permit are not counted. The decrease observed for 1994 is a result of a clean-up of the register of foreigners: duplicate entries and entries of
persons who had returned to their country of origin were removed.
2. Including self-employed and unemployed.
3. Number of non-EU foreigners who hold a work permit. Excluding unemployed with a residence permit who are registered in local employment Offices.
Sources: Ministry of the Interior; ISTAT.
126
As regards seasonal employment in agriculture, Table II.15. Regularisation requests of immigrants

the number of non-EU seasonal workers rose in an irregular situation, three last regularisation
programmes, by region of residence, Italy
between 1994 and 1995 by over 40 per cent, from
Thousands
6 400 to 11 000. This increase was accompanied by a
slight drop in the number of Italian seasonal work- 1986 1990 1997
ers. In 1996, around 9 000 work permits were issued North 47.2 89.2 115.3
to foreign seasonal workers in this sector. Centre 37.8 75.9 75.8
South 19.0 30.6 48.2
In 1995, the Ministry of Labour conducted a Islands 14.4 39.1 19.4
country-wide survey covering 29 000 enterprises
Total 118.3 234.8 258.8
which employed some 740 000 workers, 2.2 per cent
of whom were non-EU foreign workers. About 37 per Sources: Ministry of Labour; Ministry of the Interior.
cent of them were undocumented (the percentage
varying according to the sector of activity and the
region). A third of these undocumented workers did
not hold a valid residence permit. The others were legitimate (see Table II.15). At that date the number
in an irregular situation for reasons connected with of applicants for regularisation was equivalent to
undeclared employment, which is not limited to for- over 20 per cent of all foreigners already in posses-
eign workers, since it is estimated that over 10 mil- sion of a legal residence permit.
lion Italian workers are undeclared.
To qualify for this programme, applicants had to
The number of non-EU foreigners registered
be able to prove that they had worked for at least
with unemployment offices as of 31 December 1996
four of the previous twelve months or had a relative
was 147 000, considerably more than in the previous
they wished to join who had lived in Italy for over
year (98 500). Almost two-thirds of the unemployed
two years and had sufficient means to support and
were looking for their first job. Most of them (75 per
accommodate them. Self-employed workers were
cent) were unskilled workers. The majority of the
excluded from the programme. According to prelimi-
unemployed (70 per cent) had been looking for a
nary data, it appears that virtually all applications
job for less than a year.
are work-related. The largest number of applicants
for regularisation are, in descending order, Moroc-
Policy developments cans, Albanians, Filipinos and Chinese. In most
cases they are immigrants who had previously held
Flow control and regulation
a residence and work permit which had not been
According to available information, it would renewed: this points to the endogenous nature of
appear that illegal immigration in Italy in the recent undocumented migration in Italy.
past is due more to endogenous than exogenous
reasons, since the authorities, in particular the
police, have imposed tighter border controls since New legislation on entry and residence by
1991. The number of personnel assigned to border foreigners
control has increased considerably and the army A new Act regulating entry and residence of
and navy have been more actively involved. In addi- foreigners was adopted in Italy in early 1998. It
tion, a number of illegal immigration channels reaffirms that basic human rights also apply to for-
organised and run by foreigners and Italians have eigners, whatever their legal situation. With regard
been dismantled. In the past three years, the num- to immigration flows, this Act provides for an active
ber of arrests and deportations of foreigners has and concerted policy at both national and regional
risen steadily. This has mainly concerned Tunisians, levels, including the co-operation of the employers’
Moroccans, nationals of the former Yugoslavia, and employees’ organisations. Quotas for foreigners
Algerians and Albanians. eligible for entry into Italy will be fixed, for work,
At the end of 1995 the Italian Government family reunion and temporary asylum for humanita-
issued a decree providing for a third regularisation rian reasons. The Act specifies the papers required
programme for foreigners in irregular situations (this and the means of subsistence that must be availa-
followed those of 1986 and 1990). Between Nov- ble to a foreigner during his stay in Italy. It also
ember 1995 and 15 January 1997, some 260 000 provides for the issue of a permanent residence
applications were filed with around 230 000 deemed permit to foreigners who have resided in the country 127
for over five years and who meet certain other tance, literacy programmes). The main obstacle to
requirements. Spouses and under-age children also the integration of immigrants is the growth of the
benefit from this provision. Holders of this resi- underground economy, which encourages them to
dence permit may take part in local community remain in an irregular situation and to accept very
affairs and are entitled to vote in local elections. poor living and working conditions.
The sections of this new Act dealing with
undocumented immigration focus on the arrange- JAPAN
ments for rapidly deporting illegal migrants, turning
them back or escorting them to the border. The Introduction
penalties for those who facilitate the illegal entry The recovery of the Japanese economy which
and exploitation of foreigners have been increased. started in the middle of 1995 was not yet in full
The same applies to the exploitation of foreign swing when it lost its momentum in 1997. Unemploy-
minors and to the recruitment of foreigners for pros- ment remains relatively high by Japanese standards.
titution. The employment regulations stipulate that Due to the slow pace of economic recovery and to
preferential quotas limited to the nationals of the mounting efforts to combat illegal immigration, for-
States with which Italy has concluded agreements on eign labour inflows have been stable over the last
regulating entry flows or on re-admission proce- three years. However, the inflow of South Americans
dures will be defined by annual decrees. The regu- of Japanese descent (Nikkeijin) continues to increase.
lations governing the recruitment, accommodation
and remuneration of foreign workers have also been
tightened. The penalties for employers using foreign Inflow of foreign nationals
workers who are in an irregular situation have also Entries of foreign nationals, excluding tempo-
been increased. rary visitors and persons entering Japan with re-
Seasonal employment is reserved mainly for entry permits, rose by 7 per cent in 1996 to total
workers who have respected the time limits of their 225 000 (see Table II.16). The 12 per cent decrease
previous seasonal permits (from twenty days to six in the total in 1995 was due largely to an over 50 per
months and, in exceptional cases, nine months) by cent fall in the number of those entering under the
returning to their country when their contract has status of entertainer. The slight rebound in their
ended. There is also a provision for converting sea- numbers in 1996 (an almost 4 000 increase), coupled
sonal work permits into fixed or indefinite-term per- with a steady increase in the number of those enter-
mits, subject to certain conditions. Seasonal working under the category of spouse or child of a Japa-
ers’ rights to social security benefits have also been nese national (mostly Nikkeijin) and the slight growth
reaffirmed. Lastly, family reunion has an important in the number of trainees largely account for this
place in this new legislation: any foreigner applying overall increase.
for family reunion will have to prove that he has
sufficient means to support and accommodate the Foreign population
members of his family.
The number of foreign nationals registered
under the Alien Registration Law increased again in
Active policy for the integration of immigrants
1996. In 1995, the rise was just sufficient to keep
An active policy for the integration of immi- their share of the total population stable. In 1996,
grants is being implemented by local authorities; the 53 000 rise brought the proportion up to 1.1 per
they received the necessary powers and funds from cent. Despite some increase in absolute terms, the
the government under an Act passed in 1990. Most proportion of nationals from other Asian countries
of the activities at municipal level are run by an keeps declining with the continually rising inflow
office which is responsible for the initial reception of from South America. This trend is expected to con-
immigrants and for providing them with guidance on tinue given that Brazil and Peru together contain an
how to obtain access to public and private services. estimated potential pool of approximately 1.4 mil-
Action, guidance and training programmes have lion Nikkeijin. Permanent and long-term residents
made government employees more aware of issues combined make up three-quarters of the foreign
concerning the integration of immigrants. Many non- population. The number of permanent residents has
governmental organisations are engaged in urban continually registered an almost negligible decrease
128 activities (accommodation, health care, legal assis- over recent years. This decrease is due mainly to
Table II.16. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Japan
Thousands
1993 1994 1995 1996
Inflows of foreign nationals1 234.4 237.5 209.8 225.4

of which: Workers 97.1 111.7 81.5 78.6
Stock of total population2 124 764 125 034 125 568 125 864
Stock of foreign nationals3 1 320.7 1 354.0 1 362.4 1 415.1
By country of origin
Korea 682.3 676.8 666.4 657.2
China (including Chinese Taipei) 210.1 218.6 223.0 234.3
Brazil 154.7 159.6 176.4 201.8
Philippines 73.1 86.0 74.3 84.5
United States 42.6 43.3 43.2 44.2
Other 157.9 169.7 179.1 193.1
By status of residence
Permanent residents4 631.8 631.5 626.6 626.0
Long-term residents 359.2 375.4 402.3 438.2
of which:
Spouse or child of Japanese national 222.4 231.6 244.4 258.8
Spouse or child of permanent resident 7.4 7.0 6.8 6.5
Other 129.5 136.8 151.1 172.9
Foreign workers with permission of employment 95.4 105.6 88.0 98.3
Other (accompanying family, student, trainee, etc.) 234.3 241.5 245.5 252.6
Naturalisations 10.5 11.1 14.1 14.5
of which:
Korea 7.7 8.2 10.3 9.9
China 2.2 2.5 3.2 4.0
Illegal immigrant statistics
Estimates of illegal residents5 296.8 288.1 284.7 283.0
Number of foreign nationals deported 70.4 65.6 55.5 54.3
Foreign employment, by status of residence6 95.4 105.6 88.0 98.3
Specialist in humanities and international services 23.5 24.8 25.1 27.4
Entertainers 28.5 34.8 16.0 20.1
Engineers 9.9 10.1 9.9 11.1
Skilled labour 5.9 6.8 7.4 8.8
Instructors 6.2 6.8 7.2 7.5
Other 21.4 22.3 22.4 23.5
1. Excluding temporary visitors and re-entries.

2. Registered population as of 1 October of the years indicated.
3. Data are based on registered foreign nationals as of 31 December of the years indicated. The figures cover foreigners staying in Japan for more than
90 days.
4. Essentially Korean nationals. A ‘‘special permanent residents’’ category was introduced in 1992. It includes Koreans and Taiwanese nationals who lost their
Japanese nationality as a consequence of the Peace Treaty of 1952 but who had continued to reside permanently in Japan.
5. Estimates of overstayers in November of each year (except for 1996: 31 December 1996). Most of them are thought to be working illegally.
6. Permanent residents, spouses or children of Japanese nationals, spouse or children of permanent residents and long-term residents have no restriction
imposed to the kind of activities they can engage in Japan and are excluded from these data.
Source: Ministry of Justice.
naturalisations, mostly of Koreans and Chinese, Justice at approximately 630 000 in 1996. The pro-
holders, since 1992, of special permanent resident portion of foreign workers to the total labour force in
status. Japan (0.9 per cent) has not changed since 1992. The
Nikkeijin account for one-third of the foreign labour in
Japan (including workers in an irregular situation,
Foreign workers in Japan
see Table II.17).
The foreign labour force in Japan, excluding
trainees in the public and private sectors (who num- According to the results of the Reporting Sys-
ber 14 000 and 31 500 respectively), was estimated tem on the Employment of Foreigners under the
by the Ministries of Labour, of Foreign Affairs and of direction of the Ministry of Labour, of those foreign 129
Table II.17. Estimates of foreign workers in Japan Organisation (JITCO), regular trainees, who pass cer-
by status of residence, 1996 tain skill tests after a period of training, can become
Thousands technical intern trainees, change their status of resi-
Status of residence dence and be treated equally with Japanese in
terms of laws such as labour standard law, minimum
Foreign workers with permission of employment
by category wage law, and other labour-related laws. As of
Specialist in humanities or international services 27.4 March 1997, over 12 000 trainees had applied for the
Entertainer 20.1 programme, of whom almost 11 000 had been
Engineer 11.1
Skilled labour 8.8 accepted. The government has expanded the range
Instructor 7.5 of the skill test categories from 19 at the beginning
Intra-company transferee 5.9 of the TITP to 53; in so doing it has effectively
Investor and business manager 5.0
Religious activities 5.0 relaxed the eligibility criteria.
Professor 4.6
Researcher 2.0
Journalist 0.5 Illegal immigration
Artist 0.3
Medical services 0.1 In parallel with the number of foreign nationals
Legal and accounting services 0.1 deported, the estimated number of illegal workers
Total 98.3 has decreased to 283 000 from its peak in 1993 (see
Estimates of students engaged in part time jobs 20.0 Table II.16). Of the 54 270 who were deported after
Estimates of Japanese descents engaged in gainful having been caught violating immigration laws and
activities1 211.2 regulations, almost 90 per cent were found to have
Illegal workers2 300.0 been working illegally. Interestingly, the gap
between illegal male and female workers continues
Total 629.4
to narrow as the number of illegal female workers
1. Estimates made by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. increases while the number of illegal male workers
2. Estimates made by the Ministry of Justice on the basis of the number of
overstayers. decreases. The measures taken to combat illegal
Sources: Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Ministry of Justice. immigration appear to be fruitful. However, the
number of attempts to smuggle aliens by boat from
neighbouring countries such as China has registered
a rapid rise over recent years. The number of aliens
workers (not including students, part-time workers, caught attempting to enter Japan in this manner
trainees, and seasonal workers) who were registered over the period December 1996 to May 1997 was
by their employers as of 1 June 1996, almost two- over 1 200.
thirds were employed by the manufacturing sector
and 20 per cent by the service sector. It was found Policy developments
that 80 per cent of foreign workers employed in the
manufacturing sector were Nikkeijin. A number of changes in laws and policies on
migration have been implemented. The most impor-
tant change took place in May 1997 by amending the
Trainee scheme and Technical Internship Immigration Control Act to cope with the rapid
Training Program increase in the smuggling of aliens, mostly potential
In 1996, the number of entries of foreigners illegal workers. The amendments provide for the
under the trainee status of residence rose to 45 500, imposition of severe penalties against those
a 12 per cent increase on 1995. Asians accounted for organising or abetting the activity. The co-operation
more than 80 per cent of the total of whom the of the Immigration Bureau with the police and the
largest number came from China. The Technical Maritime Safety Agency has also been strengthened.
Internship Training Programme (TITP), an extension Under a new guideline issued by the Immigra-
of the general trainee scheme, was introduced in tion Bureau, foreign nationals can enter and stay in
1993 with the aim of transferring more effectively Japan under the status of ‘‘long term resident’’ in
technology and skills to developing countries via order to support the children, legitimate or illegiti-
international co-operation for human resource mate, of Japanese nationals. Furthermore, the maxi-
development. Under the TITP program, supervised mum period of stay for the Technical Intern Trainees
130 by the Japan International Training Co-operation has been extended from two years to three. This
decision was made partly in response to a number tity. China, for example, has facilitated the retention
of requests from companies seeking to enhance the of ethnic Koreans’ cultural identity by the establish-
skill level of their trainees and therefore desirous of ment of the Korean Autonomous Prefecture (total
the opportunity to offset the increased training cost population, 218 000) under the Regulations on the
by a prolonged period of work experience. In addi- Autonomy of Minority Areas enacted in 1952 and by
tion, the July 1997 decision of the Immigration the operation of a pluralistic minority policy. On the
Bureau made it possible for graduates of certain other hand, it is estimated that only around 10 per
vocational and technical training colleges to change cent of those of Korean descent in Central Asia and
their status of residence from ‘‘student’’ to other Russia use the Korean language. The proportion is
statuses of residence which would allow them to likely to be similar in Japan.
work legally. Finally, a variety of social integration
programs for foreign workers and their families have
been reinforced and developed. These include the Labour emigration
establishment of Employment Service Centres for
The chief characteristic of labour migration from
foreign workers as well the provision of education
its earliest stages through to the 1980s was the
for the children of foreign nationals’ on equal terms
government’s active involvement. Labour emigra-
as native Japanese.
tion began in 1963 when 247 workers were sent to
West Germany under an agreement between the
two governments. Shortly afterwards a special insti-
KOREA tution was established to promote manpower
exports. During the 1970s and 1980s, almost 2 mil-
Historical background lion Korean workers were dispatched overseas for
temporary employment of whom over 60 per cent,
Large scale emigration of Koreans to China and
Russia started in the 1880s. The emigrants were typically construction workers, went to the Middle
predominantly poverty-stricken farmers living in the East.
northern provinces (now in North Korea). The vast
majority moved to the border area in the north- With the slowdown of the economies of the
eastern China, to Siberia and to the far eastern part Middle East, however, Korean labour emigration
of Russia. A major outflow of Korean migrants to declined substantially. In 1990, only 56 000 Korean
Japan, mostly involuntarily, occurred in the years workers went abroad, over 80 per cent of whom were
following Korea’s formal annexation by Japan in 1910 seamen. This is a 70 per cent decline compared with
having come under effective Japanese control in the 1982 figure, the peak year of Korean labour emi-
1905. Further movements followed the 1919 uprising gration. The downward trend has continued accom-
against Japanese rule. In 1937, an estimated panying the strong growth in Korean real wages;
175 000 Korean immigrants in the far eastern part of over the past ten years average real wages in Korea
Russia were forcibly displaced to Central Asia (now have risen by just over 100 per cent.
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan) by the
Soviet government. During the Second World War, Foreign population in Korea
tens of thousands of Koreans, mostly older males,
were sent to work in Japan under the 1944 Japanese The rate of growth in the number of foreign
Labour Conscription Act; Korean males of military nationals, staying more than 90 days and registered
age were conscripted into the Japanese army. as required under the law, having remained low
According to an unofficial estimate, the Korean pop- through to 1991 has since increased substantially
ulation in Japan in 1945 was close to 2 million; over (see Table II.18). Registered foreign nationals now
half returned to Korea at the end of the war. number almost 150 000, though still account for less
At present, an estimated 2 million ethnic Kore- than half of one per cent of the population. The
ans live in China, 500 000 in Central Asia, nearly as recent increases are attributable to the 1992 normal-
many in Russia, and 666 000 in Japan. Due largely to isation of diplomatic relations with China which led
the policies (most importantly those concerning both to substantial increases in the number of train-
education) of the respective governments, ethnic ees entering from neighbouring countries and to
Koreans in China, Russia, Central Asia and Japan substantial inflows from China of Chinese and of
display varying degrees of ethnic and cultural iden- ethnic Koreans. 131
Table II.18. Stock of foreign population in Korea Table II.19. Foreign workers in Korea by category,
by nationality, 1986, 1994-1996 1993-1996
Thousands Thousands
of which: 1993 1994 1995 1996

Women
1986 1994 1995 1996
Skilled workers 3.8 5.3 8.2 13.4
1994 1995 1996 Trainees 8.6 28.3 38.8 68.0
Estimates of the number
China – 11.3 19.2 26.7 4.3 8.4 11.3 of overstayers 54.5 48.2 81.9 129.1
United States 8.4 19.6 22.2 26.4 9.3 10.4 12.2
Chinese Taipei 24.8 23.3 23.3 23.3 10.7 10.7 10.7 Total 66.9 81.8 128.9 210.5
Japan 3.0 8.4 9.4 12.4 4.7 5.1 7.6
Philippines 0.2 5.7 9.0 10.8 2.1 3.7 4.3 Source: Ministry of Justice.
Vietnam – 2.7 5.7 10.3 0.9 2.5 3.6
Indonesia – 1.6 3.4 9.6 0.4 0.9 1.9
China (Chinese
with Korean
descents) – 4.7 7.4 9.3 1.4 2.8 3.4 formal education and an heightened disinclination
Bangladesh – 1.3 2.7 6.3 – – –
Canada 0.4 1.2 3.0 3.7 0.6 0.9 1.8 to take-up so-called 3 D (Dangerous, Difficult and
Sri Lanka – 1.2 1.7 2.9 0.6 0.8 1.0 Dirty) jobs, the shortages have since intensified, in
Other 4.8 4.0 3.2 7.0 1.5 0.8 2.0 particular, among small and medium sized compa-
Total 41.6 84.9 110.0 148.7 36.3 47.0 59.7 nies in the manufacturing sector. Companies
Note: Foreign nationals staying more than 90 days and registered as
suffering from labour shortages typically lack the
required under the law. financial resources necessary to invest in automated
Source: Ministry of Justice.
production lines or to relocate their production
bases overseas and thereby take advantage of
cheaper labour.
Skilled foreign workers Foreign workers in an irregular situation

In principle, all legal foreign workers in Korea Accompanying the intensification of labour
are skilled since the government does not allow the shortages, the number of foreign workers in an irreg-
entry of unskilled workers. Having grown steadily ular situation has been growing. The vast majority
through to 1994 their inflow has since grown rapidly. have entered Korea on a short-term visa (typically
At just over 13 000 in 1996, however, their stock as a tourist or as a foreign national of Korean
remains negligible relative to the total foreign descent visiting relatives) and overstayed filling the
labour force (see Table II.19). Under the Immigration unwanted unskilled jobs. According to the immigra-
and Emigration Law, skilled foreign workers are per- tion authorities, the number of overstayers (most of
mitted to work under the following categories of whom are expected to be working illegally)
employment: technology transfer, professional activ- increased threefold between 1991 and 1996 to reach
ities, foreign-language teaching, research and almost 130 000. By country of origin, China accounts
entertainment. Employment in additional categories for the largest share at almost 40 per cent. Due to
requires the specific approval of the government. their physical similarity to Koreans, once on Korean
Language teachers are numerically the most impor- territory they are more difficult to detect than other
tant accounting for approximately 55 per cent of the foreigners, so permitting them a wider choice of
total. Their numbers increased by over three occupations. In addition, approximately 30 per cent
quarters to reach almost 7 500 in 1996. Those under of the trainees admitted under the Industrial and
the entertainment category, the second largest num- Technical Training Programme (ITTP) have deserted
ber, increased by only slightly less. their workplace to join their ranks. The increasing
number of illegal foreign workers is a source of con-
siderable public concern. In order to cope with the
Labour shortages
rapid increase in the number of illegal foreign work-
In the mid 1980s, coinciding with the attainment ers, the government has rendered more severe the
of near full-employment, Korea began to experience system of penalties against the illegal workers and
acute shortages of labour in certain industries. As a their employers. The sanctions vary according to the
result most notably of the rapid ageing of the popu- period of overstay. The costs of repatriating illegal
132 lation, an increase in the length of time spent in workers are borne by their employers.
Trainee scheme which trainees can be employed as legal workers

upon completion of a certain period of training. Con-
At the end of 1996 there were about
cerning skilled foreign workers, in order to stimulate
68 000 trainees, the majority working in small and
foreign investment in Korea the government has
medium sized manufacturing companies (see
revised the Immigration and Emigration Law to abol-
Table II.19). Prior to a revision in 1992 which estab-
ish the ceiling on their period of stay and has simpli-
lished the ITTP for the labour-shortage suffering
fied the administrative procedures governing the
manufacturing companies, the purpose of the
issuing of their visas.
trainee programme was to upgrade the skills of for-
eign workers employed by the overseas subsidiaries
of Korean firms. Initially, trainees admitted under LUXEMBOURG
the ITTP could stay for up to one year. The maximum
period of stay has since been extended twice, in Introduction
late 1993 and in 1996, to bring the period up to Since the end of the nineteenth century, the
three years. Over 90 per cent of the trainees admit- proportion of foreigners in the population of
ted do so under the ITTP which is organised by the Luxembourg has steadily increased. Foreigners
Korea Federation of Small Business (KFSB) which is accounted for barely 3 per cent of the population in
also charged with distributing the trainee quotas. A 1875, 10 per cent at the end of the Second World
small number are admitted through the Korea Fish- War and slightly over 34 per cent at 1 January 1997
ery Federation. The remainder are selected by the (out of a total population of 418 300). Luxembourg is
overseas subsidiaries of Korean firms. the OECD country with the highest proportion of
foreigners in its population. Because of its growing
Social protection for foreign workers in Korea importance as a financial and banking centre, the
fact that insurance companies and large media
Under the Constitution, legally registered for-
groups are based there and the presence of interna-
eign workers are entitled to the same social protec-
tional organisations, Luxembourg attracts large num-
tion rights as nationals. As trainees are admitted
bers of skilled individuals.
under the status of ‘‘student’’ they do not benefit
from the same degree of protection. They are pro-
tected, however, by eight selected articles of the Migration flows and the resident foreign
Labour Standard Law, the Industrial Safety Law and population
the Minimum Wage Law and are covered by state
medical insurance. Since 1994, they have been eligi- Since 1990, the annual flow of foreigners has
ble, moreover, as are illegal workers, to state-run averaged some 10 000 arrivals and 6 000 departures.
industrial accident insurance coverage on equal Net migration is positive for all nationalities. Most of
terms with nationals under the Industrial Accident the new immigrants come from European Union
Compensation and Insurance Act. countries (see Table II.20). The Portuguese still
account for the largest number of new arrivals.
Although net migration by the Portuguese fell by
Policy developments some 30 per cent in 1994 in comparison with the
A lack of consensus within the country has had previous year, it increased slightly in 1995.
the effect of limiting the government’s scope to for- Based on the initial estimates available, the for-
mulate a coherent policy concerning the immigra- eign resident population at 1 January 1997
tion of unskilled foreign workers. Despite the no amounted to nearly 143 000. The largest group was
entry principle adopted towards unskilled foreign the Portuguese, followed by Italians, French, Belgi-
workers, many have had their status regularised ans and Germans (see Table II.20). Over the years,
under a series of amnesties introduced by the gov- the structure of the resident foreign population by
ernment from June 1992 onwards. The initial six nationality has changed. Between the end of the
month amnesty has since been renewed three Second World War and the end of the 1970s, the
times. Social protection policies have been devel- Italians constituted the largest foreign group. They
oped for trainees and illegal foreign workers. In were subsequently overtaken by the Portuguese,
1997, after a great deal of nation-wide debate con- whose numbers increased steadily during the 1980s
cerning the possible introduction of a work permit to reach 53 100 at 1 January 1997, that is to say
system, a small revision was made to the ITTP under 37 per cent of the total foreign population. 133
134
Table II.20. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Luxembourg
1993 1994 1995 1996 1993 1994 1995 1996
Components of total population change Inflows of foreign workers3 15.4 16.2 16.5 18.3
Natural increase 1.4 1.7 1.6 1.8 of which: Women 5.6 5.7 5.9 6.7
of which: Foreigners 1.5 1.7 .. .. Inflows by region or country of origin
Net migration 4.2 4.0 4.6 3.7 EU 13.9 14.7 15.5 17.2
of which: Foreigners 4.2 3.9 4.7 .. of which:
Population on 31 December of the years indicated 400.9 406.6 412.8 418.3 France 5.4 6.0 6.7 8.1
of which: Foreigners 127.6 132.5 138.1 142.8 Germany 2.6 2.5 2.2 2.5
Portugal 2.5 2.2 2.2 2.1
Migration flows by country of origin/destination Belgium 2.1 2.5 2.6 2.9
Inflows 10.1 10.1 10.3 10.0 Italy 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6
Portugal 2.9 2.4 2.4 2.0 Other countries 1.4 1.5 1.0 1.1
France 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.5 Inflows by major industry division
Belgium 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.1 Agriculture, forestry 0.2 0.2 0.2 ..
Germany 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.7 Extractive and manufacturing industries 1.1 1.1 1.3 ..
Other countries 4.5 4.8 4.9 4.7 Building 2.1 1.6 1.8 ..
Net migration 2.6 2.8 2.6 3.7 Trade, banks, insurances 6.2 7.5 7.4 ..
Portugal 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.7 Transport, communications 0.9 1.0 1.1 ..
France 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6 Hotels 2.3 1.9 1.9 ..
Belgium 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.6 Personal services 0.3 0.3 0.3 ..
Germany 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Other services 2.2 2.4 2.5 ..
Other countries 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.6 Inflows by status of residence
Resident workers 5.7 5.5 5.7 ..
Foreign population by main nationality1 127.6 132.5 138.1 142.8 Cross-border workers 9.6 10.7 10.7 ..
Portugal 47.1 49.4 51.5 53.1
Italy 19.7 19.7 19.8 19.8 Stock of workers (excluding unemployed)
France 13.8 14.3 15.0 15.7 Total employment (including nationals)4 203.2 208.3 213.5 219.0
Belgium 10.9 11.3 11.8 12.4 Breakdown by nationality (%)5
Germany 9.2 9.5 9.7 9.9 Luxembourgers 48.0 46.0 44.0 46.2
Spain 2.7 2.7 2.8 .. Resident and cross-border foreigners 52.0 54.0 56.0 53.8
Stock of cross-border workers by nationality4 47.3 51.3 55.8 57.8
Acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality2 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 France (% of total cross-borders) 50.7 51.0 .. ..
Italy 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Belgium (% of total cross-borders) 31.1 30.5 .. ..
France 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Germany (% of total cross-borders) 18.2 18.5 .. ..
Germany 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Belgium 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Job-seekers (national definition) 3.5 4.6 5.1 6.4
Other countries 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 of which: Foreigners (% of total job seekers) 51.1 53.6 54.3 57.7

% of total marriages 22.2 23.2 26.8 24.4
2. Children acquiring nationality as a consequence of the naturalisation of their parents are excluded.
3. Data cover arrivals of foreign workers to Luxembourg and foreign residents entering the labour market for the first time.
4. Annual average. The data for 1995 and 1996 are provisional.
5. Data as of 31 March of each year.
Sources: STATEC; Inspection générale de la Sécurité sociale (IGSS); Administration de l’emploi.
Over the last twenty years, the difference in Yugoslavia had registered. Many of these refugees
fertility rate between Luxembourg women and for- were able to obtain an extension of their residence
eigners has all but disappeared. In 1970, the fertility permit and a foreigners’ identity card (there were
index was 1.9 for nationals and 2.4 for foreigners, 1 274 such refugees at the end of September 1996).
while in 1994, the figures were 1.7 for nationals and
1.8 for foreigners. Since 1990, the proportion of Employment of foreigners
mixed marriages has increased, from 22 to 24 per
cent in 1996; this relative increase is essentially due On 1 January 1993, the transitional provisions
to marriages between Luxembourg men and foreign regarding the free movement of persons, following
women. the accession of Spain and Portugal to the European
Community, ceased to apply. As a result, nationals
of these two countries are free to visit and establish
Naturalisations themselves in Luxembourg. Migration for employ-
The number of naturalisations (779 in 1996) rose ment purposes essentially concerns European
considerably at the end of the 1980s, a temporary Union nationals – mainly Portuguese but also cross-
phenomenon due in part to changes to the relevant border workers from the three neighbouring
legislation (Act of 11 December 1986 lowering the countries (France, Belgium and Germany). The for-
required age to 18). In theory, some 50 000 foreign eign workforce amounted to 118 000 persons in
residents meet the criteria required for naturalisa- September 1996, including both resident and cross-
tion or an option to it but do not apply for border workers. Some 113 000 of these were wage-
Luxembourg nationality. This is largely because earners, representing more than half of all such
90 per cent of the resident foreign population is workers, which gives a good indication of the vital
composed of EU nationals. They have little to gain importance of foreign labour for Luxembourg’s econ-
from acquiring Luxembourg nationality unless for omy and labour market. The slowdown in economic
political reasons or with a view to applying for a post growth and the increase in unemployment since
in the Luxembourg civil service. Moreover, 1991 have not yet led to a fall in the numbers of
Luxembourg does not allow double nationality foreign and cross-border workers.
which means that applicants have to give up their New hirings of foreign workers reached a little
previous nationality. over 18 000 in 1996 (see Table II.20). The majority of
foreigners in employment were blue collar and
office workers in the private sector. The main sector
for the employment of foreigners was commerce,
Until 1987, most asylum seekers in Luxembourg and to a much lesser extent construction and the
were part of quotas accepted by the government hotel industry. The foreign active population is
under international refugee resettlement pro- younger, on average, than that of the Luxembourg
grammes. Thus, refugees from Chile were accepted one. For Portuguese workers, the discrepancy is
in 1974, followed, between 1977 and 1980, by three greater still; in the last census, taken in 1991, over
contingents from Vietnam and Cambodia. Between 70 per cent were between the ages of 15 and 39,
1982 and 1987, three further contingents were compared with only 60 per cent of workers of
accepted: from Poland in 1982, Iran in 1986, and Luxembourg nationality.
Vietnam in 1987. Since the beginning of the 1970s, the number of
Since 1988, there have been ups and downs in cross-border workers employed in Luxembourg has
the number of asylum seekers, which reached 266 in increased considerably, from 7 200 to some 60 000 in
1996. The introduction in March 1992 of an ad hoc 1996. Whereas in 1970 the majority of cross-border
humanitarian status for refugees from the former workers lived in Belgium, the distribution began to
Yugoslavia (except for citizens of Kosovo and change in 1992. Today, more than half of such work-
Montenegro) explains the reduction in the number ers live in France, 30 per cent in Belgium and 18 per
of asylum seekers falling under the Geneva Conven- cent in Germany. A study published in January 1995
tion. Beneficiaries receive social assistance from the based on Social Security records made it possible to
government, free medical care, clothing and a work identify certain characteristics of these cross-border
permit valid for the length of stay corresponding to workers. Most are wage-earners. More than two-
their status. From the beginning of the war until thirds are men, although women are relatively more
1 November 1995, over 3 000 nationals of the former numerous in the category of office workers, as far as 135
cross-border workers from France and Germany are Member States of the European Union and the
concerned. On average, German cross-border work- European Economic Area.
ers are more frequently employed in the construc- – The Act of 28 December 1995 established the pro-
tion and public works sector, while Belgians more cedure whereby residents who are nationals of
often work in the financial sector and the French in European countries can participate in local
business services and real estate. elections.
– The Act of 19 July 1997 increased the sanctions
Policy developments applicable to the offence of slander or libel for
belonging to an ethnic group, nation, race or par-
In recent years, a number of measures have
ticular religion.
been introduced supplementing the legislation and
regulations governing the employment of wage- Other legislation concerns the integration of for-
earners who are nationals of a country that does not eign children through education. The objective is
belong to the European Economic Area. The impact ‘‘one school for all’’ but with special measures for
of these new provisions is not yet clearly reflected in foreigners with difficulties, notably linguistic ones.
the available statistics. Of the considerable legisla- The trilingual basis of education (Luxembourgish,
tion passed during this period, the following are French and German) is reaffirmed as a cornerstone
worthy of mention: of national identity, but special arrangements apply
to foreigners so that they are not handicapped by
– The Act of 28 January 1994 laying down the proce-
their lack of familiarity with these languages when
dure for electing representatives of the Grand
they begin their education. To this end, the Act of
Duchy of Luxembourg to the European Parlia-
3 June 1994 created a system of preparatory classes
ment. This Act specifies the conditions under
for technical secondary education. Other legislation
which resident foreigners from European Union
specified that foreign pupils are to be integrated
countries are able to participate in the elections.
into Luxembourg schools with due regard to their
– The Act of 4 March 1994 abolished the last remain- native culture and mother tongue (primarily
ing restrictions that previously prevented foreign- Portuguese).
ers from becoming founding members of non-
profit associations.
MEXICO
– The Grand Ducal Regulation of 17 June 1994 laid
down the measures applicable for the employ- Introduction
ment of foreign workers within the Grand Duchy.
Mexico went through a period of transition and
Priority is given to citizens of countries that are
change during the 1980s as far as migration is con-
Member States of the EU and of the European
cerned. The economic situation, which has been
Economic Area.
difficult since the crisis of 1994, has prevented any
– The Acts of 23 December 1994 are of fundamental reduction in the wage and income differentials with
importance in Luxembourg’s constitutional history the United States. Emigration to the US continues
since they amended a number of articles of the (see Table II.21) and the two countries have tried to
Constitution with a view to allowing non- act jointly to control the flows, combat illegal immi-
Luxembourg nationals to exercise certain political gration and labour trafficking, and promote the inte-
rights, in particular with regard to local elections. gration of immigrant populations in observance of
This constitutional amendment was taken into human rights. Mexico also has to deal with immigra-
account by the Act of 3 July 1995, which abolished tion flows from Central America, which as yet are not
the requirement that candidates for elections to well identified or controlled (refugees and undocu-
professional institutes be of Luxembourg mented workers). Finally, the North American Free
nationality. Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has brought Mexico into
– The Act of 18 August 1995 includes several provi- a new economic area; this is causing new migration
sions updating the basic law on immigration flows linked to economic co-operation.
(1972) with regard to the entry, stay, medical
examination and labour market access of foreign-
Emigration
ers. These new provisions took account in particu-
lar of the entry into force of the Schengen Agree- It is difficult to estimate permanent emigration
136 ment as well as the provisions applicable to flows since the available statistics include tourist
Table II.21. Mexican emigration to the United States, This, then, is essentially a labour migration,
1911-19961 motivated by the wage and income differential
Thousands between the two countries. Jobs held in the United
of which: States are very varied and are no longer confined to
Immigrants who had
Period Numbers benefited from the 1986
agriculture. In many cases, the skill level of jobs
Immigration Reform held in the US by Mexican immigrants is lower than
and Control Act (IRCA)
that of the jobs for which they would be qualified in
1911-20 219.0 Mexico, but the pay is higher. Even so, the employ-
1921-30 459.3 ment of Mexican workers in certain segments of the
1931-40 22.3
1941-50 60.6 US economy helps to keep wage levels down and
1951-60 299.8 explains why the economic situation of migrants is a
1961-70 453.9 difficult one: 25 per cent of families with indefinite
1971-80 640.3
1981-90 1 655.8 962.7 stay permits have a low income level (in 1996, 11 per
1991-96 1 653.8 1 042.3 cent had an annual income of less than US$500).
1989 405.7 339.2 Moreover, the unemployment rate for Mexicans in
1990 680.2 623.5 the United States is twice that for Americans.
1991 947.9 894.9
1992 214.1 122.5
1993 126.6 17.5 Immigration
1994 111.4 4.4
1995 90.0 3.0 Traditionally a country of emigration, Mexico is
1996 163.7 3.6
now receiving a growing number of immigrants. This
1. Data refer to grants of permanent residence in the United States. Data is essentially transit migration due to Mexico’s geo-
refer to fiscal year (October to September of the given year).
Source: US Department of Justice, 1996 Statistical Yearbook of the graphical location as the gateway from Latin America
Immigration and Naturalization Service. to developed countries. The statistics for recorded
migration flows (including tourists) show large
incoming and outgoing movements of persons. From
the beginning of the 1990s, the annual number of
entries into Mexico has been of the order of 8 mil-
lion, for all categories of persons. In 1996, the inflow
movements and naturally exclude unauthorised increased to around 9.5 million persons, of whom
migrations of Mexicans to the United States. For 2.5 million were Mexican nationals. Although these
several decades the principal destination of Mexi- flows reflect the intensity and steady growth of
can migrants has been the US, followed by Spain cross-border population movements, they do not
and Canada. In 1996, it was estimated that reflect the reality of foreign migration to Mexico. All
between 7 and 7.3 million Mexicans were living in told, only 73 000 aliens obtained the status of per-
the US of whom approximately 2.3 million were manent migrant (‘‘immigrant’’ or ‘‘resident’’) in
undocumented. The Mexican population remains Mexico in 1996, a number which has remained rela-
predominantly male (55 per cent) despite an tively stable since the beginning of the decade.
increase in the proportion of females. Even though In addition to these recorded flows there are
Mexican immigrants are older on average than in the the inward movements of refugees, not registered as
past, the Mexican population in the US is younger such since Mexico has not yet ratified the Geneva
than the average for other migrants and for the US Convention, and those of undocumented alien work-
population as a whole: 70 per cent of Mexican immi- ers. The latter are farm workers, most of them Guate-
grants are aged between 15 and 44. This population malan, recruited for the sugar cane and banana plan-
is more educated and skilled than before and more tations. Each year an estimated 100 000 aliens,
urban in origin. The results of a recent survey by the without stay or labour permits, come to work on
National Population Council (CONAPO) on Mexican Mexican farms. The absence of any legal status for
workers in the United States point to an even more these foreign workers makes their economic and
striking picture: the majority of Mexican migrants are social situation extremely precarious (very low
male (95 per cent), young (more than 56 per cent wages, no social protection, insecure employment,
aged between 24 and 44), of urban origin (55 per etc.). Refugees are in a situation similar to that of
cent) and undocumented (64 per cent). More than the migrant farm workers. For ten years or so Mexico
50 per cent settle in California. has been receiving refugees, mostly from Guatemala 137
but also from El Salvador and Honduras, who have Table II.22. Inflows of temporary visitors for business
been unable to obtain any legal status. They live in under NAFTA, by category and nationality, 1994-19961,
Mexico
camps the majority of which are located in the three
states of Chiapas, Campeche and Quintana Roo. 1994 1995 1996
Given the length of their stay (more than ten years
for some), these populations have become inte- Nationals of Canada 1 935 3 075 2 984
grated into the local community. Business persons 1 500 2 550 2 569
Traders and investors 30 45 53
To deal with the increase in immigration flows, Intracompany transferees 45 75 55
the Mexican government has introduced a regu- Professionals 360 405 307
larisation programme (see below, southern border Nationals
programme). It is also attempting to tighten border of the United States 43 200 54 540 87 970
Business persons 37 500 48 750 78 515
controls. These measures are being accompanied by Traders and investors 510 405 1 039
‘‘crackdowns’’. In 1996, 78 000 persons (an increase Intracompany transferees 1 245 1 440 1 503
of 37 per cent on 1995) were expelled on account of Professionals 3 945 3 945 6 913
illegal residence in Mexico (unauthorised extension Total 45 135 57 615 90 954
of stay after authorised entry, change of circum- Business persons 39 000 51 300 81 084
Traders and investors 540 450 1 092
stances invalidating the right of residence, destruc- Intracompany transferees 1 290 1 515 1 558
tion of identity papers, etc.). Significant numbers of Professionals 4 305 4 350 7 220
entries are also being refused: in 1996 a little over 1. Holders of an FMN visa are allowed to come to Mexico as often as they
100 000 persons were refused entry to Mexico. Most wish for 30 days (renewable). The 1994 and 1995 figures are an
estimation based on a figure of 30 090 and 38 410 permits respectively
of the aliens concerned are from Central America delivered in May-December 1994 and January-August 1995.
(Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador principally). Source: National Migration Institute.
Entries of business persons in the context

of NAFTA
NAFTA does not provide for the free movement in connection with commercial, industrial, techno-
of persons. However, provisions specific to the logical and financial activities. These entries chiefly
treaty facilitate the movement of business persons involve French and Japanese nationals.
within the North American area. Business people
from the United States and Canada receive the sta- Developments in migration policy
tus of temporary visitors to Mexico, with a residence
permit valid for up to one year subject to certain The continuing growth of the foreign presence
conditions regarding financial resources. This cate- in Mexico has led the government to clarify and
gory covers different purposes of stay in Mexico: amend the legislation applying to entry, stay and
visitors on business, intra-firm transfer of exit of aliens. The national development plan
employees, persons belonging to the scientific and (1995-2000) incorporates a revision of migration leg-
medical professions, teachers, etc. The total number islation (as part of the population law) and a redefi-
of these temporary migrants has been rising steadily nition of migration policy. The new policy is an
since 1994 and has shown a further increase of extension of the programmes introduced earlier
43 per cent for 1996 (i.e. 90 900 entries, see (southern border programme, Paisano programme,
Table II.22); this trend seems to have been con- control of labour trafficking).
firmed in the first few months of 1997. Because of Migration policy is now built around four major
Mexico’s proximity to the United States, most of the concerns:
business people (97 per cent) come from that coun- – Evaluation and strict definition of migration policy in order
try. More than 89 per cent enter as ‘‘visitors on busi- to ensure conformity with national objectives. The
ness’’. Intra-firm transfers and movements of quali- approach adopted is, on the one hand, to evalu-
fied personnel account, then, for only 10 per cent of ate the alien population present in Mexico and
these entries. give legal status to undocumented immigrants
In addition to entries of business persons in the who have been residing in the country for some
context of NAFTA, there are the temporary entries of time and, on the other, to improve control of
non-migrant visitors and advisers. In 1996, migration flows. Thus the regularisation opera-
138 11 400 persons entered Mexico under this heading tions (see below) in the southern part of the coun-
try have given rise to a census enumeration of religious associations. The population law
aliens (creation of a data bank on refugees, Guate- authorises the registration of children born on
malan in particular), an evaluation of labour Mexican soil, without regard for the legality of the
requirements and an identification of foreigners’ parents’ status, and grants minors, regardless of
work places. their status, access to social welfare and health-
care services, public services and education. In
– Control of entry flows in observance of the law and the
order to facilitate procedures, the migration
rights of aliens. In response to the recent increase in
authorities have competence for the settlement of
immigration, the Mexican government is insisting
disputes in the case of divorces of mixed couples.
on the need to give resident aliens a clearly
Consequently, all marriages between aliens and
defined status whilst at the same time tightening
border controls. Mexico has in fact adopted the Mexicans must be entered in the population reg-
present position of the principal countries of isters. These different developments form part of
immigration: strict control of entry flows together the national programme for migrants’ protection
with a policy of integration. Thus the amended introduced earlier by the National Immigration
population law provides for the granting of resi- Institute (INM), the aim of which is to co-ordinate
dence permits to aliens already living in Mexico. national, federal and local action (inform aliens of
In 1996, the regularisation of Guatemalan refugees their rights and obligations, develop awareness in
living in the states of Chiapas, Campeche and the Mexican population of different immigrant cul-
Quintana Roo continued. Depending on their situ- tures, etc.).
ation, the government grants them the status of – International co-operation. Since 1996 Mexico has
migrant (permanent) or non-migrant (temporary hosted a number of international conferences on
visitor). This operation concerns 16 000 migration in which many countries of the region
Guatemalans, but also family members, as in the have participated: Belize, Canada, Costa Rica,
case of mixed couples or families with children El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico,
born in Mexico of foreign parents. Clarification of Nicaragua, Panama and the United States. The
the conditions of stay and regularisation measures governments of those countries have formed a
are also being applied to foreign farm workers in regional consultative group on migration for the
the south (continuation of the southern border purpose of pursuing the joint action decided
programme). The population law also stresses the upon at the different conferences. The joint activi-
right to family reunion, the right for aliens to set ties are mainly concerned with the exchange of
up businesses and, more generally, respect for information on migration in the region, the protec-
the rights of migrants (even if they are undocu- tion of migrants and the control of labour
mented), in accordance with the Universal Decla- trafficking.
ration of Human Rights of 1948. In return, migrants
must comply with existing legislation to gain entry
or to stay in Mexico. To facilitate short authorised NETHERLANDS
stays in Mexico, temporary permits have been
created. The government has also made provision Introduction
for stricter enforcement of the law on entry and
stay, and has introduced penalties for infringe- Following falls in immigration both in 1994 and
ments. Law enforcement agencies are authorised 1995, provisional figures for the immigration of for-
to determine the penalties to be imposed for eigners in 1996 show an increase on the previous
offences according to their seriousness, without year which may be linked to improved conditions in
necessarily ordering immediate expulsion. Penal- the Dutch labour market. In the latter half of 1997
ties are now heavier for persons engaging in increased inflows of asylum seekers have been
labour trafficking (amendment of the law of 8 Nov- reported. Naturalisation has reached historically
ember 1996), notably where minors are high levels, reducing growth in the stock of foreign
concerned. nationals.
– Improvement of the quality of services rendered to aliens, Current policy initiatives include tightened con-
by simplifying procedures, promoting collabora- trol of entry points for asylum seekers and the
tion between the different administrations deal- development of a policy to encourage the voluntary
ing with aliens, and supporting charitable and return of immigrants and asylum seekers. 139
Migration and settlement Population register data show that following rel-
atively little change in 1995, figures for 1996 indicate
Currently, the main means of permanent settle- an approximately 15 per cent increase in the inflow
ment in the Netherlands, for non-European Union to bring the total inflow of foreigners to 77 100 (see
nationals, is through family reunion. Historically, the Chart II.11 and Table II.23). Data for the first six
important source countries of migrants have been months of 1997 reveal an inflow of about 35 000 for-
Germany, Indonesia, Morocco, Surinam and Turkey. eigners suggesting that the final figure for the year
In recent years refugee flows from the former may be a little lower compared to 1996. Note that
Yugoslavia have made a significant contribution to these data include asylum seekers who live in pri-
the net inflows of migrants.
◆ Chart II.11. Migration flows and components of foreign population change,

1980-1996, Netherlands
Thousands
A. Migration flows1 B. Flows of asylum seekers
Nationals and foreigners Requests and grants3
Immigration of foreigners Emigration of foreigners
New requests for asylum Total requests for asylum heard
Immigration of nationals Emigration of nationals
Total grants of asylum
Total net migration Net migration (adjusted figures2)
90 90
75 75
60 60
45 45
30 30
15 15
0 0
1980 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 1996 1986 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 1996
C. Components of foreign
population change4
Total change Natural increase
Net migration Naturalisation
Statistical adjustement
90
60
30
0
1. Data are taken from population registers, which include asylum seekers living
in private households.
–30 2. The data include net administrative corrections.
3. A request heard is a request on which a decision is made in the given year
without regard to the year in which the request was filed. Requests granted
–60 refer to applications for asylum in the given or in the previous year. They
include persons who are granted refugee status and persons who receive a
temporary residence permit on humanitarian grounds.
–90 4. Figures have not been adjusted to include net administrative corrections.
1980 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 1996 Sources: Central Bureau of Statistics; Ministry of Justice.
140
vate dwellings (such individuals are usually only in 1996 too). One reason for the latest increase may
counted as immigrants if they are granted asylum). be due to publication of the Note on Return Policy
A number of factors are considered to have (3 June 1997) by the Ministry of Justice. This report
driven the recent pattern of immigration. The intro- stated that at that time asylum seekers from
duction of new rules relating to waiting periods for Afghanistan, Bosnia, Burundi, Iraq, Liberia, Rwanda,
family reunion in 1993 is thought to partially account Sudan, Somalia and Zaire were not being returned.
for the fall in immigration in 1994. However, since In addition, asylum seekers from these countries
then, immigrants, in particular from Turkey, Morocco received a conditional stay permit. Reflecting
and Surinam, have become eligible for admission the upward trend in asylum seekers, there have
under these new rules. Also, conditions in the Dutch been increasing numbers granted aslum with
labour market are improving with falling unemploy- 23 600 grants in 1996.
ment rates which may provide additional incentives There has been a rapid rise in the number of
to immigrate. expulsions of individuals from the Netherlands.
Although migration flows of Dutch nationals are These figures include those who have been
relatively stable compared to those of foreigners, expelled by force and those who have left volunta-
recent years have shown rises in outflows and falls in rily but with the encouragement of the authorities
inflows such that the emigration of Dutch nationals (each of which accounted for 37 per cent of the total
has become relatively significant (11 000 in 1996). in 1996). The remainder are those whose residence
Combining this with the net migration of foreigners cannot be traced and are said to have left the coun-
gives a positive net surplus of 43 000 in 1996, 10 000 try (26 per cent), although in reality many are
more than in 1995. The former Yugoslavia, European thought to have in fact remained in the Netherlands.
Union countries and Turkey were particularly signifi-
cant in terms of net migration (see Table II.23) in The foreign population and naturalisation
1995. The figures for 1996 indicate increases in net
migration from the European Union countries and The population of foreign nationals has been
Turkey but a substantial decrease in net migration falling in recent years (see Chart II.11). This is largely
from the former Yugoslavia. attributable to large increases in the number of
naturalisations, rather than net migration. The
In assessing the net migration figures it should
increase in the number of naturalisations is gener-
be noted that the population register data relies on
ally considered to be the result of the recognition of
accurate reporting of residence by individuals. Using
dual nationality which came into effect in 1991. The
additional information, statistical corrections are cal-
naturalisation rate (measured by the number of
culated by the Dutch Central Statistical Office. For
naturalisations compared to the foreign population
example, in 1996, the correction was calculated to
at the beginning of the year) reached almost 12 per
be to –22 000, pointing to the predominance of
cent in 1996 (see Table II.23), a very high figure
unregistered departures over entries. To date these
compared to other European countries.
administrative corrections have been roughly of the
same magnitude each year, therefore the net migra- Demographic data show that at the beginning of
tion trend which includes these corrections has 1996 the total population of the Netherlands was
been similar to that without corrections (see 15.5 million, 8 per cent (1.4 million) were born over-
Chart II.11). seas, of whom 58 per cent were Dutch nationals. The
top five countries of origin for the foreign born (in
descending order) are Surinam, Indonesia, Turkey,
Refugees and asylum seekers Morocco and Germany (see Table II.24).
Data for 1995 and 1996 indicated a significant
reversal of the previously upward trend in the num- Foreigners and the labour market
ber of individuals seeking asylum (see Chart II.11
and Table II.23), partly as a result of a tighter policy. In September 1995 a new law on foreign labour
However, provisional estimates suggest that the was introduced with the aim of further regulating the
final figure for 1997 will be greater than the previous employment of non-EU nationals (see below). There
year (around 29 000), the increase being due to the were 218 000 foreign nationals in employment in
rising numbers of asylum seekers from Afghanistan 1996, about 30 per cent of the total foreign popula-
and Iraq (both significant sources of asylum seekers tion see Table II.23). 141
142
Table II.23. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Netherlands
1993 1994 1995 1996 1993 1994 1995 1996
Migration flows1 Labour force

Total population Total number of foreign population in employment4 219 216 221 218
Inflows 119.2 99.3 96.1 109.0 As a per cent of all foreign population 28.1 28.5 30.5 32.1
Outflows 59.2 62.2 63.3 65.6
Net migration 59.9 37.2 32.8 43.4 Dutch nationals born in the Netherlands
Dutch nationals Working age population 9 340 9 340 9 391 9 406
Inflows 31.6 30.9 29.1 31.8 Labour force 5 826 5 859 5 986 6 061
Outflows 37.0 39.4 41.6 43.2 Employment 5 452 5 435 5 574 5 678
Net migration –5.4 –8.5 –12.5 –11.4 Unemployment 374 423 412 383
Foreigners
Inflows 87.6 68.4 67.0 77.2 Dutch nationals born abroad and foreigners
Outflows 22.2 22.7 21.7 22.4 Working age population 1 080 1 133 1 107 1 124
Net migration 65.4 45.7 45.3 54.7 Labour force 580 608 610 620
Total net migration by selected regions and countries Employment 473 484 489 509
European Union 10.6 5.8 6.0 8.7 Unemployment 107 123 122 111
Turkey 6.0 2.7 3.5 5.0 Participation rates (%)5
Morocco 4.8 2.0 1.9 3.2 Dutch nationals born in the Netherlands 62 63 64 64
Surinam 7.2 2.4 1.4 2.5 Dutch nationals born abroad and foreigners 54 54 55 55
Net administrative corrections2 –16 –17 –18 –22 of which:
Adjusted total net migration figures 44 20 15 21 Turkey 43 42 44 44
Morocco 33 40 42 42
Stock of population3 Other Mediterranean countries 60 56 59 54
Total population 15 341.6 15 421.5 15 493.9 15 567.1 Other European countries 63 61 62 64
Total foreign population 779.8 757.1 725.4 679.9 Surinam 59 60 63 63
of which: Netherlands Antilles 57 56 58 63
Morocco 164.6 158.7 149.8 138.7 Indonesia 59 57 58 54
Turkey 202.6 182.1 154.3 127.0 Other 53 53 51 53
Germany 52.1 53.4 53.9 53.5
United Kingdom 44.7 43.0 41.1 39.3 Unemployment rates (%)6
Former Yugoslavia 24.7 29.9 33.5 32.8 Dutch nationals born in the Netherlands 5.4 6.4 5.8 5.4
Dutch nationals born abroad and foreigners 17 19 19 19
Naturalisations of which:
Total 43.1 49.5 71.4 82.7 Turkey 32 36 41 36
of which: Morocco 36 31 27 25
Turkey 18.0 23.9 33.1 30.7 Other Mediterranean countries 15 18 19 21
Morocco 7.8 8.1 13.5 15.6 Other European countries 7 9 8 7
Surinam 5.0 5.4 4.0 4.5 Surinam 16 18 15 16
Former Yugoslavia 2.1 1.9 1.7 2.2 Netherlands Antilles 23 30 28 28
United Kingdom 0.5 0.5 0.8 1.2 Indonesia 7 7 8 9
Naturalisation rate (%) 5.7 6.3 9.4 11.4 Other 22 21 28 25

New requests for asylum 35.4 52.6 29.3 22.9
Total requests for asylum heard 30.8 51.5 50.8 75.3
Total grants of asylum 15.0 19.3 18.5 23.6
Expulsions
Total 20.2 31.2 40.0 51.5
of which: Asylum seekers 7.2 13.3 14.5 16.5
1. Data are taken from population registers, which include some asylum seekers.
2. The administrative corrections account for unreported entries and departures on the population register.
3. Data are from population registers and refer to the population on 31 December of the years indicated. Figures include administrative corrections.
4. Estimates are for 31 March and include cross-border workers, but exclude the self-employed and family workers.
5. The percentage of those in the labour force out of the total working population based on Labour force Survey data.
6. Unemployment rates based on registered unemployment figures.
Sources: Central Bureau of Statistics; Ministry of Justice; Labour force Survey.
Table II.24. Foreign-born population by birthplace, employment of foreigners (1995). At present, the
1 January 1996, Netherlands main initiatives relate to concerns about inflows of
Thousands and percentages asylum seekers and the development of policies to
Dutch encourage the voluntary return of immigrants.
of which: nationals
Total
Birthplace Dutch (as a % of total
foreign-born
nationals foreign-born
population) Continued measures to control inflows
of asylum seekers
Europe 552 240 43
Turkey 167 60 36
Western Germany 130 82 63 Concern about the growing number of asylum
Asia 311 236 76 seekers continues, especially the increased inflows
Indonesia 178 170 96 originating from Iraq and Afghanistan. In Nov-
Americas 302 262 87 ember 1997 the Ministry of Justice announced a
Surinam 181 165 91
number of measures including:
Africa 229 75 33
Morocco 141 36 26 – closer co-operation with other EU member-states
Oceania 12 10 83 (especially Germany);
Total 1 407 823 58 – the appointment of special staff in embassies
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics. receiving large numbers of queries and requests
for asylum;
– the setting up of a special task force to deal with
illegal trafficking, particularly from Iraq and
When evaluating relative labour market per- Afghanistan;
formance between migrants and non-migrants, the – increased use of fingerprinting as a means for
Dutch authorities define those of ‘‘Dutch origin’’ as checking identity;
Dutch nationals who were born in the Netherlands
and those of non-Dutch origin are therefore those – proposals for a change in the Aliens Law which will
who are born overseas and foreign nationals born in give an opportunity to declare an asylum claim
the Netherlands. According to this approach, the unfounded if it is proved that the asylum seeker
1995 labour force survey indicates that out of the was responsible for the destruction of proper
total working age population, just under 10 per cent documents;
are not of Dutch origin. The participation rate for – intensification of behind-border controls
those of non-Dutch origin is 55 per cent compared to (e.g. extension of pre-boarding checks on certain
64 per cent for those of Dutch origin. These rates flights), especially with regard to air travel.
vary by nationality and sex. For example, particu-
larly low participation rates are found amongst
Moroccan and Turkish women. Measures to encourage voluntary return
Unemployment for those of Dutch origin fell Recently, the Ministry of Development Co-
between 1995 and 1996 from 5.8 to 5.4 per cent. This operation has set up pilot projects which are
was not matched for the non-Dutch where the unem- designed to encourage the voluntary return of immi-
ployment remained constant at 19 per cent. Those grants to their native lands. Both legal immigrants
of European and Indonesian background have and rejected asylum seekers are targeted in the
unemployment rates rather closer to those of Dutch projects, measures include:
origin, whilst other groups have unemployment – General support to the respective country of
rates considerably higher than the average for the origin.
non-Dutch (see Table II.23).
– Specific programmes to support the reception
and return of refugees within the region, for exam-
Policy developments ple from neighbouring countries.
Over recent years the principal policy develop- – Specific programmes to support the training,
ments have included: recognition of dual nationality reception, accommodation, employment etc. for
(1991), revision of the Aliens Act (1992), new rules for those who return to their country of origin. The
family reunion (1993) and a new Act regulating the support will not be given on an individual basis: it 143
has instead to be of benefit both to the communi- than 1 000 in 1996. Immigrants from Nordic countries
ties and to the returnees. still account for one-quarter of the entries.
Agreements with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Angola At 1 January 1997, the total number of foreigners
have so far been struck. However, as of Nov- residing in Norway stood at some 158 000, or 3.6 per
ember 1997, none had yet been fully implemented cent of the total population (see Table II.25).
and have been received with mixed opinions by Approximately 60 per cent of the foreign population
Dutch NGOs and organisations of refugees and asy- consisted of European nationals, followed by Asian
lum seekers. nationals (22 per cent), whose numbers have been
There are also two pilot projects supporting vol- falling steadily since 1995. Although the share of
untary return to Surinam. These are slightly different foreign nationals in the total population declined
from the projects based in Africa, involving payment slightly between 1995 and 1996, the share of individ-
of transport and removal costs for the return of uals born abroad continued to rise. In 1996, some
highly-skilled Surinamese who transfer posts from 247 000 people were foreign born, or 5.6 per cent of
the Netherlands, and subsidised employment for the total population residing in Norway.
highly skilled Surinamese who find government Naturalisations, which averaged approximately
posts in Surinam. In 1998, details of a project for the 5 000 a year at the beginning of the 1990s, have risen
return of Bosnians will be announced. sharply since then; some 12 200 people were
In addition to these pilot projects there is an naturalised in 1996. Of these, 13 per cent were of
initiative to introduce a new Act on ‘‘Remigration’’, Pakistani origin, 11 per cent of Vietnamese and
which is expected to be discussed in spring 1998. 10 per cent of Iraqi origin.
The Act would aim to provide travel and removal
expenses with additional encouragement for the Refugees and asylum seekers
return of older age groups.
Large numbers of asylum seekers started to
arrive in Norway in 1985. The inflow reached its peak
NORWAY in 1987 at 8 600, to then broadly stabilise from 1989
to 1991 within the range of 4 000 to 5 000. However,
Introduction in 1993 a large inflow, mostly from the former
In 1996, the Norwegian economy maintained a Yugoslavia, drove the total number to almost 13 000.
higher level of growth, with GDP increasing by After the introduction of a visa regime for Bosnians
3.7 per cent, a trend that continued in 1997. Eco- in October 1993, which followed one for Serbs put
nomic expansion stimulated the labour market, and into place in 1992, asylum flows from the former
over a one-year period there was a one point drop Yugoslavia fell dramatically. The total number of
in unemployment, which stood at 3.8 per cent at the asylum seekers was relatively low in 1996 (1 800).
end of 1997. The main groups of applicants were, in descending
order, nationals of Sri Lanka, Poland, Somalia, Iran
and Iraq.
Migration and the foreign population
Norway receives a fixed number of refugees in
Between 1993 and 1996, the net migration gain co-operation with the UN High Commissioner for
declined significantly, falling from 12 800 to 5 800 Refugees (UNHCR) under a resettlement quota.
(see Table II.25). Net entries of foreigners (7 100 in Between 1992 and July 1996, Norway received
1996) more than offset net departures of Norwegian approximately 6 000 resettled refugees under this
nationals (1 300). Swedish nationals still accounted quota, more than half from the former Yugoslavia.
for the vast majority of net inflows, but there was an For the three-year period 1995-97, Norway planned
increase in net entries from developing countries. to accept 3 500 refugees for permanent settlement
Since 1993, immigration has declined and then and temporary protection.
levelled off, after having risen steadily at the begin- Persons granted either refugee status or collec-
ning of the 1990s. The number of new arrivals tive protection (see below), and hence temporary
has remained stable since 1994 at approximately work or residence permits, are entitled to family
26 000 entries per year (including asylum seekers). reunion irrespective of their ability to provide eco-
Inflows from Bosnia-Herzogovina have fallen nomic support. However, those granted residence
144 sharply, dropping from 6 000 in 1993 to slightly more permits on humanitarian grounds must prove that
Table II.25. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population, Norway
1993 1994 1995 1996
Total population1 4 324.8 4 348.4 4 370.0 4 392.7

% of foreigners 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.6
Inflows of foreigners by main nationality 22.3 17.9 16.5 17.2
of which:
Sweden 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.9
Denmark 1.7 1.9 1.6 1.6
United Kingdom 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.9
Outflows of foreigners by main nationality 10.5 9.6 9.0 10.0
of which:
Sweden 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.1
Denmark 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.4
Net migration flows of foreigners by main nationality 11.8 8.3 7.5 7.2
of which:
Sweden 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.8
Denmark 0.3 0.3 –0.1 0.2
United Kingdom –0.1 –0.1 – –0.1
Asylum seekers by main nationality2 12.9 3.4 1.5 1.8
of which:
Sri Lanka 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.4
Poland – 0.1 0.1 0.2
Somalia 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2
Iran 0.1 0.2 0.2 –
Foreign population by group of nationality 162.3 164.0 160.8 157.5
Europe 86.2 90.7 93.2 95.9
Asia 45.3 43.1 39.5 34.9
North America 11.1 10.9 10.7 10.6
Africa 11.6 11.6 10.7 10.0
South America 6.5 6.0 5.1 4.6
Other 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.6
Acquisition of Norwegian nationality, by region of origin 5.5 8.8 11.8 12.2
Asia 2.7 4.6 6.0 7.1
Europe 1.6 2.5 2.7 2.4
Africa 0.6 0.9 1.8 1.7
South America 0.4 0.6 1.2 0.8
North America 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Mixed marriages 2.8 .. 2.9 3.2
% of total marriages 14.1 .. 13.6 13.8
1. Data on 31 December of the years indicated, taken from population registers.
2. In 1993, asylum seekers from former Yugoslavia were the most numerous (11 198).
Sources: Statistics Norway; Directorate of Immigration.
they have sufficient financial means until they can Migration and the labour market
obtain a permanent residence permit (after three
Those who come to Norway to work, except for
years’ stay in Norway). Following the recommenda-
Nordic nationals, must first obtain a work permit the
tion by a ministerial working party, the government
issuance of which is conditional on either an offer of
has proposed to eliminate this requirement. The
employment with an attestation from an employer
1995 White Paper on Refugee Policy reinforced the
or a standard service contract. According to regula-
refugee repatriation programme. It facilitates and
tions under the Immigration Act, the applicant must
supports individual refugees who wish to return by
be either a highly skilled worker or have a special
providing pre-departure assistance and travel
skill not available in Norway. Nationals from Nordic 145
expenses.
countries may work in Norway without a special per- ment has tabled a proposal prohibiting racial dis-
mit. Nationals of the other countries of the European crimination in the labour market.
Economic Area (EEA) who reside in the country for
longer than three months are only required to have
a residence permit. Consequently, the figures for Illegal migration
foreign workers, which are based on the number of A central illegal immigration intelligence unit
work permits issued, underestimate the real size of was established in the national Bureau of Crime
the total stock of foreign workers. Investigation and became operational in 1994. The
Seasonal work permits were granted to 5 400 unit is responsible for collecting, processing and
people in the agricultural sector in 1996. In over recording information on illegal immigration pro-
90 per cent of cases, they were from Central and vided by other authorities. In 1996, approximately
Eastern Europe, mostly from Poland. 2 000 people were required to leave the country,
some 200 more than in 1995. As an indication of the
By 1996, the Norwegian authorities recognised problem, although not considered to be illegal
that the needs of the economy could only be met by migrants or counted as such, two-thirds of the asy-
recruiting foreign workers, especially in the construc- lum seekers who arrived in Norway in 1996 had
tion and health care sectors. At the same time, since incomplete or forged travel documents.
there was high unemployment in both these sectors
in Sweden, measures were implemented to promote
recruitment of staff in these sectors in that country. Policy development
The Directorate of Labour estimates that approxi-
In line with the four other Nordic countries,
mately 1 000 nurses and 7 000 construction workers
Norway signed a co-operation agreement with the
have been recruited from Sweden in recent years,
Schengen countries in December 1996. As Norway is
sometimes on a temporary basis. There have also
not a member of the European Union, it has, like
been efforts to recruit workers from Finland, as well
Iceland, the status of an associated country in the
as from other countries of the European Economic
agreement.
Area. The Directorate of Labour believes that
it might be necessary to recruit as many as Following adoption by Parliament, a new policy
10 000 people in 1998. on refugees was recently implemented in Norway.
Under the new policy, the instrument of ‘‘collective
Unemployment among foreigners declined protection’’ will be used in the case of large-scale
(from 11.5 per cent in May 1996 to 9.9 per cent in refugee flows and will offer temporary protection
May 1997). However, it is still three times higher after consultation with the UNHCR and the affected
than for Norwegian nationals. Foreigners from Africa, country. In principle, those granted collective pro-
Asia, Central and Eastern Europe and Latin America tection will be accorded the same rights as those
are the hardest hit by unemployment, while nation- granted refugee status, including family reunion, the
als of Nordic countries, Western Europe and North right to work and the right to receive education and
America have unemployment rates similar to those social security payments. As persons granted collec-
of Norwegians. tive protection in Norway are expected to return to
Recognition of qualifications and diplomas from their country of origin when conditions allow, the
other countries is often difficult in Norway. Immi- repatriation programme has recently been rein-
grants may therefore experience a disparity forced. Priority will be given to projects aiming to
between their qualifications and their work. Meas- maintain or develop vocational and language skills
ures have been implemented by the Ministry of of the refugees, and to the implementation of spe-
Local Government and Labour, in part based on cial measures for children, youth and women.
proposals set out by a government committee in Several other areas have been targeted in the
1993, to both increase the participation rate of immi- government’s long-term planning programme for
grants through an active policy of vocational training 1994-97. The idea that legal migrants should be
and language teaching, and to reduce the aforemen- guaranteed the same rights and obligations as the
tioned disparity between work and qualifications. rest of the population was re-affirmed. Based on this
The Ministry of Local Government and Labour has idea, the government provides continuing education
also commissioned a three-year study on immi- for immigrants, in particular Norwegian language
146 grants and the labour market. Moreover, the govern- teaching for all age groups, assists with access to the
labour market and continues its efforts to eradicate the labour market of large cohorts of school leavers
racism and ethnic discrimination. and to continual labour shedding in restructuring
The Ministry of Local Government and Labour, enterprises.
in co-operation with a number of other ministries, is
currently revising the Action Plan against Racism and Emigration
Ethnic Discrimination dating from 1992. The new
action plan will be completed in early 1998 and will Permanent emigration
focus on discrimination in the labour market and the The second half of 1995 saw a stabilisation in
need to raise the skills of public sector employees the emigration flow. This appears to have marked
in contact with a multicultural population. The plan the end to a short-lived (two year) rising trend. The
will also try to define a clearer and more rapid 1996 annual figure, 21 300, proved to be of the same
means of dealing with racial violence and to magnitude of the relatively low 1990-92 average
improve documentation and statistical data on level (see Table II.26). The decline has continued
xenophobic crimes. into the first semester of 1997. The recent fall in the
A group of twenty experts was set up in 1996 to number of emigrants has been quite evenly distrib-
advise local governments on how to combat racism uted among the various destination countries.
and xenophobia. It has made it possible, in particu- Germany remains the principal receiving country
lar, to set up a network of parents with children (almost 70 per cent in 1996). As registered by Polish
aged 13 and 14 who had been recruited by far-right statistics, permanent emigration continues to be the
groups. Experience has shown that the assistance almost exclusive domain of the lowest educated
given to parents enables them to help their children stratum of Polish society.
leave these groups.
In 1996, the Norwegian Statistical Office con- Immigration
ducted a study on the living conditions of individu-
Having fluctuated at between 1 000 and 2 000
als from the eight main immigration countries, who
from the late 1960s to the late 1980s, the number of
had resided in Norway for at least two years. The
permanent immigrants then steadily increased,
individuals surveyed were from the former
reaching 8 100 in 1995. No significant change was
Yugoslavia (not including Bosnia), Turkey, Iran,
observed in 1996 or during the first semester of
Pakistan, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Somalia and Chile.
1997. As of the end of 1997 around 40 000 foreigners
This survey concerned housing, family, employment,
had legally settled as permanent residents. Accord-
economic situation, working conditions, education,
ing to the newly passed Alien Law (see below) they
mastery of Norwegian, health care, forms of violence
will all shortly qualify for naturalisation.
and discrimination experienced, social relations and
leisure activities. Following the survey, the govern- The share of permanent immigrants from Asia
ment announced that priority would be given to (originating mostly from Vietnam and Kazakhstan)
making neighbourhoods where immigrants lived increased from 6.5 per cent in 1995, to 9 per cent in
safer and to promoting greater diversity among the 1996 and 12 per cent over the first half of 1997.
population there. Between 1995 and 1996 Germany’s share rose from
24 to 26 per cent. In contrast, the proportion of
immigrants coming from North America dropped
POLAND from 29 per cent in 1995 to just over 23 per cent in
Introduction 1996 (see Table II.26).
The momentum of economic growth, which has

Return migration
averaged 6 per cent since 1994, has barely abated
with real GDP set to rise at a rate of over 5 per cent In May 1996 formal steps were taken by the
per annum through to 1999. Continued steady pro- Polish government to facilitate and channel the
gress in reducing inflation from its present level of repatriation of ethnic Poles from the former Soviet
14 per cent is similarly projected. Helped by tighter Union. Local administrations (urzad gminy) were
benefit eligibility rules, the rate of unemployment given the responsibility for providing the return
has declined steeply, to below 11 per cent in Sep- migrants with housing and jobs and assisting them
tember 1997. It is expected to continue falling, in their integration into the community. Between
albeit at a more moderate pace due to the arrival on 1993 and 1996 fewer than 600 people from 147
Table II.26. Permanent immigration and emigration, 1993-1996, Poland

Thousands
1993 1994 1995 1996
Permanent immigration by region or country of origin1

Europe 4.0 4.5 4.9 5.2
Germany 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2
Former USSR 0.8 1.1 0.8 0.8
Other Europe 1.6 1.5 2.1 2.2
Americas 1.3 1.6 2.4 1.9
Canada 0.3 0.3 1.0 0.5
Other America 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Total 5.9 6.9 8.1 8.2
of which: Women 2.9 3.3 3.8 4.0
Permanent residence permits issued by nationality2
Ukraine 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.6
Russian Federation 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3
Vietnam 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3
Kazakhstan – – 0.2 0.2
Belarus 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2
Total 2.0 2.5 3.1 2.8
Permanent emigration by region or country of destination3
Europe 17.0 21.2 21.0 17.0
Germany 15.3 18.9 18.2 14.8
Other Europe 1.7 2.3 2.8 2.2
Americas 4.0 4.2 4.9 3.9
Canada 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.3
Other America – – – –
Total 21.4 25.9 26.3 21.3
of which: Women 10.8 10.7 13.0 10.4
1. Persons who entered Poland (including returning Polish emigrants) and registered in the Central Population Register (PESEL) after obtaining a permanent
residence permit. Counts in the table may be underestimated since not all children accompanying immigrants are registered.
2. Data on permanent residence permits issued are not linked with data from the Central Population Register and therefore are not comparable.
3. Only departures of permanent residents registered in the Central Population Register are included.
Source: Central Statistical Office.
Kazakhstan were granted permanent residence in education notwithstanding, newly repatriated eth-
Poland (but not necessarily Polish citizenship). At nic-Poles frequently meet with integration
the end of 1996 the repatriation programme was difficulties, primarily linguistic.
greatly expanded: between 1 January 1997 and
30 September 1997 a further 1 080 persons (278 fam-
ilies) living in Kazakhstan were received upon invi- Temporary and permanent immigration
tation by a total of 200 local Polish communities
(gmina). At the same time, over 500 applications for In 1996 Poland hosted 5 300 foreign students
repatriation were submitted to Polish consulates (of and approximately 1 000 to 2 000 foreign trainees. In
which 96 per cent in Kazakhstan). Given that the addition almost 12 500 foreign non-permanent
Aliens Act which came into effect at the end of residents were granted a work permit. Estimates of
December 1997 removes the requirement for repa- the number of foreign citizens who stay in Poland for
triation applicants to be invited by a local commu- over one year on the basis of temporary residence
nity in Poland, the pace of repatriation can be permits issued for reasons other than education or
148 expected to accelerate. Their relatively high level of work are not available.
The estimated minimum number of foreigners and transportation, and one-tenth in education.
legally staying in Poland has been put at 70 000, with Over one-third of the Ukrainian workers were
citizens of Ukraine, Russia, Belarus and Vietnam pre- employed in agriculture, over 90 per cent of the
dominating. The number of undocumented foreign- Vietnamese worked in trade and in catering and
ers resident in Poland is believed to be lower than over half of the British were employed in education.
this. Research projects conducted in Poland
between 1993 and 1997 do point however to the Documented foreign labour continues to be
existence of growing enclaves of undocumented set- strongly polarised according to professional status.
tlers from Armenia, Romania, Ukraine and Vietnam. Highly skilled non-manuals (managers, experts, con-
sultants, teachers, etc.) accounted in 1996 for almost
Labour migration two-thirds of all new work permit holders. Compared
to 1995, three professional groups increased above
Polish workers abroad the average rate: experts and consultants, teachers
The Ministry of Labour and Social Policy esti- and instructors, and owners. The number of permits
mates that around 220 000 Poles found employment issued to unskilled workers rose by only 10 per cent.
abroad in 1996 within the framework of intergovern-
mental agreements. Between 1994 and 1996 the
number of persons so employed increased by over Undocumented workers
50 per cent. In 1996, Germany absorbed nearly
97 per cent of those workers employed abroad The Ministry of Labour and Social Policy is of
through inter-governmental agreements. Germany, the opinion that each year some 100 000-150 000 for-
Austria, Greece and Italy (in that order) received the eign workers illegally take-up employment in
largest number of Polish migrant workers who found Poland. A survey-based estimate conducted in
legal employment beyond the framework of inter- Ukraine and Poland between 1994 and 1996 sug-
government agreements. The majority of docu- gests that there might be around 800 000 Ukrainians
mented Polish migrant workers find employment in (on annual basis) who illegally take up employment
the inferior segment of the labour market: the dura- during their sojourns in Poland. The overwhelming
tion of their contracts is usually very short and their majority come to Poland with the primary intention
wages relatively low. of purchasing merchandise for resale in Ukraine but
also engage in various forms of extremely short term
work in the black economy as a supplementary
Foreign workers in Poland
activity.
Almost 12 500 work permits were issued in 1996,
a 19 per cent increase on 1995 (foreigners with per-
manent resident status do not require a work per-
mit). Ukrainians accounted for nearly 20 per cent. Since 1994 the inflow of asylum seekers and
Vietnam, the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia, the refugees has intensified. In 1996 over 3 200 people
United States and China (in that order) each applied for refugee status, almost four times more
accounted for between 5 and 10 per cent. Over than in 1995. Figures for the first half of 1997 point to
50 per cent of these permits were issued in Warsaw. an almost 10 per cent increase on 1996. Citizens of
Almost 15 per cent of the permits were granted to Sri Lanka were the principal refugee status seekers
foreign employers in possession of a license to followed in descending order by citizens of
operate in Poland. Of these, almost three-quarters Afghanistan, Armenia, Iraq, Pakistan and India.
were issued to citizens of Belarus, Russia and
Ukraine. About one-third of the Ukrainians so Almost all recent asylum seekers have applied
employed worked in the (state-owned) Szczecin in one of three following situations: after being
shipyard. Various attempts by other large state- apprehended by the Border Guard during illegal
owned enterprises to replace Polish workers by border crossing; after being arrested by the Police
workers from the ex-USSR through licensed foreign inside Poland because of the lack of appropriate
employers were recently prevented by the National documents; or after being expelled from Germany
Labour Office. on the basis of their readmission agreement. After
Over one-third of the new permit holders were being released from arrest many applicants immedi-
engaged in trade and catering, one-fifth in industry ately ‘‘disappear’’. 149
Illegal migration and transit migration Recent policy developments
Illegal immigration The new Aliens Act

Three statistical sources shed some light on the Having awaited endorsement since Septem-
incidence and national composition of illegal immi- ber 1995, the Aliens Act was passed by Parliament in
gration: the Border Guard data on apprehensions of June 1997 and came into effect at the end of Decem-
illegal migrants at the time of border crossing; data ber. The new Act is primarily designed to create the
on expulsions of foreigners based on decisions legal framework necessary to combat the inflow of
taken by district administration in Poland; and data undesirable immigrants. It completely replaces the
on foreigners accepted or expelled on the basis of Aliens Act of 1963. The old regulations, together with
readmission agreements. all related ordinances based on it, were both too
The number of people caught attempting to general and too incomplete. Their specific short-
enter Poland declined by 6 per cent between 1995 comings included: a lack of clarity as to which minis-
and 1996. Romanians traditionally constitute by far try was responsible for migration policy; the lack of
the largest group of migrants arrested on the Polish clear principles guiding the issue (or withdrawal) of
border; their number has decreased from around permanent residence permits; inadequate rules
7 000 in 1993 to around 1 200 in 1996. In the case of pertaining to expulsions and detentions; and the
Ukraine the number fell from almost 900 to just over lack of a legal foundation for setting up registers of
600 and in the case of Russia fell by almost one foreigners.
hundred to just below 400. The number of Czech The new Aliens Act has the following key
citizens caught increased, however, from 750 in 1995 features:
to almost 1 000 in 1996.
– It introduces clear and consistent basic concepts
The number of foreigners arrested at the border relating to inflow of foreigners and to their sojourn
having come from remote countries of origin (mainly in Poland.
from Moldova, Armenia, Afghanistan, Iraq and
Sri Lanka) increased substantially. They appear to – It establishes admissions criteria for foreigners
be the major clients of traffickers, the activities of seeking to enter Poland, in particular as they con-
whom have increased dramatically of late according cern the repatriation of aliens of Polish nationality
to a report prepared by the Department of Migra- or extraction.
tion and Refugee Affairs. – It provides for the possibility of according an alien
In 1996, district authorities issued just over permission to reside for a specified period or to
5 000 expulsion decisions. During the first settle permanently, and sets out the relevant con-
six months of 1997, almost 3 000 such decisions were ditions, the relevant time limits, and the rights
made. In addition, on the basis of readmission and obligations of an alien while in Poland.
agreements with neighbouring countries, Poland – It sets out in a coherent manner (and in accor-
expelled in 1996 over 2 400 foreigners (of whom dance with the Geneva Convention and the New
1 860 to Ukraine). On the same basis, over 4 800 for- York Protocol) basic rules concerning refugee sta-
eigners were expelled from Germany to Poland. tus and asylum.
– It determines the appropriate circumstances and
Transit migration relevant procedures for expelling aliens. In addi-
It is believed that Poland has become one of tion, the act stipulates that the costs of expelling
the principal transit countries for illegal migrants aliens should generally be borne by the aliens
heading towards Western Europe. Two major inter- themselves. It does, however, establish two
national routes appear to run through Poland. The exceptions to this rule: if the expulsion occurs as a
first originates in the Indian sub-continent result of irregular employment, the costs should
(Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and be met by the employer; if an alien stays in
Sri Lanka), the western part of Asia (Armenia, Iran, Poland upon invitation from a Polish resident, the
Iraq and Turkey) and certain countries of Africa costs should be met by that person.
(Ethiopia, Liberia, Nigeria, Somalia and Sudan). The – It provides for the setting up of various registers
second route starts in various places in Armenia, of aliens and specifies the authority responsible
150 Moldova, Macedonia, Romania and Turkey. for running each particular register.
– It establishes that carriers are to be held respon- PORTUGAL

sible and liable for bringing into Poland aliens
Introduction
who do not hold entry permits.
At 31 December 1996, the total population of
– It sets out the principles for the establishment of
Portugal stood at nearly 10 million, an increase of
a coherent framework of government agency
1.3 per cent on 1995. There was a net migration gain
responsibilities.
in 1996 of 10 000 people (or twice as many as the
– It specifies the penalties for illegal entry, sojourn previous year). Of the Portuguese regions, the
or use of forged documents. Alentejo was the only one in which both compo-
nents of population growth were negative
(i.e. deaths outnumbered births and there was a net
Other developments migration loss). The Algarve was the region with the
highest net migration gain.
In October 1996, Poland concluded an agree-
ment with Luxembourg concerning the exchange of Emigration and Portuguese communities abroad
trainees. This brought the number of countries with In the second half of the 1970s, the emigration
which employment-related agreements have been of Portuguese nationals decreased, a trend that
signed to 12 (the other countries are: Belarus, became a great deal more pronounced during the
Belgium, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, 1980s. In 1980, approximately 18 000 permanent
Libya, Lithuania, Russia, the Slovak Republic, departures (for more than one year) were recorded,
Switzerland and Ukraine). compared with only 9 500 in 1988. Departures after
1988 are not comparable, since the type of passport
Readmission agreements have been signed on which the earlier data were based was abolished
with the co-signatories to the Schengen agreement in 1988. Free movement of Portuguese nationals
as well as with Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Croatia, within the European Union as of 1992 does not seem
Greece, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, the Slovak to have produced any significant upturn in perma-
Republic, Slovenia and Ukraine. Poland failed to nent emigration to Member countries. Since 1993
conclude a readmission agreement with her three the National Statistical Institute has been con-
neighbours Belarus, Lithuania and Russia. However, ducting a sample survey to estimate outflows.
in the case of Lithuania and Russia the talks are well Results indicate that approximately 33 000 Portu-
advanced. Negotiations are also in progress with the guese nationals emigrated in 1996 (an estimated
following countries: Albania, Algeria, Austria, 10 000 more than in 1995) (see Table II.27). The main
Bangladesh, Canada, Estonia, India, Kazakhstan, destinations were Germany, France and Switzerland.
Latvia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Vietnam. Seasonal migration accounted for a significant por-
tion of these outflows.
In an attempt to better co-ordinate migration Temporary emigration has generally increased
affairs in Poland, the Prime Minister issued in over the last decade. The major sectors employing
September 1997 an ordinance setting up an Inter- temporary migrants (agriculture, the hotel industry
Ministerial Team for Migration Affairs to serve the and construction) all experience strong seasonal and
Council of Ministers as an advisory body. The team cyclical fluctuations in their demand for labour.
is led by an under-secretary of state in the Ministry Alongside the slowdown in permanent emigration,
of the Interior and Administration and includes high- the trend for Portuguese migrants to return home,
level representatives of eight other ministries and which started in the 1980s, continues. In 1996 there
state organs. Its main duties include the evaluation were slightly over 20 000 returns, 60 per cent from
of the principles of migration policy; the evaluation European Union countries (mostly France) and
of specific regulations concerning migration and ref- 25 per cent from Switzerland and South Africa.
ugee affairs; contributing to the co-ordination of At the beginning of 1996 the Portuguese com-
activities of various state organs in the area of munity abroad totalled about 4.6 million, of whom
migration; taking initiatives on counteracting unde- more than a quarter are in Brazil. The other major
sirable aspects of migration, initiating research and countries of residence are France, followed by
preparing reports on migration for the Prime Canada, the United States, Germany and
Minister. Switzerland. Remittances from Portuguese nationals 151
Table II.27. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Portugal
1993 1994 1995 1996
Emigration1 33.2 29.1 22.6 32.8

of which: Women 10.5 6.9 5.9 8.8
Emigration according to the anticipated duration of stay abroad
Less than a year 17.6 21.3 13.4 ..
More than a year 15.6 7.8 8.1 ..
Emigration by region of destination
Europe 25.1 25.5 20.8 ..
Africa 2.8 1.5 1.0 ..
North America 2.2 1.3 – ..
Other 3.2 0.7 – ..
Returns of nationals (estimates) 31.7 20.3 17.4 20.1
First requests for a permit of permanent residence by region or country of
residence 9.9 5.7 5.0 ..
EU 1.8 2.3 2.5 ..
of which:
United Kingdom 0.5 0.6 0.7 ..
Germany 0.4 0.6 0.6 ..
Brazil 1.8 .. 0.7 ..
Other 6.3 3.4 1.8 ..
Foreign population2 131.6 157.1 168.3 172.9
By region of residence
Region of Lisboa 70.6 85.5 92.4 95.3
Region of Setubal 11.9 13.8 15.5 16.0
Other regions 49.1 57.7 60.3 61.6
By group of nationality
Africa 55.8 72.6 79.2 81.2
Europe 37.2 41.8 44.9 47.3
South America 21.9 24.8 25.9 27.7
North America 10.5 10.7 10.9 10.8
Acquisition of Portuguese nationality 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Foreign labour force3 63.1 77.6 84.4 86.8
By main industry division
Agriculture, forestry, fishing 16.2 18.5 19.8 ..
Mining and quarrying 4.3 4.6 4.8 ..
Manufacturing 3.0 3.2 3.4 ..
Electricity, gas and water supply 5.2 6.2 6.8 ..
Construction 3.1 5.3 6.7 ..
Sale, hotels and restaurant 0.9 1.0 1.1 ..
Other4 30.4 38.7 41.8 ..
By professional status
Self-employed 15.7 16.2 16.6 16.7
Wage earners 47.3 61.4 67.8 69.7
1. Results of a special survey (INE).

2. Figures include all foreigners who hold a valid residence permit (including those who benefited from the 1992-1993 and 1996 regularisation programmes).
3. Workers who hold a valid residence permit (including the unemployed). Data include workers who benefited from the 1992-1993 and 1996 regularisation
programmes.
4. Including the following economic activities: Transport, storage and communications; Financial intermediation, insurance and business services;
Community, social and personal services.
Sources: Survey on outflows (INE); Labour Force Survey (INE); Ministry of the Interior.
152
remain very high, amounting in 1996 to nearly 4 per some 110 400 births were recorded in Portugal. Of
cent of GDP, the majority coming from France, these, 7 420 children had a foreign mother or father.
Switzerland, the United States and Germany. Portuguese law has allowed dual nationality
Although Portuguese communities abroad are since 1981, but the number of naturalisations still
highly adaptable, they are nonetheless being remains low (see Table II.27). Mixed marriages
increasingly affected by unemployment, even accounted for just over 2 per cent of all marriages in
though sometimes to a lesser degree than other 1996. The majority were between Portuguese women
foreigners and even nationals themselves. and foreign men. These Portuguese women mainly
married Brazilians, Venezuelans, Germans and Cape
Verde nationals. The foreign wives of Portuguese
Immigration and the resident foreign population
men were mainly from Brazil, Cape Verde and
For 1996, inflows of new immigrants have been Venezuela.
estimated at roughly 4 600. Two-thirds of migrants,
mainly men, come from the Portuguese-speaking
African countries and about 12 per cent each from
Brazil and European Union countries. According to a Portugal experienced an exceptional increase in
survey by the National Statistical Institute, nearly the flow of asylum seekers in 1993 (about 2 000 peo-
5 000 immigrants made their first application for a ple), with Romanians accounting for nearly two-
permanent residence permit in 1995, 1 000 less than thirds of the total and Angolans for 20 per cent.
in the previous year (see Table II.27). Over half of Requests for asylum dropped sharply in 1994 and
these people are thought to have entered Portugal 1995. This trend continued in 1996 with only
for the first time in 1995. Most of the new holders of 216 applications.
residence permits are concentrated in the Lisbon
area, the Tagus valley and the Algarve. Half are less
than 30 years of age. Overall, nationals of OECD Foreigners and the labour market
Member countries account for nearly 60 per cent of
The employment of foreign workers in Portugal
these new residents. The other immigrants come
is governed by the Decree-Law of 17 March 1974
mainly from Brazil (14 per cent) and Portuguese-
under which the number of foreigners employed in
speaking African countries (6 per cent for Cape
firms with five or more employees must not exceed
Verde and the same percentage for Angola).
10 per cent of the total workforce. This rule does not
According to the data available, some 2 400 for- apply to nationals of European Economic Area coun-
eigners ceased to reside officially in Portugal in 1996 tries, nor to nationals of countries which have bilat-
(over a third of them were from South America, eral agreements with Portugal (notably Brazil and
20 per cent from Africa and 18 per cent from the Cape Verde). The rules governing the employment
European Union). Of this total, 950 left the country of foreigners are however under review with the aim
officially (departures) and 530 became Portuguese of eliminating employment quotas, improving their
citizens by naturalisation; deaths account for the legal status and combating illegal employment.
remainder.
In December 1996 the foreign labour force
In 1996 approximately 173 000 foreigners were totalled around 90 000 persons, which was
legally resident in Portugal, or 1.7 per cent of the 2 500 fewer than the previous year. Most foreign
total population (see Table II.27). Men (58.4 per workers are engaged in four types of activity: agricul-
cent) outnumbered women. Over half of foreigners ture, manufacturing industry, building and civil engi-
lived in the area (distrito) of Lisbon. 12.5 per cent neering, and services. Europeans are employed
lived in the Faro area, followed by Setubal (9.2 per mainly in scientific professions and service jobs,
cent) and Porto (6.2 per cent), while Bragança had whereas the vast majority of Africans are employed
the lowest percentage of foreigners (0.1 per cent). in industry and construction. Most Brazilians are
By nationality, Cape Verde nationals are the employed in services (teaching, health and other
most numerous (nearly 40 000), followed by scientific and technical professions). Nearly 80 per
Brazilians (20 000) and Angolans (16 500). There are cent of foreign workers are wage earners. Entrepre-
nearly 57 000 foreign nationals from OECD countries neurs and self-employed workers (nearly 17 000) are
(75 per cent from the European Union), who account mainly European, followed by Brazilians
for one-third of the total foreign population. In 1996 (see Table II.27). 153
At the end of 1996 there were approximately represents all Portuguese people living abroad who
444 000 persons unemployed in Portugal, 57 per wish to be involved. The council has one hundred
cent of whom were women. Unemployed foreigners elected members.
(4 100) accounted for fewer than 1 per cent of the
total. Angolan nationals were most vulnerable to
unemployment, for although they were only 9 per Immigration policy
cent of the foreign labour force they accounted for As in countries of long-standing immigration,
18 per cent of the unemployed foreigners. one facet of policy in Portugal seeks to control the
entry of foreigners more effectively though better
Policy developments border control, the strengthening of the police force
and more systematic detection of falsified docu-
Migration policy in Portugal has two facets, one ments. The Act of 3 March 1993 describes conditions
applicable to Portuguese residing abroad and the for the entry, residence, departure and expulsion of
other applicable to immigrants in Portugal. The two foreigners, with the goal of making all procedures
aspects of this policy reflect coherent goals and clearer and more effective. This Act is currently
explain the focus on migrants’ rights, their political under review. Moreover, there are plans to set up
and social integration in the host country, and objec- temporary centres to house foreigners attempting to
tive information concerning their contribution to enter Portugal illegally. In May 1996 Parliament
development. unanimously passed a law providing for an amnesty
for illegal immigrants.
Links with Portuguese nationals abroad The amnesty exercise was conducted between
June and December 1996. Eligibility was simplified
Portuguese residents abroad are represented
compared with the previous exercise (Octo-
by directly elected members of Parliament. Across
ber 1992-March 1993), in particular concerning the
the world there are about 2 000 associations created
foreigners’ economic circumstances. In addition,
by migrants or by their descendants. The aim of
management and labour organisations and immi-
emigration policy is to encourage political and social
grant associations were widely involved in the regu-
integration of Portuguese in the host country whilst
larisation procedures. The initial condition to be
respecting their national identity, and to maintain
met to qualify for regularisation was the date of
links with emigrant communities. Measures are
entry and residence in Portugal. Applicants who
therefore designed to safeguard and disseminate
were nationals of Portuguese-speaking countries
the Portuguese language, provide links between the
had to have entered Portugal before 31 Decem-
communities, and defend the interests and rights of
ber 1995 and to have resided there since that time.
Portuguese migrants. To this end, numerous
approaches have been developed. They include Other non-EU foreign nationals had to have
assistance for the teaching of Portuguese, grants to entered Portugal before 25 March 1995, when the
associations, missions and other agencies working Schengen Agreement came into force. A further con-
with foreign-resident Portuguese, socio-cultural dition was that applicants had to have adequate
exchanges, and vocational training programmes co- financial resources to support themselves (for exam-
funded by the European Social Fund. ple, gainful employment). Nationals of Portuguese-
There are other forms of aid, such as financial speaking countries were subject to the same mini-
assistance, legal, economic and social services, spe- mum economic conditions as those required of
cial bank accounts and preferential credit through an other immigrants, except for those who had entered
emigrant savings scheme which makes capital loans. before 1 January 1986.
Further measures were introduced in 1996, chiefly Individuals who had received a prison sentence
focusing on developing and modernising the ser- of over one year were not eligible, nor were individ-
vices of Portuguese consulates abroad and improv- uals who were subject to expulsion orders. Accord-
ing the dissemination of legal information to Portu- ing to the available data, 35 000 applications were
guese communities abroad (using the Internet, for accepted for review and 21 800 were granted, mainly
instance). In September 1996 Parliament unani- to nationals of Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea Bissau
mously passed a law setting up the Council of Portu- and Mozambique (see Table II.28). The officials
guese Communities, a body to advise the govern- responsible for this exercise were careful to correct
154 ment on policies for emigrant communities, which one of the main difficulties encountered during the
Table II.28. Regularisation programmes of immigrants discrimination against immigrants and combat xeno-
in an irregular situation by country of origin, 1992-1993 phobia and racism. Other measures adopted in 1996
and 1996, Portugal
concern the improvement of housing conditions,
Thousands
extending immigrants’ entitlement to social security
1992-1993 1996 services and the right of immigrant associations to
Angola 12.5 6.8 provide assistance in criminal proceedings arising
Cape Verde 6.8 5.0 out of racially motivated and xenophobic acts and
Guinea-Bissau 6.9 4.0 claim damages.
Sao Tome and Principe 1.4 2.0
Brazil 5.3 0.3 A directive of June 1996 authorises the creation
China 1.4 .. of alternative education streams to ensure that
Mozambique 0.8 ..
Other 4.1 3.7 immigrants and their children have equal access to
education and academic achievement. In August of
Total 39.2 21.8
the same year, another directive made it possible to
Source: Ministry of the Interior. develop multiannual projects for priority education
zones in order to improve the quality of education
and promote innovative approaches. Some of these
zones include areas with a high concentration of for-
previous regularisation, since many workers had not eign inhabitants.
been able to obtain written proof of employment
from their employer. This difficulty was resolved in Migration and development
1996 since proof of employment could be provided
by the trade union associations in the sector in Under the heading of co-operation policy,
which the applicant was employed or by the local measures have recently been taken to assist in the
authorities of their place of residence. development of university structures and vocational
training centres in Portuguese-speaking African
countries. Supporting the peace process and the
Integration of immigrant populations consolidation of emerging democracies in Africa is
another aspect of co-operation policy, as well as the
Other measures and resolutions recently promotion of joint business ventures between Por-
adopted in Portugal aim to facilitate the integration tuguese and African companies. Financial support is
of foreigners by guaranteeing assistance and by also extended to non-governmental organisations
combating social exclusion. As far as their political working with refugee populations or displaced per-
integration is concerned, the Portuguese Constitu- sons in Africa.
tion states that, subject to reciprocity, foreign
residents may be granted political rights. In Sep-
tember 1996 Parliament unanimously passed a law ROMANIA
enacting the European Union Directive on the par-
ticipation of nationals of other Member States in Introduction
local elections and granting the same right to other At the beginning of the 1990s, considerable out-
resident foreigners, subject to reciprocity. Moreover, flows of Romanian citizens both of non-Romanian
under the Nationality Act of 1981 Portuguese nation- and Romanian origin took place. Current estimates
ality can be obtained via declaration (minors, mar- of the outflow now suggest that it has fallen substan-
riage), full adoption by a Portuguese national, or tially and is stabilising at a relatively low level.
naturalisation (without renouncing original national- Return migration is showing signs of increasing,
ity) after at least six years’ residence in Portugal. although the numbers recorded remain relatively
In January 1996 a post of High Commissioner for small. Romania’s importance as a transit destination
Immigration and Ethnic Minorities was created in the East-West emigration flow is becoming
under the direct authority of the Prime Minister with increasingly apparent, however. Recently signed
the following principal terms of reference: to co- readmission agreements can be expected to check
ordinate support for immigrant integration at this trend.
interministerial level; to help raise the living stan- The present government’s resolute policy
dards of immigrants in Portugal while respecting reform which involves, inter alia, the liquidation or
their identity and their own culture; to abolish any privatisation of loss making enterprises in industry 155
and agriculture can be expected to have some under individual contracts of one to two years.
impact on migration flows: newly unemployed work- Recent policy developments point to an extension
ers may seek to emigrate; conversely, under foreign of such activities. Most notably, based on an agree-
ownership (which is likely for many companies) the ment between the Governments of Germany and
immigration of foreign technical and managerial per- Romania, 442 employment contracts of eighteen
sonnel can be expected to increase. months duration have recently been approved as
well as a further 4 800 contracts of three months
duration. The beneficiaries of these latter are young
Emigration
workers aged 18-35 years in possession of a solid
Estimates of emigration made by the Ministry of understanding of the German language. Unofficial
the Interior are based on two sources. First there are estimates of temporary labour migration greatly
compulsory customs forms completed by those exceed the modest figures above. For example,
intending to leave the country on a permanent between 35 000 and 40 000 Romanians are believed
basis. Added to these figures are data on those to be working in Israel.
already abroad who apply for the renewal of their The main flow of seasonal workers is directed
passport at a local embassy or consulate. The signifi- towards Hungary. In 1996 such seasonal workers
cant increase in 1995 was in all likelihood merely a numbered approximately 2 000, the majority of
statistical aberration reflecting an abnormally high whom are ethnic Hungarians from Transylvania.
number of requests for passport renewals. Abstract- Some have work permits whilst others manage to
ing from this, the medium-term trend of recorded secure work through the illegal labour market. For
permanent emigration appears to be one of moder- many the motivation to engage in such work is solely
ate steady growth following the sharp decline regis- pecuniary, for others the accomplishment of sea-
tered after the initial surge in the period 1990-92. sonal work in Hungary constitutes a preparatory
Over 95 per cent settle in OECD Member countries. stage of their integration in Hungary or in their fur-
There is evidence that the countries of destination ther westward migration.
are becoming more diffuse. Germany remains, how-
ever, the most popular destination. Receiving 30 per
Immigration
cent of the total as recorded by the Romanian
authorities (21 500), it accounted for half of those A clear trend has developed whereby, due in
accepted by the European Union. Reports from the part to return migration (particularly in the case of
German authorities indicate that the migration flows Greek citizens) and to the fact that since 1990 there
between the two countries are even greater. Reflect- has existed no institution with the authority to grant
ing the requirements laid down by the authorities in this status, the stock of immigrants with permanent
the recipient countries, almost 40 per cent of these resident status continues to decline, standing at
permanent emigrants were in the 26-40 years of age present at just over 1 600. The institutional defi-
bracket (see Chart II.12). They tend, moreover, to be ciency is expected to be remedied in the near
relatively highly qualified. The proportion of those future. Relatively liberal regulations governing entry
having passed through higher education increased to the country, in particular visa-free entry for tour-
by 4 per cent in 1996. ists, render futile any attempt at ascertaining the
number of temporary foreign residents. This caveat
notwithstanding, it would appear that the over-
Temporary emigration
whelmingly important stock of temporary residents
There are a number of forms of temporary emi- continues to increase; the estimated total in 1996
gration from Romania, mainly related to employ- was 81 000 (see Table II.29).
ment. Unlike permanent emigration which the Minis- Temporary residents can be classified into
try of the Interior monitors through customs forms three distinct groups: geographically mobile young
and passport registrations, temporary labour emi- Asians typically engaged in unskilled employment
gration is registered in the general flow of those and market trading, both of which in the informal
temporarily leaving Romania (5.7 million in 1996). sector; eastern Europeans who comprise in approxi-
A labour force survey conducted in 1995 sug- mately equal shares students and semi-skilled
gested that approximately 6 900 employees of pub- workers; and well-educated young professionals
lic and private sector companies were engaged in from Western Europe and North America who work
156 activities abroad (predominantly construction) for foreign companies or international corporations.
◆ Chart II.12. Demographic characteristics of permanent emigrants1,

1990-1996, Romania
Percentages
Sex Age groups

Men Women –18 18-25 26-40 40+
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1990 91 92 93 94 95 1996 1990 91 92 93 94 95 1996
Ethnic groups Destination countries

Romanians2 Germans Hungarians Other Germany United States France Other
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1990 91 92 93 94 95 1996 1990 91 92 93 94 95 1996
Educational attainment
Post-Secondary Secondary Vocational
Primary Other
100
80
60
40
20
1. Estimates by the Romanian Ministry of the Interior. Persons having
reported their intention to settle abroad.
0 2. Romanian nationals with no other declared ethnic affiliation.
1990 91 92 93 94 95 1996 Source: Ministry of the Interior.
157
Table II.29. Current migration figures, Romania

Thousands
1993 1994 1995 1996
Immigration and settlement of foreigners

Stock of persons with permanent residence status 2.1 1.8 1.7 1.6
Stock of persons with temporary residence visas1 53.3 54.1 55.2 55.7
of which:
Republic of Moldova .. .. 6.3 7.1
Greece .. .. 5.4 6.2
Turkey .. .. 4.8 5.1
China .. .. 4.2 4.4
Syria .. .. 4.1 4.1
Stock of foreign citizens in education and training 20.7 20.9 20.8 22.7
of which:
Former USSR 6.0 6.7 5.8 7.4
Greece 4.7 4.9 5.3 5.8
Israel 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.2
Naturalisation 0.3 – 0.1 0.1
Return migration 3.3 3.3 5.5 6.3
Asylum seekers and refugees
Refugee claims submitted 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.6
Refugee status granted – – 0.1 0.1
Illegal immigration
Number detected at border 1.6 1.2 1.1 1.0
Number detected within borders .. 3.8 4.0 4.2
Estimated stock of illegal migrants2 20.0 18.0 20.0 15.0
Expulsions
Romanian citizens expelled from other countries .. 15.1 10.5 18.1
Foreigners expelled from Romania 0.2 0.9 0.7 1.2
Romanian citizens in Germany:
A. Migration flows between Romania and Germany
Ethnic Germans from Romania 5.8 6.6 6.5 4.3
Inflows of Romanian nationals 81.6 31.4 24.8 17.1
Outflows of Romanian nationals 101.9 44.0 25.2 16.6
Asylum seekers from Romania 73.7 9.6 3.5 –
B. Stock of people from Romania in Germany
Stock of Romanian nationals 162.6 125.9 109.2 100.7
Acquisitions of German nationality by former Romanians 28.3 18.0 12.0 9.8
1. Residence permits valid for a period longer than 120 days.

2. Estimates based on the number of expulsions, the number of persons detected within Romania and at the border.
Sources: Romanian Ministry of the Interior; Statistiches Bundesamt (Germany).
Students and trainees Work permit holders

In 1996 almost 23 000 foreign citizens, over Work permit holders remain few in number
half of whom from Greece or the Republic of – less than 700 were issued in 1996. They are issued
Moldovia, came to Romania for the purpose of solely to unskilled workers. It would appear that
education and training, an increase of almost their cost – US$200 for the initial issue to which is
10 per cent on 1995. This increase is in large added US$50 for each subsequent six-month
part attributable to an increase in the number renewal – is a significant disincentive to their obten-
of scholarships awarded by the Romanian tion. Workplace inspections confirm the growing
158 government. presence of undocumented workers.
Naturalisations increasingly well organised year on year. It is within

this context that the fact that the number of those
Naturalisations remain few in number (none
detected at the border in 1996 fell by 14 per cent
were granted in 1996, fewer than one hundred in the
compared to 1995 should be viewed. Similarly, that
first half of 1997). The majority (three-quarters) are
the number of illegal immigrants caught having suc-
obtained upon completion of three years of mar-
cessfully penetrated the border increased by only
riage. The remainder have been granted to company
5 per cent in 1996 despite a doubling of the internal
proprietors and a small number of employees with
controls effected should not be taken as an indica-
permanent contracts. In almost all cases naturalised
tion that the illegal flow is diminishing. Over one
foreign citizens have retained their original
quarter of those apprehended at the border were
citizenship.
Turkish. Romania’s neighbours accounted for a fur-
ther 20 per cent. In addition to citizens of these
Asylum seekers and refugees countries, important flows of illegal immigrants are
Romania receives few applications for asylum. directed by emigration networks from Asia
At less than 600 principal beneficiaries the number (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Iran and Pakistan)
of claims is slightly down on 1995. and Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia). Since
1990, over 38 500 immigrants staying illegally have
Taking into account the UNHCR Recommenda- been apprehended on Romanian territory of whom
tions and with the intention of bringing Romania’s 87 per cent were subsequently granted a prolonga-
asylum and refugee procedures into line with those tion of their original temporary visa. In 1996 over
of the European Union, the Law on Refugee Status 1 200 illegal immigrants were expelled, an increase
and their Regime in Romania approved in May 1996 of just over 70 per cent on 1995 (see Table II.29).
was enacted in November of the same year. The
general tone of the law appears to be one of
increased clarification as to the processing and Readmission of Romanian citizens
rights of asylum seekers rather than a shift in the
Over 18 000 Romanian citizens were expelled
degree of stringency. Asylum seekers who fail to
and repatriated in 1996, an increase of over 70 per
receive refugee status are not necessarily returned.
cent on 1995. Almost 60 per cent of these were
In most cases they voluntarily leave Romanian
returned from Germany, with which Romania has
territory to continue their westward journey.
recently concluded a readmission agreement. A fur-
ther 1 700 Romanian citizens were apprehended at
Return migration the border whilst attempting to leave the country
In contrast to the position pre-1990, return illegally, a 14 per cent increase on 1995. The vast
migration is now actively encouraged. Repatriates majority were apprehended on the Hungarian
do not have to pay import duty on goods acquired border.
overseas and are given priority in purchasing a
dwelling (if it is paid for in foreign currency). As a Policy developments
complement to this policy, young persons of
Romanian origin are eligible for a limited number of In May 1996 the Romanian authorities extended
university scholarships (in 1995, 1 200). Between the list of States listed as countries of emigration to
1990 and 1996, 28 000 repatriation applications were 77. They set up at the same time a procedure
registered. In 1996, they numbered 6 265, a 16 per whereby individuals and legal entities who invite
cent increase on 1995. The figure for the first half of citizens of these countries to Romania are in general
1997, 3 300, confirms the upward trend. The propor- required to pay a surety. Legislation was enacted in
tion of males among the repatriates increased mark- 1997 to facilitate foreign direct investment (FDI).
edly in 1996 to two-thirds having remained steady at The provisions include a reduction in registration
52 per cent over the preceding four years. formalities, significant tax breaks and the freedom to
transfer profits and dividends abroad. These meas-
ures coupled with an increase in investment oppor-
Illegal immigration
tunities due to the privatisation programme can be
Romania is an important transit country in the expected to stimulate growth in FDI inflows and with
East-West migration flow. The entry, illegal tempo- them the inflow of foreign labour, in particular, of
rary stay and transit of foreigners is becoming managerial and technical personnel. 159
Readmission agreements Since the separation of the CSFR, the number of

Slovak workers in the Czech Republic has been ris-
The doubling of internal checks, mentioned
ing steadily (72 200 in 1996, see Table II.30),
above, is associated with the negotiation of a series
accounting for nearly half of all foreign workers. In
of readmission agreements between the Romanian
Austria, the total number of Czech and Slovak work-
government and those of other countries. In the first
ers (including those who do not specify to which of
half of 1997, agreements were signed with France,
the two republics of the former CSFR they belong)
Hungary and Spain. These agreements also include
has been falling since 1993.
provision for increased co-operation between
enforcement agencies, the exchange of expertise
and technical assistance. Immigration
Given the unreliability of the sources, it is not
SLOVAK REPUBLIC possible to determine the exact size of migration
Introduction flows. As the immigration monitoring system is
being overhauled, the data collected by the
Since 1994, the Slovak economy has been per- National Statistical Institute and the police services
forming strongly: real GDP has grown, labour pro- are still very piecemeal. If one considers only per-
ductivity has increased, inflation has been brought manent migration flows (registered changes of per-
under control, and progress is being made in the manent residence), in 1994 the migration balance
implementation of industrial policy. However, it is became negative for the first time since the Slovak
still heavily dependent on foreign trade. The struc- Republic was established. This can be attributed to
ture of its exports, most of which consist of labour- two reasons: first, the growing imbalance of flows
intensive products, could eventually impede its between the two republics, and second, the small
development. As regards migration, continuing scale of permanent immigration flows.
unemployment and low employment growth consti-
Long-term residence permits (for employment
tute the main incentives to emigrate. Furthermore,
purposes) or permanent ones (for family reunion)
the Slovak Republic, unlike the Czech Republic, is a
were issued mainly to nationals of neighbouring
country of transit, not of immigration. Finally, une-
countries: the Czech Republic, Ukraine, Poland and
qual regional development and the ethnic diversity
Hungary. Official immigration for employment pur-
of the population are major sources of concern for
poses has been falling steadily since 1993
the government.
(see Table II.30). However, flows of permanent resi-
dence permit holders are rising very slightly, proba-
Emigration bly due to family reunion of Czech nationals.
For administrative reasons, emigration flows to
the Czech Republic were concentrated mostly over Refugees and asylum seekers
the period 1992-94. When the Czech and Slovak
Federal Republic (CSFR) was divided on 1 Janu- Flows of asylum seekers, insignificant in 1993,
ary 1993, Czech law did not allow Slovak nationals have since been rising steadily. From January to
working in Czech territory to keep double national- June 1997, over 400 applications were filed and
ity. In order to obtain Czech nationality, many of processed with a slight delay. In January 1997, nearly
them registered as permanent residents of the 350 refugees were resident in the Slovak Republic.
Czech Republic. This resulted, in the statistics of the Another 450 or so have the (temporary) status of war
Czech Republic, in a flow of immigration from the refugee.
Slovak Republic. Since 1994, Czech sources show a
steep decline in flows of permanent migrants from Foreign community and ethnic composition
the Slovak Republic, though those flows are still of the population
larger than those of Czech residents settling perma-
nently in the Slovak Republic. For historical reasons, the ethnic composition of
the Slovak Republic is diverse. In the last census,
over 10 per cent of the population declared that
Slovak nationals abroad
they were of Hungarian origin, 1.4 per cent Gypsy,
The main host countries for Slovak nationals are and 1 per cent Czech. The political weight of the
160 the Czech Republic, Austria, Germany and Hungary. Hungarian minority is considerable at both the local
Table II.30. Current migration figures, Slovak Republic

1993 1994 1995 1996
Inflows of permanent residents 9.1 4.9 4.6 2.5

Arrivals (excluding those from the Czech Republic) 1.9 1.8 3.1 1.5
Arrivals from the Czech Republic 7.2 3.1 1.5 1.0
Outflows of permanent residents 7.4 4.1 4.1 3.6
Departures (excluding those to the Czech Republic)1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
Departures to the Czech Republic2 7.3 4.1 3.8 3.5
Net migration 1.8 0.8 0.5 –1.1
Residence permits granted by category
Long-term residence permits
Employment 3.7 1.7 1.1 ..
Business 1.2 1.1 0.9 ..
Study 0.6 1.0 0.6 ..
Other 0.3 0.3 0.4 ..
Total 5.7 4.1 3.0 ..
Permanent residence permits
Family reunification 0.9 2.2 1.9 ..
Other 0.2 0.1 0.3 ..
Total 1.0 2.4 2.2 ..
Illegal migrants caught at the border 2.2 1.9 2.9 ..
Holders of a long-term residence permit, by country of origin3
Czech Republic .. .. 1.1 2.5
Former Yugoslavia .. .. 1.0 ..
Ukraine .. .. 0.9 ..
Poland .. .. 0.8 ..
Other .. .. 7.4 ..
Total .. .. 11.2 18.0
Work permit holders, by country of origin4
Ukraine .. 0.5 0.4 0.6
Poland .. 0.4 0.3 0.5
Other .. 1.6 1.8 1.8
Total .. 2.7 2.7 3.3
Estimates of Czech workers5 1.4 1.2 1.2 ..
Slovak citizens abroad
Slovak workers in the Czech Republic 23.3 39.2 59.3 72.2
% of total foreign workers in the Czech Republic 45.3 54.4 53.0 50.4
Slovak citizens in Hungary .. 3.4 3.5 3.7
% of total registered foreigners in Hungary .. 2.5 2.5 2.6
Slovak workers in Austria 0.5 1.8 2.8 3.7
% of total foreign workers in Austria 0.2 0.7 1.4 1.4
1. The outflow is underreported because people leaving the country are requested but not required to report their departure.
2. Changes of permanent residence in the Czech Republic. The data are issued by the Czech Statistical Office.
3. The data refer to the stock of long-term residents as of 31 August 1995 and 30 September 1997.
4. The data refer to the stock of work permit holders as of 31 December of the years indicated.
5. Under a bilateral agreement signed by the Czech and Slovak Republics in 1992, nationals of each Republic have free access to both labour markets.
Estimates of Czech workers are made by the Ministry of Labour.
Sources: Ministry of Labour and the Slovak Republic Employment Service; Czech Statistical Office.
161
and national levels. It has also has a large press SPAIN

group. Gypsies are the second largest minority and
the one that poses the biggest integration problem Introduction
in the eyes of the public. Aggressive policies A number of policy measures have had an
targeted specifically at this group are called for by impact on the recent trend of migration flows in
the level of education of this ethnic group, which on Spain. It has been made easier for people of Span-
average is lower than that of the rest of the popula- ish nationality or origin to return to Spain, and, since
tion; its greater vulnerability to unemployment; a 1993, a quota for the number of new non-EU workers
certain amount of rejection by the rest of the com- admitted has been in place. The legislation on the
munity; and problems of delinquency. right of asylum has been amended in order to make
The foreigners legally residing in the Slovak the criteria for eligibility more stringent. Since
Republic (see the number of long-term residence 26 March 1996, the Schengen Agreements have been
permit holders in Table II.30) come mainly from bor- in force and Spain has reinforced controls of the
dering or neighbouring countries – the Czech Schengen Area’s external borders. Lastly, Spain
Republic, the former Yugoslavia, Ukraine and implemented a third regularisation programme
Poland – and live mainly in Bratislava and western between 23 April and 23 August 1996.
Slovak Republic.
Spanish emigration and return flows
Employment of foreigners The number of Spaniards emigrating as
recorded by the Directorate-General for Migration
Excepting permanent residents, refugees,
has been falling steadily since the 1980s; in 1996 it
Czech nationals and other foreigners employed
was only about 9 000 (see Table II.31). Spanish emi-
under intergovernmental agreements, a foreigner
gration was limited almost entirely to three Euro-
wishing to work in the Slovak Republic must have a
pean countries: France (60 per cent), followed by
work permit. The number of work permit holders
Belgium and Switzerland (16 per cent each). Most of
increased from 2 700 to 3 000 between 1995 and
these new migrants do not wish to settle in the host
1996. Over half of them are in the Bratislava area.
country and generally hold temporary or seasonal
Ukrainian, Polish, US and UK nationals are the most
jobs, mainly in agriculture and construction. Spanish
numerous (see Table II.30). Nearly a third of them
emigration to other continents, and in particular to
are employed by foreign companies.
the Americas (3.5 per cent) and Africa (3 per cent), is
almost negligible. Spanish investments in South
Recent migration trends America and expanding trade with the countries of
this region have had little impact on migration flows.
In response to the growing number of persons
On the other hand, the number of Spaniards
crossing Slovak borders (90 million in 1995 com-
returning to Spain has increased. Thus, in 1996, the
pared with 41 million in 1993), the Slovak Republic
number of individuals whose names were struck
decided to require foreign migrants to show that
from the lists at consulates (27 000) rose sharply in
they have the means to support themselves during
comparison with the previous three years. Nearly
their stay.
two-thirds of the returns recorded concerned indi-
The new law on the employment of foreigners viduals previously residing in European countries,
in the Slovak Republic and on the employment primarily, in descending order, Switzerland, the
abroad of Slovak nationals with the assistance of the United Kingdom, Germany, and France. Emigrants
Ministry of Labour took effect on 1 January 1997. returning from the Americas came mainly from
Bilateral agreements govern both the employment Venezuela, the United States, and Argentina.
of Slovak nationals abroad and that of the co-
signatory’s nationals in the Slovak Republic. Such
Immigration and the foreign population
agreements have been concluded with Germany,
the Czech Republic, Poland and the Federation of Foreigners must first obtain a legal right of
Russia, and are being negotiated with Austria, establishment (not required for EU nationals) before
Ukraine, Romania and Hungary. Agreements on a residence permit can be issued. The number of
exchanges of trainees have been signed with residence permits granted rose from 12 300 in 1993
162 Switzerland, Luxembourg, Finland, and Austria. to 15 700 in 1994. These figures give only an approxi-
Table II.31. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, Spain
Thousands
1993 1994 1995 1996 1993 1994 1995 1996
Outflows of nationals 13.0 12.1 14.4 9.0 Total work permits granted2 93.7 88.6 100.3 121.7
of which: Outflows to a European country 8.8 6.6 9.1 8.1 of which: Women 26.4 25.3 29.5 39.0
By industry division
Returns of nationals 21.0 20.4 18.5 26.6 Agriculture 13.2 18.7 18.9 24.0
Industry 9.0 6.9 7.5 8.4
Stock of foreign residents1 430.4 461.4 499.8 539.0 Building 12.6 9.4 10.4 11.8
By region of origin Services 58.9 50.6 57.2 70.8
Europe 217.5 238.5 254.5 273.3 Not specified – 3.1 6.3 6.7
America 96.8 103.3 108.9 121.3 By region of origin
Africa 79.3 82.6 95.8 98.8 Africa 49.3 49.5 57.4 66.8
Asia 34.9 35.7 38.5 43.4 Central and South America 22.8 20.2 22.7 30.0
Oceania 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 Asia 11.3 11.0 11.8 15.2
Stateless 1.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 Europe (except EU)3 8.1 6.1 6.6 8.0
Not specified – – 0.9 0.8 North America 2.1 1.7 1.6 1.6
By region of residence Oceania and other 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Madrid 86.1 93.7 93.0 111.1 By type of permit
Barcelona 57.7 65.1 78.0 84.5 Long term work permits
Alicante 36.6 38.8 39.5 42.7 Employees 12.4 6.6 4.6 28.1
Other 250.1 263.9 289.4 300.7 Self employed 2.1 2.3 2.0 4.6
One-year work permit
Acquisition and recovery of Spanish nationality Employees 65.5 68.2 83.3 79.9
Applications for recovering Spanish nationality 9.7 8.3 6.6 .. Self employed 10.9 9.6 8.5 6.9
Applications for acquiring Spanish nationality 8.8 10.9 12.7 .. Other4 2.7 1.9 2.0 2.1
Grants of Spanish nationality
(excluding persons recovering their Spanish nationality) 8.4 7.8 6.8 8.4 Stock of foreign workers5 117.4 121.8 139.0 161.9
1. Stock of foreigners who hold a residence permit. Permits of short duration (less than 6 months) as well as students are excluded. Data refer to the population on 31 December of the years indicated and include permits delivered following the 1991 and 1996
regularisation programmes.
2. Total permits issued, including seasonal and cross-border workers and renewals of permits. Provisional figures for 1996.
3. Since 1 January 1992, the nationals of the European Union do not need a work permit.
4. Seasonal and cross-border workers.
5. Data are for 31 December of each year and are counts of valid work permits. Workers from the EU are not included. Data include work permits delivered following the 1991 and 1996 regularisation programmes. Provisional data for 1996.
Sources: General Directorate on Migration; Ministry of Labour and Social Security; Ministry of Justice.

163
mate indication of inflows since EU nationals are not land, one out of two foreigners lives in Madrid,
counted and exemptions from the residence permit Barcelona, Alicante or Malaga. The first two cities are
requirement (11 000 in 1994) are generally granted major economic hubs, while the last two are mainly
to individuals already living in Spain. tourist centres. In Madrid and Barcelona non-EU
At the end of 1995, some 500 000 foreigners workers are predominant, especially Moroccans
held residence permits, of whom nearly 60 per cent and Peruvians, while UK citizens are by far the
were either nationals of an EU country or relatives most numerous in the cities with large tourist
EU national citizens (this figure does not include populations.
permits valid for less than six months and those
granted to students). At 31 December 1996, the for- Asylum seekers
eign population (approximately 540 000 people)
The number of persons applying for asylum in
accounted for 1.3 per cent of the total population
1995 (5 700) fell by half compared with the previous
(see Table II.31). The rise in the proportion of EU
year. This decline continued in 1996 with
nationals and of relatives of EU citizens (nearly
4 700 applications. The more restrictive measures
320 000 in 1996 as compared with 180 000 in 1992) in
that came into force in mid-1994 no doubt lie
the total foreign population reflects both the
behind this trend. In 1996 applicants came mainly
increase in trade with neighbouring countries
from Romania, Iran, Cuba, Liberia and Nigeria.
(France and Portugal, but also Germany and the
According to the statistics of the Office for Asylum
United Kingdom) and the tighter immigration policy
and Refugees, a total of nearly 72 000 individuals
regarding non-EU nationals.
applied for asylum or refugee status between 1988
The annual rate of increase of non-EU immi- and 1996. Poles were the largest group, followed by
grants has remained relatively low and stable over Romanians and Peruvians. In all, these three nation-
the past five years (an annual average of 0.7 per alities accounted for over a third of the applications.
cent). In 1996 Moroccan immigrants were the largest However, during this period refugee status was
single group (78 000), followed by nationals of the primarily granted to nationals of Cuba, Bosnia-
United Kingdom (69 000) and Germany (46 000). Herzegovina and Iran. On average, roughly 9 per
There were some 38 000 Portuguese and cent of requests for asylum were granted during this
33 000 French nationals. The presence of nationals period.
of South American and Caribbean countries reflects
Spain’s continuing ties with the Americas. Yet, the Naturalisation
number of Argentineans fell between 1994 and 1996
and the number of Chileans has remained stable In 1996 the number of individuals acquiring
since 1993. This trend coincides with a period of Spanish nationality increased (nearly 8 500 com-
economic development and political stability in pared with 6 800 in 1995). Roughly two-thirds of
these two countries. The fact that a large number of them were from South American (Argentina, Peru
Argentineans and Chileans living in Spain have and Colombia) and Caribbean countries (Dominican
acquired Spanish nationality has also held totals Republic and Cuba). Naturalisation of individuals of
down. Asian origin (Philippines and China) rose sharply, as
did that of nationals of Equatorial Guinea. The
On the other hand, migration flows from the
downward trend in the naturalisation of Moroccans
Andean area (Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador) and the
that began in 1993 continued in 1996.
Dominican Republic have followed a rising trend
during the 1990s, largely because there are networks
of these communities established in Spain and Foreigners and the labour market
because of the deteriorating economic, political and According to preliminary data, some
social situation in these countries. It should be 122 000 work permits were issued in 1996 (compared
pointed out that migration from the Andean area has with 100 000 in 1995). This included permits for sea-
a significant female component. This is due to spe- sonal and cross-border workers, new permits and
cific demand for domestic services and care for the renewals. After following a downward trend since
elderly in the Spanish market. 1991, the number of permits rose by 20 per cent in
At the end of 1996, two out of three foreign 1996 because of the regularisation programme car-
residents were living in one of four Spanish prov- ried out that year (see Table II.31). Since 1992 EU
164 inces or the Balearic or Canary Islands. On the main- nationals are no longer required to have work per-
mits and are therefore not included in these Table II.32. Regularisation programmes of foreigner
statistics. in an irregular situation, 1991 and 1996, Spain
Thousands
Of the 120 000 foreigners who obtained a permit
1991 1996
in 1996 (or whose work permit was renewed), over
half came from Africa (primarily from Morocco) and Kind of permits granted and sector of activity 108.4 21.31
nearly a quarter from Latin America (Dominican Combined residence and work permits 108.4 13.8
Agriculture 15.5 1.7
Republic and Peru). Among the nationals of Asian Industry 8.4 0.5
countries the Chinese and Filipinos were most Construction 16.6 2.1
numerous, and Poles were the largest group from Personal services 23.3 3.1
Hotel 13.6 2.2
non-EU European countries. If a comparison is made Trade 9.3 1.6
based on the number of permits granted by sex, Transport 1.2 0.3
more work permits were granted to women than to Other services 16.8 1.7
Other 3.8 0.7
men for nationals of the Dominican Republic, Peru,
Residence permits – 7.5
the Philippines and Colombia.
1. During this programme, two kinds of permits could be issued:
Holders of work permits are mainly employed – a two-year (three-year in some cases) combined residence and work
permit without restriction on geographical or professional mobility.
in domestic or social services (30 per cent), agricul- The duration of the permit is limited to one year for the members of
ture (19 per cent), construction and transport (9 per the family.
– a residence permit which does not allow to work.
cent), and hotels and catering (9 per cent). Nearly Source: Ministry of the Interior.
20 per cent of the permits granted in 1996 were
issued to skilled workers and roughly 10 per cent to
self-employed workers.
Since 1993 quotas for non-EU workers have Policy developments
been set annually by the government. In theory,
these quotas for recruiting new workers (between New legislation on the right of asylum took
15 000 and 20 000, depending on the year) were a effect in June 1994. Its main objective is to bring the
means of filling vacancies left unfilled by nationals. legislation into line with international standards.
Another objective was to prevent the employment The distinction between asylum seekers and refu-
of undocumented foreigners in strenuous or sea- gees was abolished, while the rights of refugees (as
sonal jobs (agriculture, construction, domestic ser- defined by the Geneva Convention) with respect to
vices, hotels and catering). In reality, the workers residence and work were strengthened. The
who obtained permits were mostly undocumented processing of applications has been speeded up. A
immigrants, to whom the authorities had given prior- more direct link has been established between the
ity over other forms of recruitment. The regularisa- rejection of an application and the expulsion of the
tions of 1991 and 1996 clearly showed that this was individual concerned.
the case. The Act of 2 November 1995 amended the leg-
islation regarding the recovery of Spanish national-
ity. Prior to this Act returning emigrants who wished
The 1996 regularisation programme to recover their Spanish nationality had to obtain an
The amnesty for undocumented immigrants exemption from the ten-year legal residence
decided in 1996 was carried out over a five-month requirement. This formality is no longer required.
period, between April and August of that year. It Under the new Aliens Act (February 1996), a
gave some foreigners without papers the possibility programme of regularisation was implemented
of obtaining either a work and residence permit, or a between April and August 1996 (see above). The
residence permit only, depending on the individual programme largely benefited foreigners who had
case. Preliminary results show that a substantial pro- not been able to renew their residence or work per-
portion of those who benefited from the programme mits. A quarter of the foreigners covered by the 1991
(some 20 000 people) had previously held a permit regularisation programme had not had their permits
(see Table II.32). These were individuals who had renewed in 1994.
entered Spain legally, mostly during the period In January 1996 there was an initial assessment
1986-91, but were now undocumented because their of the policy for integrating immigrants laid down by
work permits had not been renewed. the Plan for the Social Integration of Immigrants 165
approved by the Spanish government in Decem- Swedish nationals, which jumped from 1 000 to
ber 1994. New measures were decided upon in nearly 20 000. Outflows of foreigners have ranged
order to improve the legal situation of foreigners. A between 11 000 and 16 000 since the end of the
free legal assistance and protection network was cre- 1980s, standing at 14 500 in 1996, most of whom
ated. Furthermore, under amendments to the Penal were nationals of Nordic countries.
Code, various offences can be sanctioned more
Foreigners, other than Nordic country nationals
heavily when racist or xenophobic factors are
must have a residence permit in order to reside in
involved.
Sweden. In 1996 some 32 000 people obtained per-
Since January 1997 a special body under the mits. Three-quarters of these were issued to immi-
supervision of the Ministry of Labour and Social grants entering for the purpose of family reunion or
Affairs has been responsible for the social integra- to refugees. Of the remaining permits, 5 200 were
tion of immigrants and assistance programmes for granted to nationals of countries of the European
refugees. Economic Area (see Table II.33). Immigration specifi-
The General Electoral System Act was amended cally to enter the labour market remained marginal,
in May 1997 to enable all European citizens residing with fewer than 300 permanent resident permits
in Spain to vote or run for office in municipal elec- being granted for this purpose in 1996. These are
tions. A clause in the legislation provides non-EU restricted to highly skilled individuals recruited in
foreign residents the same rights, subject to industry, self-employed workers and those in the
reciprocity. liberal professions. There are also temporary work
permits, which are not counted in the annual migra-
SWEDEN tion statistics. These short-term permits are mainly
granted to seasonal workers. In 1996, for example,
Introduction 8 400 temporary permits were issued, mostly in the
horticultural sector.
Since 1993 unemployment has been around
8 per cent in Sweden, having previously been under The overall contribution of immigration to
5 per cent. Workers in the construction sector were Sweden’s total population can be evaluated by
the hardest hit by this increase in unemployment. adding the stock of foreigners residing in the coun-
However, it appears that Sweden’s economy is cur- try, the stock of individuals born abroad and chil-
rently in a period of expansion and that the effects dren at least one of whose parents was born abroad.
of the policies recently implemented to stimulate After eliminating any double counting, the figure for
the labour market should be felt in the course 1996 amounted to 1.6 million people, or 18 per cent
of 1998. of the total population.
– At the end of 1996 there were some 940 000 per-
Migration movements and change in the foreign sons living in Sweden who were born abroad (see
population Table II.33). Over half of them had Swedish
nationality. Nearly 40 per cent had lived in
In 1996, the net migration gain was 6 000, only Sweden for more than 20 years, while 20 per cent
one-fifth of the average of previous years. In 1993 had only arrived within the last five years. Half of
and 1994, inflows rose significantly, peaking in 1994 these recent immigrants were born outside
at 75 000, to then fall substantially in 1995 (see Europe, whereas most of the immigrants who had
Table II.33). These fluctuations were mainly due been in the country for over ten years ago were
to inflows from the former Yugoslavia, with born in a Nordic country.
42 000 entries in 1994 and only 7 000 the following
year. In 1996, immigration rose slightly in compari- – At the end of 1996 there were slightly more than
son with the previous year, returning to the average 630 000 Swedish nationals who were born in
annual level of the late 1980s and early 1990s, Sweden of at least one foreign born parent.
i.e. some 40 000 entries. While entries of Swedish – At the end of 1996 there were approximately
nationals are rising and accounted for one-quarter of 527 000 foreigners residing in Sweden, more than
total arrivals in 1996, inflows of foreigners fell by 80 per cent of whom were born abroad (see
20 per cent to roughly 29 000. Table II.33). Nationals of Nordic countries
The very sharp rise in total emigration between accounted for nearly one-third of the foreign
166 1995 and 1996 was exclusively due to departures of population.
Table II.33. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Sweden
1993 1994 1995 1996 1993 1994 1995 1996
Inflows of foreigners by region and country of origin1 54.9 74.8 36.1 29.3 Grants of permanent permits by category of admission2 58.9 79.1 32.4 31.7
Nordic countries 5.2 6.2 6.3 5.6 Family reunification 19.8 26.0 19.7 18.8
of which: Refugees 36.5 44.9 5.6 4.8
Finland 2.5 2.8 2.8 2.6 EEA-agreement – 6.0 4.7 5.2
Norway 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.5 Foreign students 1.6 1.1 1.5 1.5
Denmark 1.2 1.8 1.8 1.4 Adopted children 0.9 0.9 0.8 1.1
Other countries 49.7 68.6 29.8 23.8 Employment 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3
of which:
Iraq 4.6 3.5 2.3 2.1 Stock of foreign population3 507.5 537.4 531.8 526.6
Former Yugoslavia 24.0 41.5 7.1 2.0 Nordic countries 169.4 166.4 163.7 160.8
United States 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.1 Finland 108.9 106.7 104.9 103.1
Norway 33.9 33.0 32.3 31.7
Outflows of foreigners by nationality1 14.8 15.8 15.4 14.5 Denmark 26.6 26.7 26.5 26.0
Nordic countries 7.4 6.6 6.7 6.5 Other countries 338.1 371.0 368.1 365.8
of which: of which:
Finland 2.9 2.6 2.9 2.9 Former Yugoslavia 32.4 40.4 38.4 36.6
Norway 2.9 2.4 2.2 2.0 Iran 36.1 32.7 29.3 27.2
Denmark 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 Iraq 16.3 19.0 21.3 22.8
of which: Persons with foreign background4 1 163.6 1 598.5 1 630.1 1 656.6
United States 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.8 Foreign-born 869.1 922.1 936.0 943.8
United Kingdom 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 Swedish citizens 455.6 477.9 497.3 510.6
Foreigners 413.4 444.2 438.7 433.2
Net migration of foreigners by nationality1 40.0 59.0 20.7 14.9 Born in Sweden 294.5 676.5 694.0 712.8
Nordic countries –2.2 –0.4 –0.4 –1.0 Swedish citizens5 200.4 583.2 613.8 632.3
of which: Foreigners 94.1 93.2 80.2 80.5
Finland –0.4 0.2 –0.1 –0.2
Norway –1.4 –0.8 –0.5 –0.5 Stock of foreign labour6 221 213 220 218
Denmark –0.4 0.2 0.2 –0.2 Nordic nationals 97 91 91 90
Other countries 42.2 59.4 21.1 15.8 Non nordic nationals 124 122 130 128
of which:
United States 0.2 – 0.2 0.3 Acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality 42.7 35.1 32.0 25.6
Asylum seekers 37.6 18.6 9.0 5.8 Turkey 4.2 2.7 2.8 2.0
of which: Finland 3.1 3.0 2.1 2.0

Iraq 2.3 1.7 1.8 1.6 Other countries 24.4 23.0 23.5 19.1

1. Data are from population registers and refer to persons who declare their intention to stay in Sweden for longer than one year. Figures do not include asylum seekers who are waiting for decisions and temporary workers.
2. Residence permits are not required for Nordic citizens.
4. Foreign background, first or second generation immigrant only.
5. Young persons (up to 17) with at least one parent born abroad.
6. Annual average from the Labour Force Survey.
Sources: Swedish Immigration Board; Statistics Sweden.
167
– Approximately 53 per cent of foreign immigrants Greece, Italy, Tunisia and Morocco are the most
born abroad have acquired Swedish nationality. likely to start their own business.
The number of naturalisations has been declining The unemployment rate of foreigners was
steadily since 1993, dropping from 42 700 that 14 per cent in 1996, compared to 6 per cent for
year to 25 600 in 1996. Nationals of the former Swedish nationals. Between 1990 and 1996, the
Yugoslavia and Turkey are the two largest groups unemployment rate of foreigners rose considerably,
acquiring Swedish nationality. climbing from less than 4 per cent to 13 per cent for
nationals of Nordic countries, and from roughly 5 to
Refugees and asylum seekers 31 per cent for the nationals of other countries.
There were only 5 800 asylum seekers in 1996, a

small number in comparison with the peak figure of Policy developments
84 000 applications in 1992. This decline was largely As of March 1996, the administration of migra-
due to the sharp drop in applications by nationals of tion policy and integration policy has been divided
the former Yugoslavia, which fell from 69 400 in 1992 between two ministries. The Ministry of Foreign
to barely 1 000 in 1996. This change was due not Affairs is now in charge of migration policy; integra-
only to the improved situation in Bosnia, but also tion policy became the responsibility of the Ministry
to the introduction of visas for nationals of Bosnia- of the Interior.
Herzegovina to enter Sweden as of June 1993. Simi-
An amendment to the Aliens Act regarding refu-
lar measures were taken in the same year for nation-
gees came into force in January 1997. It defined refu-
als of Serbia-Montenegro and the former Yugoslav
gee status more flexibly than the 1951 Geneva Con-
Republic of Macedonia, and in 1994 (although these
vention. Individuals may be recognised as refugees
measures were later abolished) for people from
even if their country is not one of the so-called
Haiti Côte d’Ivoire, the Gambia, Niger, Togo and
‘‘unsafe’’ countries. Refugees are foreigners who are
Uganda. In 1996, Iraqis were the largest group of
outside the country of their nationality and are
asylum seekers (1 600).
afraid of being persecuted in their country because
In 1996, only 4 800 asylum seekers obtained a of their race, nationality, membership of a social or
residence permit in Sweden, nearly 2 000 of whom religious group or political opinions. This definition
were Iraqis. Some 100 people obtained Geneva applies whether the refugees are afraid of being
Convention refugee status, but there are other forms persecuted by their government, or whether the lat-
of refugee status in Sweden for which the required ter is unable to provide adequate protection and
conditions are less stringent. However, the terms de safety from persecution. The law also covers state-
facto refugee or ‘‘war-resister’’ will no longer be used less persons.
in defining refugee status. Following a government In September 1990 Sweden ratified the United
decision in April 1994, some 20 000 Kosovo Albani- Nations Convention on Children’s Rights. This Con-
ans who entered Sweden as asylum seekers before vention has not been incorporated into Swedish leg-
1 January 1993 were granted permanent resident islation, but the government announced that the
permits on humanitarian grounds. legislation on aliens was in compliance with the UN
Convention on Children’s Rights, and that only a few
Foreigners and the labour market clarifications remained to be made. An important
provision was included, requiring that the health,
There are 218 000 foreigners in the labour force development and interest of the child be consid-
in Sweden, or 5 per cent of the overall total. The ered. As a result, the legal authorities must take the
participation rate of foreigners is relatively low com- presence of children into account when issuing a
pared to that of nationals, which was roughly 80 per residence permit on humanitarian grounds. The
cent in 1996. That of nationals of Nordic countries is measures applying to children in the Aliens Act,
just under 60 per cent, and that of nationals of non- which previously concerned persons under age
Nordic countries is particularly low at 35 per cent. of 16, now concern those under the age of 18.
Between 1991 and 1994, 17 per cent of entre- In September 1997 the Government submitted
preneurs were foreigners. They are found in all sec- a bill to Parliament entitled ‘‘Sweden, the future and
tors of activity, but mostly in the service sector (fam- a pluralist society – From immigration policy to inte-
168 ily businesses). Foreigners born in Turkey, Syria, gration policy’’. The objectives of this policy are to
ensure equal rights and opportunities for all, regard- als of the former Yugoslavia (19 per cent), followed
less of ethnic or cultural origin, and to promote by Germans (12 per cent), Portuguese (7 per cent),
social cohesion and development in an atmosphere and Italians (7 per cent). Of these arrivals, women
of tolerance and mutual respect. outnumbered men by a slim margin (52 women to
48 men). Conversely, 77 women left Switzerland for
every 53 men. On average, immigrants were younger
SWITZERLAND
than emigrants, with the under-35 age group
Introduction accounting for 67 and 61 per cent, respectively.
In Switzerland, 1996 was considered a year of
economic recession. Once again, annual GDP growth Refugees and asylum seekers
was negative; inflation ran at only 0.8 per cent.
Unemployment, which had been held at less than After dropping sharply (by 35 per cent between
1 per cent in the early 1990s, reached 4.7 per cent 1993 and 1994), applications for asylum rose once
in 1996. again, reaching 18 000 in 1996 (see Table II.34). A
third of those applications were from citizens of the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and the others pri-
Migration and changes in the resident foreign marily from Sri Lanka (11 per cent), Turkey (7 per
population cent), Bosnia and Herzegovina (7 per cent), and the
As of 31 December 1996, the resident foreign Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire, 4 per
population of Switzerland, i.e. persons holding per- cent).
manent or one-year permits, stood at 1.3 million. That same year, persons granted refugee status
Since 1984 the share of foreigners in the total popu- accounted for 12 per cent of all adjudicated cases.
lation has consistently risen – from 15 to 19 per cent Acceptance rates varied widely, depending on
in 1996 – showing an overall increase of more than nationality and the political situation in the appli-
40 per cent in 12 years. Yet, the rate of increase has cants’ home countries. For instance, the rate was
slowed since year-end 1993 due to reduced inflows 1 per cent for Sri Lankan citizens but 90 per cent for
as well as a greater number of recorded departures. Vietnamese.
Between 1995 and 1996 the foreign population
grew by 7 000 (see Table II.34). This rise can be
Employment of foreigners
attributed to positive net migration and natural
growth (at 6 600 and 14 000 respectively), as well as The number of foreigners entering Switzerland
to conversions of seasonal permits to one-year per- in order to work – not including cross-border or sea-
mits, which augments the number of resident for- sonal workers – totalled 25 000 in 1996, representing
eigners. Conversely, naturalisations, along with a third of that year’s new foreign immigrants. There-
acquisitions of Swiss nationality through adoption fore, among those arriving, the non-employed out-
and recognition of citizenship, helped to reduce the numbered the employed by two to one.
foreign population.
At year-end 1996, the foreign labour force
Since the early 1990s, the number of naturalisa- amounted to some 900 000 persons, down 3 per cent
tions has grown considerably, rising from 6 000 in from 1995 (see Table II.34). Of this population, set-
1991 to 19 000 in 1996 (see Table II.34). Much of this tled immigrants accounted for more than 60 per
increase can be explained by a 1992 amendment of cent, annual permit-holders 21 per cent, cross-
the legislation pertaining to Swiss nationality. The border workers 17 per cent, and seasonal workers
law allows for double citizenship and facilitates the less than 2 per cent (rising to 5 per cent in August).
naturalisation of the foreign spouses of citizens. The Both the numbers of seasonal and cross-border
number of naturalisations in 1996 was roughly equal workers continue to decline. These two categories of
to the number of foreign births, approximately workers are the most sensitive to the market forces
18 200. and to corporate restructuring. Their numbers
In 1996, as in 1995, the net migration of Italians diminish whenever unemployment in frontier-zone
and Spaniards was negative. The same phenomenon cantons rises, particularly in Geneva and Ticino. For-
occurred for the first time with regard to Portuguese, eigners are proportionately more affected by unem-
with 2 300 more departures than arrivals in 1996. ployment than the Swiss are since their share of
Inflows into Switzerland in 1996 were led by nation- total unemployment in December 1996 was nearly 169
170
Table II.34. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, Switzerland
1993 1994 1995 1996 1993 1994 1995 1996
Population on 31 December of the years indicated 6 969.0 7 019.0 7 062.0 7 085.0 Foreign population by main nationality1 1 260.3 1 300.1 1 330.6 1 337.6
% of foreigners 18.1 18.6 18.9 19.0 Italy 367.7 364.0 358.9 350.3
Former-Yougoslavia 245.0 272.4 294.2 305.0
Components of foreign population change1 46.9 39.8 30.5 7.0 Portugal 121.1 128.6 134.8 137.1
Net migration1 46.5 39.4 26.8 12.0 Spain 105.9 103.7 101.4 97.7
Natural increase 13.3 14.2 13.3 14.1 Allemagne 87.1 89.1 90.9 92.7
Acquisitions of Swiss nationality –12.9 –13.8 –16.8 –19.4 France 51.7 52.7 53.6 54.3
Other2 – – 7.2 0.2 Autres pays 281.6 289.5 296.7 300.5
Migration flows of foreigners3 Foreign workers4 899.0 911.6 895.7 869.7

Inflows by main nationality3 104.0 91.7 87.9 74.3 of which: Women 310.7 319.0 319.1 313.6
Former Yugoslavia 34.2 25.3 22.3 14.1 Inflows by status of residence
Germany 8.6 8.7 8.6 8.7 % of resident workers 80.7 81.2 81.3 81.5
Portugal 10.0 8.6 7.6 5.5 % of cross-border workers 17.4 16.7 16.9 16.9
Italy 7.3 6.9 6.7 5.4
France 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 Foreign resident workers1 725.8 740.3 728.7 709.1
Other countries 39.3 37.2 37.7 35.7 By main nationality
Outflows by main nationality3 71.2 64.2 67.5 67.7 Italy 228.0 224.7 214.3 202.5
Former Yugoslavia 7.0 8.0 8.7 9.0 Former Yugoslavia 121.3 133.0 134.6 136.2
Germany 7.3 6.2 6.6 6.2 Portugal 74.5 78.8 80.5 79.3
Portugal 8.7 7.5 7.4 7.9 Spain 67.9 66.6 63.5 59.8
Italy 11.7 9.9 10.3 10.8 Germany 55.0 55.7 56.3 56.7
France 3.8 3.5 3.8 3.6 Others 179.3 179.2 179.5 174.6
Net migration by main nationality3 32.8 27.5 20.4 6.6 By major industry division
Former Yugoslavia 27.2 17.3 13.6 5.1 Agriculture, forestry 12.4 13.4 14.8 14.5
Germany 1.4 2.5 2.0 2.4 Extractive and manufacturing industries 132.1 129.2 123.9 117.4
Portugal 1.3 1.1 0.2 –2.3 Building 93.3 96.0 94.2 87.4
Italy –4.4 –3.0 –3.6 –5.4 Trade 87.3 88.3 91.7 90.6
France 0.8 1.5 1.2 1.4 Hotel, restaurants 72.7 78.6 81.3 80.4
Other countries 6.6 8.0 7.0 5.6 Other services 328.1 334.7 322.7 318.9
Asylum seekers 24.7 16.1 17.0 18.0 Cross-border workers by nationality 156.3 151.9 151.0 147.0
France (% of the total) 48.6 48.6 49.0 49.5
Acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality 12.9 13.8 16.8 19.4 Italy (% of the total) 24.3 24.4 24.2 23.4
Italy 2.8 3.3 4.4 5.2 Germany (% of the total) 20.6 20.6 20.6 21.1
France 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 Others (% of the total) 6.5 6.4 6.2 6.0
Former-Yougoslavia 1.5 1.8 2.5 2.8
Turkey 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
1. Data cover only foreigners with annual or settlement permits and include conversions of seasonal work permits into annual or settlement permits.
2. The introduction of a new data processing system explains the peculiarly high figure for 1995.
3. Data include only foreigners who obtained an annual or settlement permit during the indicated year. Conversions of seasonal work permits into annual or settlement permits are not included.
4. Figures cover foreign workers with settlement, annual, cross-border and seasonnal permits.
Sources: Office fédéral des étrangers; Labour Force Statistics, 1976-1996, OECD.
45 per cent, whereas they accounted for only 24 per Under an Act on the entry of seasonal workers,
cent of the labour force. approved on 19 October 1994, seasonal permits are
now limited to nationals of traditional recruitment
The breakdown of foreign workers by residence
countries belonging to the EU and EFTA, and only in
status varies widely by nationality. As a rule, there
special cases issued to other nationals (before, only
are more residents than commuters. Among Italians
new work permits had been subject to this rule).
there is one commuter for every ten residents, and
The Act came into effect at the end of 1996. The
among Germans and Austrians there is one for every consequences of this measure explain the fall in the
three. In contrast, French commuters outnumber total number of seasonal workers, which in over
residents 73 000 to 54 000. 90 per cent of cases involves nationals of the former
Half of foreign residents work, and their Yugoslavia.
employment rate varies by nationality. In 1996, the The CFE’s top priority in 1996 was the revision
proportion ranged from 43 per cent for Turks to of the law on the residence and settlement of for-
69 per cent for Austrians. There would seem to be an eigners, proposing for the first time to commit the
inverse correlation between this rate and marital federal government to political and financial sup-
status: 80 per cent of working Turks were married, port for integration.
versus 57 per cent of Austrians. Age categories In 1997, a group of experts appointed by the
directly influence these rates as well. The propor- Federal Council looked into the development of a
tion of the under-15 age group is much higher for new migration policy for Switzerland. It determined
Turks and nationals of the former Yugoslavia (one- to explore four principal policy areas, corresponding
third of the population) than for Austrians, Germans, to the four phases of the migration process: admis-
French, or Italians (for whom the proportion ranges sions, integration, expulsion and repatriation, and
from 7 to 15 per cent). lastly, foreign policy with respect to migration.
At the end of December 1996, it was once again Admission policy currently factors global eco-
the metalworking and machinery industries which nomic concerns with Swiss demographics and any
employed the greatest number of foreigners (17 per integration-related matters that might ultimately be
cent of all working foreigners). That sector was also raised as a result of migration. Integration policy
the leading employer of registered cross-border aims to strengthen the participation of the resident
workers (of whom there were 147 000 in 1996, see foreign population in political life. It seeks to ensure
Table II.34), employing 20 per cent of the commut- equal opportunity in education, irrespective of
ers. Nearly half of all commuters were French, fol- nationality, and to give the resident foreign popula-
lowed by Italians (just under a quarter), Germans tion the same opportunities as Swiss nationals in
(20 per cent), and Austrians. the occupational and social spheres. It also pro-
motes the development of foreigners’ professional
skills. Expulsion and repatriation policy is designed
Policy developments to ensure that foreign nationals are not allowed to
Since 1994, the social integration of foreigners reside in Switzerland without proper authorisation.
has been a predominant concern. The Federal Com- Foreign policy with regard to migration aims to com-
mission for Foreigners (CFE) is to a large extent bat the causes of forced migration and to protect the
responsible for this activity, which was extended in interests of the labour market, while at the same
1995 to the integration of refugees. The CFE has time lending support to European efforts to adopt
organised national seminars on migrants’ health and common policies for migration, security, and asylum.
on the integration of the Islamic community, and has
founded a magazine to improve mutual understand- TURKEY
ing between foreign and Swiss nationals. From a
Introduction
legislative standpoint, the objective of social inte-
gration motivated a proposal in December 1995 for Buoyant private sector spending, strong mer-
full revision of the law on asylum and a partial revi- chandise exports and tourism extended the strong
sion of the law on the residence and settlement of recovery following the 1994 financial crisis: output is
foreigners. In this context, a Federal Anti-Racism now back to its medium-term trend. Notwithstand-
Commission was set up in March 1995 to combat all ing, open and disguised unemployment remain
forms of racial discrimination. high. The desire to emigrate, particularly among the 171
young highly educated, is considerable. Emigration Turkey’s total resident population. The estimated
flows are being checked, however, by low demand number of overseas Turkish workers fell, however,
in the potential recipient countries. by some 35 000. As a proportion of the total Turkish
labour force, Turkish workers employed abroad are
Population, employment and unemployment now estimated at 5.6 per cent. Over 80 per cent of
Turkish migrant workers live in countries of the
According to the findings of the April 1997 European Economic Area (EEA), primarily in
Household Labour Force Survey, Turkey’s civilian Germany (almost 60 per cent and where Turks
population increased by almost 800 000 over the account for almost one-third of the total population
previous twelve months to reach just over 62 mil- of foreign workers), France, the Netherlands and
lion, of whom 55 per cent were residing in urban Austria.
areas. The working age population, which is defined
to include all those aged 12 years or over, was esti-
mated at just below 47 million. The labour force was Unemployment among Turkish immigrants
estimated at 22.5 million, almost half of whom were Unemployment among Turks living in EU coun-
employed in the agricultural sector. Of these latter, tries is widespread and significantly higher than that
almost 60 per cent were unpaid family members. for other nationals, despite association agreements
In April 1997, 6 per cent of the labour force were signed in 1976 giving Turkish workers priority for job
declared as unemployed, a slight decline on the vacancies not filled by workers from the EU. The
corresponding figure for 1996. Unemployment principal factors which account for this phenomenon
among young educated people is severe, standing include the following: health problems; the ageing of
at almost 30 per cent. Given that there exists no the active Turkish population; a relatively low level
unemployment benefit system and that family work- of integration in the host society; and insufficient
ers and the self-employed constitute a large propor- formal education.
tion of the active population, an estimate of under-
employment is as important as that of
unemployment: having been estimated as equal to Emigration of Turkish workers
open unemployment in April 1996, it fell by more The annual emigration flow of Turkish workers
than a percentage point over the following twelve organised by the Turkish authorities (which aver-
months. The overall employment situation is, how- aged 60 000 during the first half of the 1990s) has
ever, expected to deteriorate through to the end of since the beginning of 1996 registered a sharp
the century: the State Planning Council predicts that decline (see Table II.35). Data for the first seven
by 2000 the proportion of surplus labour will have months of 1997 confirm this trend which is attributa-
reached almost 15 per cent. Against this background ble to a fall in the outflow to the two principal recipi-
the Public Employment Office, which has the ent countries, Saudi Arabia and Russia. Having held
monopoly on the placement of workers abroad, firm following sharp declines in 1993 and 1994, Saudi
accepted over 400 000 new applications in 1996; the Arabia’s importance as a destination country has
total number of applications pending now stands at continued to wane; it now takes less than 15 per
slightly below 1 million. cent of all workers dispatched by the Public
Employment Office and accounts for only 10 per
Emigration and trends of the Turkish population cent of the total estimated number of Turkish work-
abroad ers living overseas. Given that this country appears
to have completed the bulk of its infrastructure con-
Figures relating to the Turkish population living struction, this trend is set to continue. The Russian
abroad are compiled from the records of the host Federation remains the principal importer of Turkish
countries and of the overseas representatives of the labour. However, the market for sub-contracted
Ministries of Labour and Social Security and of For- labour appears to have ceased expansion. More-
eign Affairs – differences in definitions, in coverage over, Turkish sub-contractors are faced with stiff
and in time-frame are therefore frequent. Moreover, competition from the member countries of the Com-
the figures are only for legal migrants. monwealth of Independent States (CIS) which are
The number of Turks living abroad continues to suffering severe unemployment following the recent
increase. The mid-1996 estimate put the figure at waves of privatisations. The annual flow to the
172 3.45 million, which represents almost 5.4 per cent of European Union, having registered a steady
Table II.35. Number of Turkish workers sent abroad Return migration

by the National Employment and Placement Office,
by country or region of destination, Return migration by Turkish emigrants is rela-
1993-1996, Turkey tively low. There are many reasons why Turks
Thousands choose to remain in host countries: their family has
1993 1994 1995 1996 already joined them abroad; second and third-gen-
eration children speak the language of the host
New Independent States 21.4 41.8 35.8 25.9
Saudi Arabia 35.8 13.1 14.5 5.6 country fluently; health care and medical services
Israel .. .. 3.1 3.7 are more highly developed than in Turkey; and,
EU1 2.0 2.1 2.6 2.6 recent improvements notwithstanding, the Turkish
Germany 2.0 .. .. 2.4
Libya 2.5 1.9 1.8 2.1 economy remains weak rendering the prospect of
United States .. .. 0.3 0.3 finding a job in Turkey unpromising.
Australia 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1
Cyprus 0.2 0.1 .. 0.1
Romania .. .. 0.3 – Immigration in Turkey
Kuwait 0.3 0.1 0.3 –
Other countries 0.8 2.1 0.6 0.3 Although Turkey is not generally considered as
Total 63.2 61.1 59.5 40.7 a destination country, political upheaval in
neighbouring countries (Bulgaria, the former Soviet
1. From 1995 on, the data also include the other countries of the
Economic European Area. Union, the former Yugoslavia, Iraq and Iran, for
Source: Ministry of Labour and Social Security, General Directorate of example) against a background of tightened immi-
Workers Abroad.
gration controls in other Western European coun-
tries has led a growing number of migrants to settle
there. Foreigners working in Turkey are legally
obliged to obtain an individual residence permit.
increase, albeit from a very low base, during the first However, this requirement is not rigorously
half of the 1990s was constant in 1996 at just over enforced; despite recording a threefold increase
2 600. over the past ten years their number remains almost
negligible (16 300). Just under half originate from the
Naturalisations EEA and North America. They are in general highly
skilled and typically accompany direct investments.
Many host countries have restrictive legislation In contrast, those originating from the Common-
rendering naturalisation difficult and typically wealth of Independent States (CIS), the countries of
require the renunciation of the previous nationality. Central and Eastern Europe (CEEC), the Middle East
For this reason in particular, Turkish nationals and Africa who together account for a further 40 per
abroad have tended not to apply for naturalisation cent tend to be much less qualified.
for this renunciation would have stripped them of
the right to own property in Turkey. Moreover,
UNITED KINGDOM
males were not permitted to renounce Turkish
nationality without having first performed military Introduction
service. The 1995 amendment to the Turkish Law of
Nationality which created a ‘‘special foreign nation- The upward trend in immigration which began
ality’’ removed these impediments. Data from a in the early 1990s continued in 1996, although appli-
number of countries which would reveal the degree cations for asylum fell compared to the previous
to which this legislative change has encouraged year. The increased levels of immigration may be
Turks living abroad to choose the nationality of their partly ascribed to the relatively strong growth and
host country is as yet unavailable. It is clear, how- favourable employment conditions in the United
ever, that in Germany this change coupled with a Kingdom. The falls in the number of asylum seekers
relaxation of certain naturalisation requirements on are possibly linked to the restrictions on entitle-
the German side in 1993 have led to a marked ment to benefits introduced in July 1996.
increase in naturalisation requests. Between 1981 Recent policy developments include a change
and 1993, a total of fewer than 36 000 Turks took in the approach adopted in the assessment of appli-
German nationality. In 1995, almost 42 000 Turks cations for immigration on the basis of marriage and
applied to renounce their Turkish nationality in various policy initiatives with regard to asylum
order to acquire that of Germany. seekers. 173
◆ Chart II.13. Migration flows and acceptances for settlement,1986-1996, United Kingdom
Thousands
A. Migration flows1 B. Acceptances for settlement

NB = Non-British citizens; B = British citizens by region of origin
Inflows (NB) Outflows (NB) Net migration (NB) Indian Sub-continent Africa
Inflows (NB)2 Net migration (B) East Asia Americas Europe
250 16
200 14
150 12
100 10
50 8
0 6
–50 4
–100 2
1986 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 1996 1986 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 1996
C. Number of asylum seekers3 D. Inflows of foreign workers

Main regions of origin
Work permits4 Labour Force Survey

Europe Africa Asia International Passenger Survey
Department of Social Security5
30 160
140
25
120
20
100
15 80
60
10
40
5
20
0 0
1986 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 1996 1986 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 1996
1. Data are from the International Passenger Survey unless otherwise indicated and are adjusted to include some asylum seekers, short-term visitors who are subsequently
granted an extension of stay for other reasons (study, marriage for example).
2. Passengers admitted to the United Kingdom, excluding European Economic Area nationals. Data exclude visitors, passengers in transit or returning on limited leave
or who previously settled. Students and au pair girls are also excluded.
3. Excluding dependents.
4. Figures include holders of a first permission (long and short term) and trainees (Training and work experience scheme, TWES). Data do not include EU foreign nationals.
5. Data are based on the issue of a national insurance card to all new workers.
Sources: International Passenger Survey ; Home Office.
Migration and settlement and Table II.36. The figures are based on data from
the International Passenger Survey (IPS) with adjust-
Flows of migrants
ment for asylum seekers, changes of status of those
General trends in international migration to and already in the United Kingdom and flows between
174 from the United Kingdom are shown in Chart II.13 the United Kingdom and the Irish Republic. Since
Table II.36. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, United Kingdom
1993 1994 1995 1996 1993 1994 1995 1996
Migration flows1 Stock of total population3
Total inflows 210 253 246 258 Total population 56 948 57 169 57 406 57 624
Inflows of non-British citizens 120 135 155 160
of which: Total number of British citizens 54 937 55 126 55 442 55 680
EU 23 29 41 52
Non-EU 97 106 114 108 Total number of foreign nationals, by region or country of origin 2 001 1 946 2 060 1 972
Inflows of British citizens 89 118 91 98 Europe 866 935 1 027 904
Ireland 465 473 443 441
Total outflows 213 191 192 212 EU (excluding Ireland) 255 319 459 352
Outflows of non-British citizens 88 83 74 75 Other Europe 146 143 125 111
of which: Americas 266 207 234 220
EU 21 22 20 24 North America 147 114 146 136
Non-EU 67 61 54 51 West Indies 106 88 82 80
Outflows of British citizens 124 108 118 137 Rest of Americas 12 – – –
Africa 205 190 205 220
Net migration –3 62 54 46 Asia 569 545 451 461
Non-British citizens 32 52 81 85 Middle East and Turkey 77 85 59 72
of which: Indian Sub-continent and Sri Lanka 346 306 268 272
EU 2 7 21 28 Rest of Asia 146 154 124 117
Non-EU 30 45 60 57 Oceania 75 69 70 88
British citizens –35 10 –27 –39
Total grants of citizens in the United Kingdom
Acceptances for settlement2 55.6 55.0 55.6 61.7 by previous country or region of nationality 45.8 44.0 40.5 43.1
By region of origin Europe 5.5 5.2 4.7 4.6

European Economic Area (EEA) 1.4 0.6 0.2 0.1 European Economic Area (excluding Ireland) 2.1 2.0 1.6 1.6
Other European countries 3.6 4.0 4.0 7.4 Ireland 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
Americas 7.6 7.9 8.2 8.5 Other Europe 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.9
Africa 10.9 11.9 12.0 13.0
Indian Sub-Continent 14.1 14.1 14.5 13.6 Americas 4.8 4.5 4.1 4.3
Middle East 2.8 2.6 2.9 4.8 North America 2.1 2.0 1.8 1.9
Remainder of Asia (mainly East Asia) 8.9 9.2 8.8 9.5 West Indies 1.9 1.8 1.6 ..
Oceania 2.7 2.9 3.5 3.5 Rest of Americas 0.8 0.7 0.7 2.4
Other 3.6 1.8 1.6 1.4

Africa 7.5 7.9 7.9 9.1
By category of acceptance
Accepted in own right 7.3 7.7 6.4 6.7 British Dependent Territories citizens 1.9 2.2 2.0 2.1
Spouses and dependants 44.3 43.4 44.9 48.6
Other 4.0 3.9 4.3 6.5 Middle East and Turkey 5.0 5.0 4.2 4.4
Oceania 1.5 5.0 1.7 1.5
Other 19.6 14.2 15.9 17.1
Grants of citizenship in Hong Kong, China 41.8 5.9 25.7 5.5

175
176
Table II.36. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force, United Kingdom (cont.)
1993 1994 1995 1996 1993 1994 1995 1996
Asylum seekers (total applications received)4 22.4 32.8 44.0 27.9 Total stock of employment3
By region of origin Total population 25 097 25 278 25 699 25 962
Europe 4.5 5.3 5.4 6.4 Total number of British citizens 24 232 24 411 24 835 25 095
Africa 10.3 17.0 22.5 10.6 Total number of foreign nationals 862 847 899 878
Asia 6.7 9.5 13.0 9.1 Europe 414 468 487 432
Other 0.9 1.1 3.1 1.8 Ireland 222 241 216 218
According to the place where the application was received EU (excluding Ireland) 137 172 225 176
At port 7.3 10.2 12.1 12.4 Other Europe 55 55 46 38
In country 15.1 22.6 28.6 15.5 Americas 123 92 108 111
North America 68 51 68 66
Illegal immigration statistics West Indies 50 37 38 41
Persons against whom enforcement action was taken 10.4 13.2 16.0 20.9 Rest of Americas – – – –
Persons removed from country 6.1 5.1 5.0 5.3 Africa 78 72 83 92
Asia 191 171 152 158
Available sources on inflows of foreign workers Indian Sub-continent and Sri Lanka 112 99 95 99
Labour Force Survey 37.0 46.0 51.0 50.0 Rest of Asia 79 72 57 59
International Passenger Survey 51.6 65.7 77.0 85.0 Oceania 52 44 53 57
Department of Social Security 108.0 125.8 133.9 145.9
Work permits 29.3 30.1 35.5 37.7 Employment to population ratios (%)
of which: Total population 44.1 44.2 44.8 45.1
Short-term 13.3 12.9 15.6 16.8 Total number of British citizens 44.1 44.3 44.8 45.1
Long-term 12.5 13.4 15.5 16.9 Total number of foreign nationals 43.1 43.5 43.6 44.5
Trainees 3.5 3.8 4.4 4.0 Europe 47.8 50.1 47.4 47.8
Ireland 47.7 51.0 48.8 49.4
EU (excluding Ireland) 53.7 53.9 49.0 50.0
Other Europe 37.7 38.5 36.8 34.2
Americas 46.2 44.4 46.2 50.5
North America 46.3 44.7 46.6 48.5
West Indies 47.2 42.0 46.3 51.3
Africa 38.0 37.9 40.5 41.8
Asia 33.6 31.4 33.7 34.3
Indian Sub-continent and Sri Lanka 32.4 32.4 35.4 36.4
Oceania 69.3 63.8 75.7 64.8
Note: European Union totals from 1995 onwards include the three new member countries (Austria, Finland and Sweden).
1. Data are from the International Passenger Survey. Movements between the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom are not recorded.
2. An acceptance of settlement is not required for EU citizens.
3. Data are from the national Labour Force Survey.
4. The 1996 figure is an estimation.
Sources: International Passenger Survey; Home Office Statistical Bulletin; Control of Immigration Statistics; National Labour Force Survey.
1993, the inflow of non-British citizens has increased 26 000 in the previous year. These fluctuations
from 180 000 in 1993 to nearly 230 000 in 1995. The reflect the effects of the British Nationality
net flow of non-British citizens in 1995 is recorded as (Hong Kong, China) Selection Scheme.
135 000 and the total net flow is recorded as 109 000.
Unadjusted IPS data indicate further rises in immi- Asylum seekers
gration and net migration for 1996.
Between 1995 and 1996 the number of asylum
Settlement in the United Kingdom applications (excluding dependants) fell by over
16 000 to a figure of 28 000 (see Table II.36). Part of
‘‘Settlement’’ in the context of migration in the the reason for this decline may be attributed to
United Kingdom refers to individuals who acquire restrictions on government benefits to asylum seek-
permanent residence status within the United ers introduced in July 1996. Applications from Africa
Kingdom. Most of these individuals have already declined dramatically, with nearly 23 000 applica-
been resident in the United Kingdom for a period of tions in 1995 and only 11 000 applications in 1996. As
time (often four years) in order to fulfil qualifying in previous years, in 1996, the majority of asylum
periods of residence. The majority are accepted for applications were made from within the United
settlement on the basis of family ties with other Kingdom by people who had already entered in
UK residents. Of the 62 000 accepted for settlement some other capacity (see Chart II.13).
in 1996, more than 80 per cent were spouses and About 6 per cent (2 200) of the decisions made
dependants. in 1995 on pending applications from earlier years
Given the nature of the settlement process, the recognised the applicants as refugees with full Con-
data should be viewed as an indicator of longer term vention status. In addition, around 13 per cent
trends in permanent migration to the United (5 100) were granted exceptional leave to remain in
Kingdom. Also, there is likely to be a lag between the United Kingdom.
increased inflows of migrants and increases in set-
tlement. The relatively large increase in settlement
Population and employment of foreign nationals
between 1995 and 1996 (from 56 000 to 62 000) is
in the United Kingdom
attributable to asylum-related cases, i.e. persons
granted asylum four years earlier or ‘‘exceptional According to Labour Force Survey data for 1997,
leave’’ seven years earlier together with their there are a little over 2 million foreign nationals
dependants and spouses. Exceptional leave is living in the United Kingdom, or about 3.6 per cent
granted where individuals are not granted full refu- of the total population. The composition of the for-
gee status but are allowed to remain in the United eign population has shown relatively minor fluctua-
Kingdom for up to seven years. tions as compared to the 1996 figures indicating that
Over recent years, the composition of those 40 per cent are European Union nationals, the
being accepted for settlement has changed, with majority from the Republic of Ireland. Those from
noticeable increases in the proportion of those from Asia are the next largest group with 23 per cent of
Africa, non-EEA Europe and East Asia (see the total followed by Africa and the Americas
Chart II.13). accounting for approximately 10 per cent each. In
evaluating these proportions the diversity in rates of
naturalisation must be considered. For example,
Naturalisations
there are very few naturalisations amongst those
Some 43 000 people were granted British citi- from the Republic of Ireland, but a relatively high
zenship in the United Kingdom in 1996, an increase number from the Indian Sub Continent (see
on the previous years figure (see Table II.36) and a Table II.36).
reflection of increased resources devoted to Labour Force Survey data indicate there were
processing applications. Those originating from the 949 000 foreign nationals working in the United
Indian sub-continent and Africa remain the largest Kingdom in 1997 (about 3.5 per cent of total
group undertaking naturalisation in the United employment), which is a slight decrease from 1994
Kingdom. but still reflects the relatively stable trend observed
Naturalisations of Hong Kong (China) residents since 1988. Comparing the population and employ-
under the British Nationality (Hong Kong, China) Act ment figures across different groups of foreign
(1990) fell in 1996 to about 6 000, compared to nationals reveals a diverse incidence of employ- 177
ment. For example, the 1997 figures show an bill are: to provide a right of appeal for individu-
employment to total population ratio for Irish als liable to deportation on grounds of national
nationals of 48 per cent, higher than the average for security; to set up a new body with decision mak-
British citizens, and a ratio of 39 per cent for nation- ing powers to consider such appeals and related
als from the Indian sub-continent and Sri Lanka, matters; to set the statutory framework within
much lower than the average for British citizens. The which the body will operate. The bill was a
differences between employment to population response to an adverse ruling in the European
ratios are driven by demographic factors, varying Court of Human Rights which judged that the
rates of participation in the labour force and varying UK’s existing appeals procedures did not meet
rates of unemployment within the labour force. the requirements of the European Convention on
It is difficult to establish the exact numbers Human Rights in cases where a deportation had
of foreign labour inflows into the United Kingdom. been made on national security grounds.
For example, data from the Department of Social
Security indicate that in 1996 there were about – Ending of the ‘‘Primary Purpose Rule’’. This rule,
146 000 cases of non-UK nationals arriving from introduced in 1980, said that in order to simply
abroad who registered or re-registered for national enter the country, those coming to the United
insurance purposes (see Chart II.13). At the other Kingdom with the intention of marriage had to
end of the spectrum in the same year only prove that the purpose of their marriage was not
38 000 work permits were issued to non-EU nation- one of convenience. Ending the rule has allowed
als. Perhaps the closest measure to the standard resources to be devoted to other aspects of the
concept of migration is the Labour Force Survey regulations, such as: intention to live together,
data which indicates the number of individuals who evidence of having met before marriage and
were living and working abroad one year previously, demonstration of financial independence from
in this case the figure for 1995 is 50 000. The data public funds. Note that the burden of proof
obviously capture different aspects of labour inflows remains with the applicant.
and therefore the disparities in the results are not
surprising. Chart II.13 shows most of the data indi- – Reduced processing time for patently unfounded
cate a rising trend in inflows of employees to the
asylum claims and tightening of checks for illegal
United Kingdom.
and bogus asylum seekers. In cases where asy-
lum applications appear to be based on very
Employment situation of ethnic minorities weak grounds, the time allowed to make further
The Labour Force Survey includes a question representations has been reduced from 28 to
about the ethnic background of respondents. 5 days. In addition, better targeting and profiling
According to the 1996 data some 2.2 million people techniques at Dover to check lorries for illegal
of working age in private households belonged to immigrants and ‘‘bogus’’ asylum seekers have
ethnic minority groups. Of these, 73 per cent were been introduced. These measures are partly in
not born in the United Kingdom. Among ethnic response to the arrival at Dover of several hun-
minority groups, the proportion of the economically dred gypsies, mainly from the Czech and Slovak
active was lower (66 per cent) than for the total Republics.
population of the same age group (80 per cent). The
unemployment rate for ethnic minorities improved – Initiatives to reduce the backlog of asylum appli-
during the late 1980s but in the early 1990s it began cations. A major study is being undertaken to
to rise. In 1996, it was 18 per cent compared to 8 per increase the efficiency of processing claims. Par-
cent for nationals. ticularly important will be a large scale com-
puterisation of the handling of asylum claims in
partnership with the private sector.
Policy developments
Since the election of a new government on – The government is considering proposals to
1 May 1997 there have been a number of policy improve conditions for foreign domestic workers
changes and initiatives: who are allowed to enter the United Kingdom
– ‘‘Special Immigration Appeals Bill’’. Introduced with their foreign employers and who suffer fre-
178 on 21 May 1997 the principal provisions of this quent abuse.
UNITED STATES Family reunion
Introduction Family reunion is the predominant source of US

immigration, accounting for 65 per cent of immigra-
For the first time since 1991, the number of
tion into the United States in 1996. In volume terms,
immigrants receiving legal permanent residence sta-
tus rose in 1996, to nearly 916 000, a 27 per cent both components of family reunion – immediate
increase on the previous year. If the analysis family members of US citizens and more distant rel-
excludes aliens receiving permanent resident status atives admitted under a preference system – devel-
in previous years under the 1986 Immigration oped in a similar fashion. However, immediate fam-
Reform and Control Act (IRCA), then this figure is the ily members of United States citizens are not
highest recorded since 1914. However, inflows in numerically limited whereas the more distant rela-
1996 represented only 0.3 per cent of the total US tives admitted under the preference system are
population. limited.
Furthermore, the Illegal Immigration Reform

Migration and settlement and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) of 1996
increased the income level required of persons
Permanent immigration serving as guarantors for family members. Hence-
In the United States, an immigrant is defined as forth, the level required is at least 120 per cent of
a person who has been admitted for legal perma- the poverty threshold. This measure should reduce
nent residence. The number of immigrants in a the number of sponsored immigrants.
given year can thus include persons who have actu-
ally been in the country for some time but were only
granted the right of permanent residence in that Employment-based immigration
year. In 1996, of all the immigrants admitted, more
than half were already living in the United States as Since 1992, the year in which the 1990 Immigra-
temporary residents. tion Act (IMMACT 90) came into force, 140 000 per-
mits have been made available each year, although
Family migration and refugees constitute the usage sometimes falls below. Table II.37 gives
two main components of permanent immigration. In
details of the preference system for this entry cate-
1996, these two categories accounted for nearly
gory. Immigrants coming to work in the United
80 per cent of immigration. Other entries were under
States represented nearly 13 per cent of total immi-
programmes to recruit workers or to diversify coun-
gration, a figure which includes both the worker and
tries sending immigrants to the United States.
his/her accompanying family members. If the
The increase in inflows in 1996 was essentially spouses and children of applicants are excluded,
due to a rise of some 30 per cent in family immigra- the percentage drops to 5.6 per cent.
tion and of 40 per cent in employment-based immi-
gration. Other factors also contributed to the
increase. The first of these is Section 245(i) of the Refugees and asylum seekers
Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) which, during
the three fiscal years from 1995 to 1997, allowed Under US rules, a person fleeing persecution is
certain illegal residents to apply for immigrant sta- either a refugee or an asylum seeker depending on
tus from within United States territory. The second where he/she is at the time of the application: asy-
factor is an indirect consequence of the IRCA. Nearly lum seekers are already present in the country or at
2.7 million individuals obtained permanent immi- the border, whereas refugees are outside the United
grant status as a result of this legalisation pro- States. United States legislation provides that refu-
gramme. Those who became United States citizens gees may obtain immigrant status after a one-year
were then able to apply for immigration of immedi- stay in the United States which, for any given year,
ate family members. Since these family members means a time-lag between the number of refugees
are not subject to any numerical limits, immigration who entered the country and those granted immi-
of this type showed a marked increase over 1995. In grant status. Refugee and asylum seekers granted
the future, it should account for an increasingly large immigrant status increased in 1996, after declining
proportion of total immigration. from 1993 to 1995. 179
Table II.37. Employment-based immigration, by preference, fiscal years 1993-1996, United States
Thousands
1993 1994 1995 1996
Total, employment 1st preference 21.1 21.1 17.3 27.5

Aliens with extraordinary ability 1.3 1.3 1.2 2.1
Outstanding professors or researchers 1.7 1.8 1.6 2.6
Multinational executives or managers 5.1 5.0 3.9 6.4
Spouses and children of 1st preference 13.1 13.0 10.6 16.5
Total, employment 2nd preference 29.5 14.4 10.5 18.5
Members of the professions holding advanced degrees or persons of exceptional
ability 13.8 6.8 5.0 8.9
Spouses and children of 2nd preference 15.7 7.6 5.5 9.6
Total, employment 3rd preference 87.7 77.0 50.2 62.8
Skilled workers 12.8 10.1 9.1 16.0
Baccalaureate holders 9.6 7.7 5.8 5.5
Spouses and children of the above 28.4 28.4 23.3 29.0
Chinese Student Protection Act 26.9 21.3 4.2 0.4
Principals 26.9 21.0 4.1 0.4
Spouses and children 0.1 0.3 0.1 –
Other workers (unskilled workers) 4.4 4.1 3.6 6.0
Spouses and children of unskilled workers 5.6 5.3 4.2 5.8
Total, employment 4th preference 8.2 10.4 6.7 7.8
Special immigrants 3.6 4.6 2.9 3.5
Spouses and children of 4th preference 4.6 5.8 3.8 4.4
Total, employment 5th preference 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.9
Employment creation, not targeted area 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
Spouses and children 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3
Employment creation, targeted area – 0.1 0.1 0.2
Spouses and children 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3
Total, employment preferences, principals 79.2 62.7 37.4 51.6
Total, employment preferences, dependents 67.8 60.6 47.9 65.9
Total, employment preferences 147.0 123.3 85.3 117.5
% of total permanent settlers 16.3 15.3 11.8 12.8
Source: US Department of Justice, 1996 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service.
Migrants allowed to settle permanently under the Breakdown by region and country of origin
programme to increase the diversity of countries
sending immigrants to the United States Mexico remained the leading country of origin
of immigrants entering the United States, with a
This programme was introduced in the 1995 fis- total of some 164 000 individuals in 1996, an
cal year, and operates like a lottery. Under the pro- increase of more than 80 per cent on 1995. While all
gramme, 55 000 permanent permits are granted countries are represented in US immigration flows,
every year to nationals of countries which do not other large sending countries include the former
send many immigrants to the United States. In 1996, Soviet Union, the Philippines, India, Vietnam, China
those benefiting from this programme accounted for and the Dominican Republic.
only 6.4 per cent of total entries. However, it gener- After North America, Asia continued to provide
ates huge interest: 4.7 million applications were the most immigrants. Over the last ten years, nation-
submitted during the application month (Febru- als from Asian countries have represented a rela-
ary 1997) for the allocation of permits in 1998. This tively stable proportion of total immigrants (around
lottery means that it should be possible to grant 35 per cent). Europe (with an increase in immigra-
more than 21 000 permits to nationals of African tion from the former Soviet Union, Poland and
countries and more than 23 000 to nationals of some recently ex-Yugoslavia) and the Caribbean are two
180 European countries. other important regions.
Immigrants on waiting lists new provisions concerning the processing of pend-

ing applications. A more efficient integrated
Waiting lists apply to those immigrants entering
processing system has been introduced, and all
under the preference system which covers both
links between work authorisation and the asylum
workers and more distant family members. The
process have been removed. Work authorisation is
number of applicants meeting the required condi-
no longer given until asylum is granted or until a
tions often exceeds the ceilings laid down by law for
claim remains pending for 180 days.
each category. Thus, in January 1997, there were
3.6 million individuals on the US State Department’s Since asylum reform came into effect in Janu-
waiting list. ary 1995, asylum offices have been able to complete
over 235 000 of the backlog cases. Although the
Most of those waiting are applicants sponsored
number of pending files remains high, it is falling
by a family member, particularly the brothers and
every year. At 30 September 1997 there was a back-
sisters of naturalized US citizens (1.5 million), and
log of less than 400 000 applications. During the
the spouses and unmarried children of permanent
1997 fiscal year, some 54 000 new asylum requests
residents (more than a million in total). The waiting
were submitted.
lists for most professional categories, from whatever
country, have been absorbed or greatly reduced
due to the increase in quotas from 54 000 to 140 000 Temporary migration
(including accompanying family members), in imple- The number of temporary migrants, called
mentation of IMMACT 90. Generally, the only sizea- ‘‘non-immigrants’’, is increasing every year. In 1996,
ble backlog is that for unskilled workers and their there were 25 million such entries. Although 19 mil-
families who are subject to an annual numerical limi- lion of these were simply tourists, temporary
tation of 10 000. migrants are playing an increasing role in the US
labour market. This is due not only to the scale of
Refugees and asylum seekers the numbers involved but also the length of stay.
Many temporary visa holders stay in the country for
Refugees and asylum seekers have been a sub- more than a year and can, in some cases, remain for
ject of concern in the United States, in part because up to six years. There are no quotas for most visa
of large-scale arrivals of Haitians and Cubans in the categories. The largest groups of temporary workers
past. In September 1994, an agreement was are treaty traders and investors together with their
concluded between the United States and Cuba dependants, H-1B professionals and intra-company
under which the US guaranteed that a minimum of transferees (see Table II.38).
20 000 Cubans would be authorised to immigrate
legally every year although specific conditions were As a result of the recent discovery of several
laid down as to the selection of candidates. abuses in the allocation of H-1B category visas for
speciality occupations, the Department of Labor is
The admission of refugees into the United proposing certain reforms (yet to be enacted) which
States is subject to an overall ceiling sub- would make it possible to meet the temporary
divided into five regions. The annual ceiling is set needs of companies in skilled professional staff
by the President after consulting Congress, but may without displacing American workers. Employers
be re-evaluated to take account of particular circum- applying for H-1B visas would be required to attest
stances. In fact, every year, admissions are lower that they had not laid off US workers in the occupa-
than the ceilings laid down. In 1996, nearly tions for which they seek foreign staff. They must
75 700 refugees were admitted to the United States also attest that they first tried to recruit US workers.
whereas the ceiling was set at 90 000. Ceilings Another proposal is to reduce the authorised period
increased steadily from 67 000 in 1986 to 142 000 in of stay from six to three years, to better reflect the
1992. Thereafter, ceilings decreased, with 1997 set at ‘‘temporary’’ nature of the labour shortage.
78 000. For the fiscal year 1998 however, the ceiling
increased slightly to 83 000.
Illegal migration
As for asylum seekers, there have been several
new developments in the last three years. First of Illegal immigrants are either foreigners who
all, the number of staff dealing with asylum requests enter the United States illegally or who are admitted
has been doubled. Then, in January 1995, the Immi- legally for a temporary period and either fail to
gration and Naturalization Service (INS) adopted depart or violate other terms of their temporary visa. 181
Table II.38. Non-immigrants1 admitted by class of admission, fiscal years 1994-1996, United States
Thousands
1994 1995 1996
Foreign government officials, spouses and children 105.3 103.6 118.2

Temporary visitors for business 3 164.1 3 275.3 3 770.3
Temporary visitors for pleasure 17 154.8 17 611.5 19 109.9
Transit aliens 330.9 320.3 325.5
Students 386.2 356.6 418.1
Vocational students 7.8 7.6 8.8
Spouses and children of students 33.7 31.3 32.5
International representatives, spouses and children 74.7 72.0 79.5
Temporary workers 450.0 464.6 533.5
Registered nurses 6.1 6.5 2.0
Professionals 105.9 117.6 144.5
Temporary agricultural workers 13.2 11.4 9.6
Temporary nonagricultural workers 15.7 14.2 14.3
Industrial trainees 3.1 2.8 3.0
Professional workers: North American Free Trade Agreement 24.8 23.9 27.0
Workers with extraordinary ability 5.0 6.0 7.2
Workers accompanying the workers with extraordinary ability 1.5 1.8 2.1
Athletes and entertainers 28.1 28.4 33.6
International cultural exchange 1.5 1.4 2.1
Workers in non profit religious organisations 6.0 6.7 9.0
Intracompany transferees 98.2 112.1 140.5
Treaty traders and investors and dependents 141.0 131.8 138.6
Spouses and children of temporary workers 49.2 53.6 53.6
Spouses and children of NAFTA professionals 6.0 7.2 7.7
Spouses and children of intracompany transferees 56.0 61.6 73.3
Representatives of foreign information media and dependents 27.7 24.2 33.6
Exchange visitors 216.6 201.1 215.5
Spouses and children of exchange visitors 42.6 39.3 41.3
Fiancé(es) of US citizens 8.1 7.8 9.0
Children of fiancé(es) 0.8 0.8 1.0
NATO officials, their spouses and children 9.1 8.6 10.9
Unknown 0.9 0.8 0.3
Total 22 118.7 22 640.5 24 842.5
1. Non-immigrants are visitors, persons in transit or persons granted temporary residence permits. Data may be over estimated as they include multiple
entries by the same person over time.
Source: US Department of Justice, 1996 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service.
The length of stay of illegal immigrants varies enor- cent of illegal immigrants in 1996 were visa over-
mously: some do not remain in the United States for stayers. This new awareness highlights the need for
more than a year, while others settle permanently. increased attention in the issuance of temporary
The undocumented population was estimated to be visas, particularly to nationals of countries with high
5 million in October 1996. Mexico remains the lead- overstay rates.
ing source country (about 55 per cent); others
include the countries of Central America and the
Foreign-born population
Caribbean, Canada and Poland.
In recent years, there has been an increase in Since January 1994, the monthly Current Popula-
the number of temporary migrants staying illegally tion Survey (CPS) of US households by the Bureau of
in the United States beyond the date of expiry of the Census has included, as part of its regular ques-
182 their visa. According to INS estimates, some 41 per tionnaire, questions on the place of origin, national-
ity, year of immigration and parental place of origin. Any legal immigrant is entitled to become a US
In 1996, according to this survey, the foreign-born citizen if he meets the main conditions required.
population was estimated at 24.6 million, more than He must be at least 18 years old, have entered the
9 per cent of the total. By way of comparison, the United States legally and resided there for at least
foreign-born population in 1980 was 14.1 million, five years. He must, through tests, prove that he
representing nearly 6 per cent of the total. Between knows the English language and the history and
1970 and 1990, important changes took place in the political institutions of the United States. Natural-
geographical origin of the foreign-born: in 1970, isation rates, as a proportion of immigrants having
nearly 60 per cent had been born in Europe, com- acquired US citizenship through naturalisation, vary
pared to 22 per cent in 1990. Central America and enormously among different immigrant groups. Ref-
Mexico today account for the largest numbers of ugees, young adults, especially if unmarried upon
foreign-born, and the numbers from Asia now also entering the United States, or immigrants from dis-
exceed those from Europe. tant parts of the world often have high naturalisa-
The foreign-born have played a growing role in tion rates. For example, among immigrants admit-
the US labour force over the last twenty years. ted in 1982 and acquiring citizenship by 1995,
According to CPS data, the foreign-born accounted Taiwanese, Vietnamese, Filipinos and immigrants
for 11 per cent of the labour force in 1996, compared from the former Soviet Union have naturalisation
to only 5 per cent in 1970. rates above 60 per cent, compared with some
12.5 per cent for Canadians and 14.5 per cent for
Naturalisations Mexicans. Mexico remains, nevertheless, the lead-
ing country of origin of naturalised citizens: in 1996,
The number of naturalisations doubled first Mexicans accounted for nearly 25 per cent of all
between 1992 and 1995 (240 000 to 488 000) and naturalised citizens.
then a second time during the year 1996, to reach
more than 1 million. The figure for 1997 is expected
to reach around 600 000. Several reasons may Policy developments
explain the sudden increase in 1996:
– more persons are eligible to become citizens due One of the major policy developments that
to high recent immigration levels and the legalisa- took place in 1997 was the restoration of immigrant
tion under IRCA of 2.7 million aliens; eligibility for certain public benefits. The Balanced
Budget Act of 1997 restored Supplemental Security
– a new ‘‘green card replacement programme’’ has
Income (SSI) and Medicaid eligibility for legal
provided an incentive for legal aliens to become
immigrants who were receiving these benefits
US citizens rather than face the burden of
when the 1996 Welfare Reform bill was passed on
renewing their card;
22 August 1996. Also, legal immigrants who were
– recently passed legislation denies legal immi- residing in the United States on 22 August 1996
grants access to many federally funded social pro- retain access to SSI and Medicaid benefits if they
grammes, thus increasing the incentive to become become disabled. However, the Welfare Act’s bar
a United States citizen; on food stamps for most legal immigrants was not
– the introduction, in August 1995, of a Citizenship lifted by the Balanced Budget Act.
USA programme aimed at simplifying procedures
for acquiring US nationality, led to a surge in the Another major development was the 19 Nov-
number of naturalisations during 1996. ember 1997 enactment of the Nicaraguan Adjust-
Although generally popular, this last measure ment and Central American Relief Act which pro-
has also been criticised since it has led to a simplifi- vided an amnesty to nationals of Nicaragua and
cation of the testing of knowledge of the English Cuba who had been in the United States for at least
language and the history and political institutions of two years. It also allowed nationals of El Salvador,
the United States, as well as less stringent checking Guatemala, the former Soviet Union and certain
of criminal records. Consequently, INS has begun Eastern European countries to apply for suspen-
proceedings to revoke the citizenship of nearly sion of deportation under the more lenient rules
1 000 persons and nearly 5 000 other cases are being that existed before the Illegal Immigration Reform
reviewed. and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996. 183
Part III
REPORT ON THE TEMPORARY EMPLOYMENT
OF FOREIGNERS IN SEVERAL OECD COUNTRIES1
INTRODUCTION tracts vary, however, according to the country and

category of temporary work.
The admission of permanent foreign workers
Most OECD countries have long been favour-
into OECD countries is currently limited, particularly
able to the temporary immigration of workers and
in European countries. However, the demand for
believe that it has a beneficial impact on host coun-
temporary foreign workers is growing. The recruit-
tries’ economies. In Canada, for example, a special
ment of temporary foreign workers can provide
legislative framework was introduced in 1973 to
greater labour market flexibility and help alleviate
make it possible to meet the short-term needs of
sectoral labour shortages in host countries. It also
the Canadian labour market without jeopardising
promotes the movement of managerial staff and
the employment prospects of permanent residents.
highly skilled workers. This is especially true for
In the United States, a distinction between perma-
enterprises that wish to set up abroad. In certain
nent immigrants and ‘‘non-immigrants’’ has been
cases, particularly during a period of restricted
introduced. Although there had been annual entry
immigration, it may be a means of reducing the
quotas for permanent immigrants since 1921, there
employment of foreigners in an irregular situation.
had been no quota for ‘‘non-immigrants’’ since their
Temporary work can also be beneficial to work- numbers had been relatively small. However, this
ers’ home countries by reducing unemployment. In category had grown so rapidly since that time that
addition, under certain conditions, temporary work- the Immigration Act of 1990 set quotas for some
ers, upon return to their country, can use the experi- ‘‘non-immigrant’’ categories.
ence gained abroad to contribute to an acceleration Growing awareness of the extent of temporary
in the economic reform process and to broaden job work has led lawmakers to regulate and even to
opportunities. Thus, there may be less of a risk of restrict the temporary employment of foreigners,
highly skilled workers settling permanently abroad. who had been able to use their temporary status to
Lastly, certain movements of temporary workers are circumvent the more restrictive legislation on per-
carried out within the framework of international co- manent immigration. This is what occurred in the
operation between receiving and sending countries. Netherlands, for example, with the new Aliens
The main distinction between temporary and Employment Act that entered into force on 1 Sep-
permanent employment is that temporary work is tember 1995. In Switzerland, since 1963 a system of
not normally considered a preliminary step for for- quotas has been in place for foreign temporary
eign workers to settle permanently in the host coun- workers, mostly seasonal workers.
try. The following consequences flow from this prin- This report, based on eight case studies
ciple: the temporary worker has a fixed-term (Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the
employment contract, most often for less than one Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and
year; the contract often specifies the authorised the United States), examines the general character-
occupation, the geographical area in which the occu- istics of temporary work (1) and identifies the main
pation may be carried out and the employer. More- categories of workers by specifying for each the con-
over, in most cases, the temporary worker must ditions of recruitment and residence (2). This first
leave the country on expiry of the contract, may not synthesis compares the main types of legislation in
seek other employment and is not entitled to family place which regulate temporary work for foreigners,
reunion. The rules regarding temporary work con- in particular, that of skilled and highly-skilled 185
workers. Appendix describes for each country stud- In the United States, the Immigration and
ied the main categories of temporary workers, the Nationality Act lists 20 types of visas granted based
conditions of their admission and recruitment, the on the category or ‘‘preference’’ in which the tempo-
length of stay authorised, restrictions regarding pro- rary worker is classified. These categories are in turn
fessional activity as well as the possibilities for fam- divided into sub-categories. This procedure no
ily reunion and a change of status. Certain categories doubt has the advantage of flexibility, since it makes
of temporary workers, for example students, have it possible to create new categories or to change
not been included in the table but are discussed in existing categories without completely overhauling
the body of the paper. existing legislation. However, this proliferation of
categories can sometimes create confusion as to the
1. THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS scope of the various visas.
OF TEMPORARY EMPLOYMENT There is also a major difference between those
countries that set quotas and those that do not.
Temporary employment is not defined in the
Quotas are designed to ensure a balance between
same way in all OECD countries. As a result, it is
the national and foreign populations, to make it pos-
necessary to begin by pointing out the differences
sible to improve the structure of the labour market
between these countries before embarking upon a
and to create favourable conditions for the integra-
detailed analysis of the temporary immigration of
tion of immigrants. Quotas make it possible to limit
skilled or highly skilled staff.
or channel the entry of foreigners, including tempo-
Some countries (France, Germany, Switzerland) rary workers. This is the case in Germany,
define temporary workers primarily as holders of Switzerland, the United Kingdom (only for the Sea-
temporary residence and work permits, while sonal Agricultural Workers Scheme) and the United
others, such as Australia and the United States, view States. In Australia, except for Working Holiday Mak-
them as foreigners admitted under a specific immi- ers (see below), France and the Netherlands, there
gration programme for which a special visa is issued. is no quota system.
In the United Kingdom, foreigners are in principle
Temporary workers are sometimes recruited on
employed on a temporary basis and are therefore
the basis of restrictive geographical criteria. For
subject to the same rules as all foreigners.
example, Switzerland has adopted the ‘‘three circles
model’’, comprising an inner circle designating the
a) The different approaches to temporary countries of the European Economic Area (EEA),
employment whose nationals have great freedom of movement, a
The countries studied in this report do not reg- middle circle which currently includes Canada and
ulate the employment of foreign temporary workers the United States, from which a limited recruitment
in the same way. Some enact general legislation of workers is allowed, and, lastly, an outer circle – all
governing temporary employment, and rely on sec- other countries – for which work permits are granted
ondary instruments such as regulations or circulars on an exceptional basis only.
to define the various categories, while other coun- The other countries studied do not, in principle,
tries provide for a wide range of possible situations lay down specific geographical criteria limiting the
in their legislation. areas from which temporary workers may be
For example, in Germany, temporary workers recruited. However, the United States, Canada and
are all granted a general temporary residence per- Mexico, under the North American Free Trade
mit and a specific type of work permit. The duration Agreement (NAFTA), have defined an area in which
of work permits varies depending on the country some categories of workers may move more freely,
and the occupation concerned. In Switzerland and and the European countries belonging to the Euro-
France, residence permits also authorise people to pean Union and the EEA have established areas in
work. In the Netherlands, employers must obtain a which there is complete freedom of movement for
recruitment authorisation, but may only hire workers nationals of member countries.
with a valid residence permit. In Canada, work per- As is often the case for permanent immigrants,
mits are generally valid for one year, but it can vary temporary workers and residents come predomi-
in the case of asylum seekers who are authorised to nantly from certain countries or regions. In Australia,
work while their claim is being considered. In both for example, half of the temporary residents are
186 cases, it is possible to extend the permit. from Member countries of the APEC (Asia-Pacific Co-
REPORT ON THE TEMPORARY EMPLOYMENT OF FOREIGNERS IN SEVERAL OECD COUNTRIES
operation forum), in particular the United States and by various bodies, most often by labour ministries
Japan. In 1994-95, the Temporary Residence Pro- or occasionally by special bodies in co-operation
gramme mainly attracted nationals of the United with the ministry (for example, France’s Oce interna-
Kingdom, Japan, the United States and Canada. In tional de migrations). In the Netherlands, the Minister
the Netherlands, temporary workers come primarily of Social Affairs and Employment, which defined the
from the United States, Japan, the Philippines, rules regarding the issue, extension or withdrawl of
China, Turkey and Morocco. In Germany, nationals of work permits, has delegated this authority to the
the central and eastern European countries Central Employment Board. In some cases, special
predominate. procedures are required, as in the United Kingdom.2
The occupations available to temporary workers If employers do not comply with certain procedures,
vary across countries. A relatively wide range of they are subject to penalties, as in France,3 the
sectors and skills are open to these workers in Netherlands4 and the United States.
Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, the Countries are also concerned about social costs.
United Kingdom and the United States. In Australia, In general, the presence of temporary workers
temporary worker programmes aim at meeting the should not impose financial costs on residents (this
needs of the labour market. The three main pro- is the case in Australia, the United Kingdom and the
grammes considered in this document (highly United States). For example, in Australia, temporary
skilled workers, students and Working Holiday Mak- migrants are, in theory, intended to be replaced by
ers) provide a relatively large range of work oppor- Australian nationals or permanent residents trained
tunities. At the same time, the new business visa in Australia.
(TBE visa) is designed to meet needs of enterprises In Switzerland and France, temporary workers
with regard to skilled personnel. In Switzerland, the are not entitled to family reunion although excep-
vast majority of temporary workers are seasonal tions exist for accompanying families of highly
workers. skilled workers. For example, in Switzerland, they
In general, the eight countries studied allow are issued annual permits for a specified period. In
temporary workers to work for a specified period Germany, family reunion is allowed only if the tem-
only, in a specific field of activity, in a given geo- porary worker has a residence permit or permanent
graphical area and for the same employer. In addi- resident status. However, temporary workers gener-
tion, there are various provisions requiring employ- ally only have temporary residence permits that do
ers to ensure that no nationals or permanent not entitle them to family reunion. Other countries
residents are able and willing to do the work in do not prohibit the entry of family members, but
question. In other words, the labour market situation they do not allow them to work (United States,
is taken into consideration, except for certain Canada). Some countries do allow them to enter the
occupations. labour market provided they obtain a work permit
Canada may require that employment (Australia, the Netherlands).
authorisations be validated, i.e. checked to ensure In each country, some categories of temporary
that the employment of a temporary worker is bene- workers are exempted from work permits, either
ficial to the Canadian economy and is not detrimen- because of the type or duration of the work they are
tal to employment opportunities for Canadians. In doing or because of international agreements.
principle, labour standards and working conditions Examples of exemptions under agreements are
may not be less favourable for foreign workers than nationals of EU and EEA countries and, in the
for Canadian nationals. Foreign workers may not be United Kingdom, Commonwealth citizens who are
admitted for the purpose of breaking a strike or a authorised to enter or reside.5 Similar exemptions
labour conflict (Canada, Germany, Netherlands, are provided under the Canada-US FTA and NAFTA.
United States). In some cases temporary workers are
required to speak the language of the host country
(United Kingdom). Finally, in most cases a medical b) Skilled and highly skilled workers
examination is required if the foreigner stays in the Most countries encourage the temporary admis-
country longer than three months (France) or six sion of skilled and highly skilled migrants. For exam-
months (Canada). ple, Australia acknowledges explicitly that these
Temporary workers will not be admitted unless workers are beneficial to the country since they con-
a work permit has been issued. Permits are granted tribute their talents and abilities and transfer skills 187
to the local workforce. On the other hand, Australia for instance in Switzerland and the United States;
does not favour the admission of low-skilled work- independent executives and senior managers
ers, and the same is true of the United Kingdom. (Australia, France, Switzerland, United Kingdom,
The other countries studied do not state their pref- United States and the Netherlands); specialised
erence for skilled workers so clearly, and temporary technicians (Australia, France, United Kingdom,
workers also include low-skilled migrants employed United States); researchers (Australia, France,
in a limited number of specific activities (agriculture, Switzerland); investors (Australia, Canada, United
hotels and catering, construction). This is the case in States); physicians (Australia, United States); busi-
Germany, Switzerland, France and the United ness people (Australia, Canada, France, United
States. States); and ‘‘keyworkers’’ (staff with specialised
Because of the differences, mentioned above, skills) in Australia, the United Kingdom, the
in the ways in which countries carry out the recruit- Netherlands and the United States. Table III.1
ment of temporary foreign workers, making compari- presents the growth in the numbers of foreign work-
sons among the various countries studied is not an ers in some of these categories over the period 1992
easy task. to 1996 for the eight countries studied.
In the United States, flows of skilled workers

represent more than 80 per cent of entries of tempo-
2. CONDITIONS OF RECRUITMENT rary workers (not including intra-company transfer-
AND RESIDENCE OF THE MAIN ees and treaty traders and investors). In Canada, the
CATEGORIES OF TEMPORARY United Kingdom the share of the skilled temporary
WORKERS workers is close to 40 per cent of the total of entries
of temporary workers. This percentage is smaller in
the Netherlands, Australia and France and ranges
By examining the main categories of temporary
between 15 and 30 per cent depending on the coun-
workers, it will be possible to analyse the issues
try. The heterogeneity in the categories of skilled
presented in Part I in greater depth. However, these
workers makes comparisons among different coun-
categories differ from one country to the next, and
tries difficult. However, over the period 1992 to
consequently they cannot all be examined in detail
1995, the share of skilled and highly skilled workers
within the limited scope of this report. Four main
in the total of temporary worker flows has grown in
categories are to be found in most of the countries:
most countries.
(highly) skilled workers, seasonal workers, trainees
and students. In addition, there are three distinctive There are no quotas on the entry of highly qual-
cases that are deserving of mention: Working Holi- ified staff in Australia, the United Kingdom, France
day Makers (Australia and the United Kingdom), or the Netherlands. There are quotas, however, in
entertainers, and teachers and researchers. Switzerland (except for residence permits of less
than 4 months) and in the United States (for
a) Skilled and highly skilled workers H-1B visas, but not for O visas). H-1B visas, which
are issued to workers holding a university degree,
This relatively heterogeneous category most are subject to an annual quota of 65 000. Since the
often comprises individuals with university degrees, introduction of a quota in 1992 for this category, the
or extensive experience in a given field. The term number of applicants has been lower than the limit,
‘‘highly skilled’’ is generally used in most of the with the exception of fiscal year 1997.
countries studied. In France, highly skilled workers
are recruited through ordinary procedures or as A distinction may be made between countries
workers on secondment. German law refers to the in which temporary workers are legally obliged to
category of ‘‘workers under contracts for work or ser- have both a residence and a work permit (France,
vices’’, which is similar to the French concept. In Germany and Switzerland), and those countries that
general, in the eight countries studied, the category only require them to obtain a visa, if necessary, and
of highly skilled staff is not always precisely defined. a work permit (United Kingdom) or the necessary
It is divided into a number of sub-categories that visa for the specific category of worker (Australia,
may vary from one country to another. For example, United States). In the Netherlands a temporary
the following classifications may be considered as worker needs a residence permit for employment
188 belonging to this category: highly skilled specialists, purposes and the employer needs to obtain an
Table III.1. Inflows of temporary skilled workers by main category in selected OECD countries, 1992-1996
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Australia
Skilled temporary resident programme1 14.6 14.9 14.2 14.3 15.4
% of total temporary workers2 17.1 20.3 18.0 18.4 20.5
Canada3
Workers obliged to validate their job4 66.4 52.0 43.4 42.2 ..
Professionals5 5.3 6.3 7.4 7.8 ..
Reciprocal employment5, 6 5.6 5.3 4.4 5.0 ..
Workers with significant benefits for Canada5 4.6 4.6 5.4 5.0 ..
Total for the above four categories of workers 81.8 68.1 60.6 59.9 ..
% of total temporary workers 35.5 37.0 35.0 43.7 ..
France
Workers on secondment7 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.8
Researchers7 0.9 1.0 1.4 1.3 1.2
Total for the above two categories of workers 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.0
Germany
Workers employed under a contract for services9 115.1 63.3 48.4 56.2 47.3
% of total temporary workers .. 25.2 23.1 22.1 17.3
Netherlands10 1.9 1.8 2.0 1.5 ..
% of total temporary workers 26.4 25.7 29.4 27.8 ..
United-Kingdom
Long-term permits11 12.7 12.5 13.4 15.5 16.9
% of total temporary workers 42.2 42.7 44.6 43.7 44.8
United States12
Professionals (visa H-1B) 110.2 92.8 105.9 117.6 144.5
North American Free Trade Agreement workers (visa TN)13 12.5 16.6 19.8 23.9 27.0
Workers of distinguished abilities (visa O) 0.5 3.1 5.0 6.0 7.2
Total for the above three categories of workers 123.2 112.5 130.7 147.5 178.6
Note: The categories of temporary workers differ from country to country. Data and percentages are therefore not fully comparable. The figures for total
temporary workers refer to the total work or residence permits issued in Canada, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States, to the sum
of temporary programmes in Australia (excluding students), to the total provisional work permits issued plus seasonal workers in France and to guest
workers, contract workers and seasonal workers in Germany.
1. Data refer to fiscal years (July to June of the given year) and include accompanying dependants.
2. As a per cent of temporary residents programmes (Skilled Employment, Social/Cultural and International Relations Programmes).
3. Data refer to the number of employment authorisations issued. Data may be overestimated because migrants can obtain several authorisations over the
given year.
4. The list of jobs that can be validated excludes unskilled jobs, those restricted to Canadian citizens and those with a high rate of unemployment.
5. These workers are exempt from validation by an employment service of the Government. The authorisations are usually delivered for 9 months.
6. This category concerns professors and researchers admitted under bilateral agreements and some specialists.
7. Holders of a provisional work permit (APT).
8. As a per cent of total holders of a provisional work permit, students, trainees and seasonal workers.
9. Workers recruited under bilateral agreements usually for 2 years.
10. Figures include intra-company transferees and managers. Authorisations are usually granted for the duration of the contract with a maximum of three
years.
11. Long-term permits (one year or more) are mainly approved for highly skilled and qualified workers.
12. Data refer to fiscal years (October to September of the given year). Data may be overestimated because they include multiple entries by the same person
over the given year.
13. Figures include family members.
14. As a per cent of total temporary workers (excluding intracompany transferees – 140 460 in 1996 – and treaty traders/investors – 138 570 in 1996 including
dependants).
Sources: Australia: Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (DIEA); Canada: Citizenship and Immigration Canada; France: Office des migrations
internationales, Annuaire des migrations 1996; Germany: Bundesanstalt für Arbeit; Netherlands: Centraal Bureau Arbeidsvoorziening, Rijswijk (Z-H);
United Kingdom: Department of Employment; United States: United States Department of Justice, 1996 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and
Naturalization Service.
employment permit. Ultimately, the conditions sons between countries. Among the conditions gen-
required for the issue of these permits or visas are erally required for the entry and residence of highly
the most appropriate criteria for making compari- qualified staff, only five will be examined. 189
The employment situation and national signed with central and eastern European countries6
preference and are a means of supporting the economic reforms
under way in these countries. In 1995, the overall
Some countries require that the employment
quota was approximately 56 000 workers, of whom
situation be taken into account and that preference
one half were Polish. The labour market situation in
be given to national workers before admitting cate-
Germany may not constitute grounds for refusal to
gories of temporary migrants, while other countries
admit this category of workers. Nevertheless, work
do not. In Australia, Labor Market Testing (LMT) is
permits are not granted in districts of the national
the procedure used by employers (sponsors) to
employment office in which unemployment is signif-
show that they have tried to recruit a worker on the
icantly higher than the national average.
Australian labour market. They do this by advertis-
ing in newspapers and employment agencies. Spon-
sors must provide information on who responded to Work permits
the advertisement and why the applicants were not In Australia, temporary workers must have a
hired. These requirements do not apply to business sponsor. It is the sponsor who must provide the
people, but at the same time, their activities must necessary proof that the entry of the highly skilled
not be in competition with those of Australian worker will be beneficial to Australia’s economic
residents. development. Sponsors must also assume financial
In the United States, the employment of certain responsibility for foreign workers so as to limit the
foreigners, particularly lower-skilled, must not have social and financial costs borne by the community.
an adverse impact on the working conditions of Generally, the sponsors are also the employers.
United States workers, and employers must have They are responsible for compliance with the
notified the appropriate trade union. In the United worker’s conditions of entry as well as with the pro-
Kingdom, employers must show that the post can- visions of labour law. This condition is not required
not be filled by a United Kingdom or EEA national of business people holding a TBE visa (Temporary
by proving that the post has been advertised widely Business Entry).
enough within the previous six months and that no The length of stay allowed and the procedures
satisfactory response had been received. This is for obtaining work permits vary in Australia depend-
also the case in Canada, where the validation proce- ing on the category of skilled workers, but usually
dure verifies that the entry of a foreign worker would they are granted for two years, and may be renewed
not be detrimental to the employment of resident once, up to a maximum of four years. In general, for
Canadians (see Appendix). investors, senior managers and skilled technicians,
In France, although the employment situation this renewal may be denied on the grounds of the
theoretically constitutes grounds for refusal to admit employment situation. Medical practitioners may
workers on secondment, the authorities are required stay only for two years. Since 1995, business people
to give favourable consideration to applications by are eligible for a special visa (Temporary Business
senior executives with a salary in excess of FF 21 000 Entry) which initial duration (renewable) varies from
per month, which most often amounts to a waiver of three months to four years.
the condition. Furthermore, the employment situa- In France, provisional work permits are issued
tion is not taken into account for installers and for a nine-month period, and may be renewed once
specialised technicians admitted to install or com- for a further two years on an exceptional basis.
mission equipment sold by a foreign firm. The prior- These permits are only valid for six months for
ity given to national workers is also waived in the installers and specialised technicians. In the United
Netherlands for ‘‘keyworkers’’ in a multinational States, the length of stay permitted varies according
enterprise, and in Switzerland for highly skilled to the category of visa, although in principle it is
workers. always for a limited time (ranges from one year to up
Lastly, in Germany, workers under contracts for to 10 years, in exceptional cases). In the
work or services benefit from a special system. This Netherlands, the employment permit is valid for
is a traditional practice in Germany based on inter- one year, and may be renewed. The worker who has
national agreements for the completion of one or held a valid residence permit for employment pur-
more work or service contracts. The number of work- poses for a continuous three-year period and who
ers admitted is determined by quotas for each has not established his or her place of resi-
190 country. These agreements have mainly been dence outside the Netherlands, will receive a new
residence permit with no employment restrictions. Accompanying family and family reunion
Employment permits for highly qualified employees
In Australia, Canada and the United States, fam-
are valid for the duration of the employment, with a
ily members may be authorised to accompany the
maximum of three years.
visa holder. In addition, in Australia they are enti-
In Germany, work permits issued to individuals tled to work.
recruited under contracts for work or services are
In the United Kingdom, family reunion is per-
valid for a maximum of two, or, exceptionally, three
mitted if the conditions regarding resources and
years. Workers who install or carry out maintenance,
accommodations are met. This is also the case in the
repair work or tests, on equipment supplied by a
Netherlands. In France, however, temporary workers
foreign enterprise are not required to have work
are not entitled to family reunion, but high-level
permits provided they do not remain in Germany for
staff may benefit from the accompanying family pro-
more than three months.
cedure that allows individuals on secondment to be
In Switzerland, work permits are limited to a accompanied by their spouse and children provided
maximum of 18 months for short-term residence per- they have adequate accommodation. However,
mits and generally one year for yearly permits for a accompanying family members are not entitled to
specified period (up to four years under certain cir- work, unlike families having family reunion rights. In
cumstances), renewable each year. At the end of a Switzerland family reunion is not possible for for-
four-year period, the holder may request a renewa- eigners holding short-term residence permits. This
ble one-year permit. is also the case in Germany for workers under con-
In the United Kingdom, work permits are nor- tract for work or services.
mally only granted to individuals classified as highly
qualified workers on the basis of their educational Exemptions from the work permit requirement
or professional qualifications. Workers must have at
least two years’ professional experience. The permit Some categories of workers – primarily highly
may be renewed up to a maximum of four years. skilled staff – are exempt from the work permit
‘‘Keyworkers’’ with specialised skills may also be requirement or may not be refused a permit on the
granted work permits provided their skills are not grounds of the employment situation. This is the
readily available in the United Kingdom and that case for business people and sole representatives
the jobs of other people in the firm depend on in the United Kingdom and for the sole representa-
them. These work permits are issued for a maximum tives of foreign firms in France and executive manag-
period of 36 months. ers in Switzerland. In the United States, temporary
workers admitted under trade treaties are entitled
In Australia, France, Switzerland, the to visa E, which allows them to remain in the country
Netherlands and the United Kingdom, work permits for an unlimited period of time. In Canada, some
are limited to a single employer, and any change of people entering for business purposes do not
employer must be authorised. In Australia, holders require work authorisation, provided they do not
of a business visa can easily change employers. remain in Canada longer than nine months. Foreign
Moreover, geographical mobility must be authorised workers who come to Canada to oversee the installa-
in France and Switzerland. tion or maintenance of special equipment pur-
chased or leased abroad are not exempt from the
The obligation to leave the country need to obtain the employment authorisation, but
validation is not required.
On expiry of the work permit, foreign workers
are required to leave the country (France, Germany,
b) Seasonal workers
United States). In several countries, e.g. Australia
and the United states, it is possible for workers to In most of the countries studied, foreign sea-
change their status and in some cases they can sonal workers are employed primarily in the sectors
obtain permanent resident status. Exemptions are of agriculture, hotels and catering and construction,
also provided for under Canadian law. In the i.e. highly seasonal activities. The length of stay for
Netherlands, after three years uninterrupted legal seasonal work contracts is generally limited to
employment, the foreign worker is free on the Dutch between three and six months. The number of sea-
labour market. After five years of legal residence, sonal workers (see Table III.2) varies by country and
permanent settlement is possible. has tended to decline over the past few years. Out 191
Table III.2. Inflows of seasonal workers in selected OECD countries, 1992-1996
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Australia (WHM1) 25 873 25 557 29 595 35 391 40 273

Canada (Caribbean and Mexican Seasonal Agricultural
Workers Programme) 11 115 11 212 10 443 10 879 ..
France2 13 597 11 283 10 339 9 352 8 766
Germany3 212 442 181 037 155 217 192 766 220 894
Netherlands4 1 000 900 500 – –
Switzerland5 93 118 71 829 61 102 53 707 45 259
United Kingdom
Working Holiday Makers6 24 100 21 659 31 604 36 013 33 045
Seasonal agricultural workers7 3 560 4 230 4 440 4 660 5 540
United States (Agricultural workers H-2A) 16 390 14 628 13 185 11 394 9 635
1. Data refer to fiscal years (July to June of the given year). The Working Holiday Maker program is restricted to young people aged 18 to 25. Authorised length
of stay is one year (not renewable). Employment for more than 3 months with the same employer is not permitted.
2. Duration of the contract cannot exceed 6 months in a period of 12 consecutive months. The contract is restricted to an occupation, a geographical zone
and one employer.
3. Contracts of seasonal workers cannot exceed 3 months per year.
4. Admission conditions are very restrictive. The length of the activity cannot exceed 6 months (limited possibility for renewal).
5. End of August of each year.
6. Applicants are admitted for 2 years (no renewal). Employment is incidental to the holiday, i.e. person may not pursue a career in the United Kingdom.
7. Including readmissions. Such persons need to be students in full-time education, aged between 18-25 years inclusive (except if returning by specific
invitation), and have a Home Office work card. They are admitted until 30 November of the years in question.
Sources: Australia: Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (DIEA); Canada: Citizenship and Immigration Canada; France: Office des migrations
internationales, Annuaire des migrations 1996; Germany: Bundesanstalt für Arbeit; Netherlands: Centraal Bureau Arbeidsvoorziening, Rijswijk (Z-H);
Switzerland: Office fédéral des étrangers; United Kingdom: Department of Employment; United States: United States Department of Justice, 1996
Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service.
of the eight countries studied, Germany and In Germany the employment of foreign sea-
Switzerland are the two which recruit, by far, the sonal workers is restricted to the economic sectors
most seasonal workers. of agriculture and forestry, hotels and catering, the
processing of fruits and vegetables and to sawmills.
Seasonal workers are a major category of tem- In France, nearly all seasonal workers are employed
porary workers in Switzerland, but only a small one in agriculture (95 per cent). In Canada, seasonal agri-
in the United Kingdom, essentially because it is a cultural workers are employed under programmes
youth mobility scheme and hotel and catering staff based on agreements with certain countries.
are included in the ‘‘keyworker’’ category. In the Seasonal work is sometimes limited by quotas
Netherlands, the decline in the number of seasonal and work permits issued on certain conditions.
workers is largely due to a sharp reduction in inflows
of agricultural workers. Australia apparently does not
have a category of seasonal workers, although such Quotas
workers do exist under a different heading, since Some countries set quotas limiting the number
young foreigners who come to the country under the of seasonal workers recruited. This is the case in
Working Holiday Makers (WHM) programme may be Australia for workers admitted under the WHM pro-
employed in seasonal jobs. gramme since fiscal year 1995/96. In the United
States, the number of H2-B visas granted to sea-
In the United States, temporary agricultural sonal (non-agricultural) temporary workers is limited
workers entered during 1942-64 under the ‘‘bracero’’ to 66 000, but this numerical limitation has not yet
programmes. They are now required to have an been reached. There are also quotas in Switzerland,
H2-A visa. The H-2B visa is issued to temporary non- where, in addition, recruitment is limited to EEA
agricultural workers and is subject to two conditions: nationals, mainly workers recruited under bilateral
not only the workers’ stay, but the job itself must be agreements with Italy and Spain (in addition, since
temporary, and employers must present a certificate 1991, restrictions have been placed on the entry of
attesting to the fact that no national worker was nationals of the former Yugoslavia). In principle,
qualified or available for the job (‘‘labor there are no quotas in France and Germany, but in
192 certification’’). France employers who recruit Moroccan or Tunisian
workers may not increase their numbers without 50 years old if they are recruited through an anony-
prior authorisation. mous contract, although this condition does not
apply to individuals recruited by name. There is no
Work permits age limit in Germany other than that the worker
must be at least 18 years old. In the Netherlands an
The duration of work permits for seasonal work- age limit exists (18-45 years) for all foreign workers
ers is limited to three months in Germany and to a with the exemption of seasonal workers.
maximum of three years in Canada and the United The admission of seasonal workers may also be
States, although in the United States work permits conditional upon an international agreement, as in
for temporary non-agricultural workers are valid for Germany, where agreements have been signed with
one year only. In the United Kingdom, work permits Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary,
for ‘‘keyworkers’’ can also be granted for up to three Poland, Romania, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia.
years. In France, agreements have been signed with
Work permits are issued for shorter periods in Morocco, Poland, Senegal, Tunisia and the former
France and Switzerland. In France, provisional work Yugoslavia. Switzerland has also entered into agree-
permits are granted for six months and may be ments with Italy and Spain. Finally, in the United
extended to eight months for some occupations. Kingdom, seasonal workers are only admitted under
They are valid for a minimum of four months for one approved scheme.
workers from Morocco and Tunisia. In Switzerland, In the United States, it is necessary for receiving
work permits are issued to workers for a maximum of H-2A and H-2B visas to obtain a ‘‘labor certification’’,
nine months, with a requirement that they leave delivered by the Department of Labor, attesting to
Switzerland for three months of the year. In the the fact that no national worker was qualified or
Netherlands, work permits for seasonal work are available for the job. Still other conditions may be
issued for a maximum of 24 weeks. This permit is not required, such as the requirement that working con-
renewable. In the United Kingdom, seasonal agricul- ditions and pay be identical to those of nationals
tural workers must obtain an authorisation from the (this is the case in the eight countries studied),
Home Office although they are not issued work per- mandatory registration for social security (France,
mits. The maximum length of stay is from the date of Germany) or a written employment contract
admission in the spring until 30 November of the and guaranteed accommodation (Germany, United
year in question. States and the Netherlands). In the United States,
Work permits are not required in Germany for temporary agricultural workers must be provided
individuals who are sent by an employer based with free accommodation and transport and low-cost
abroad and who remain less than three months in meals; they must be employed for at least three-
the country for the following activities: quarters of the duration of the contract.
– to assemble and maintain plants or machines that
have been delivered, are ready for use and serve The employment situation
commercial purposes;
In all countries, the employment situation may
– to accept plants, machines or other items that
constitute grounds for refusal to admit seasonal
have been ordered or to be instructed in their
workers. This means that they may be hired only if
use;
no other worker (either a national or permanent for-
– to take part in a company training course in the eign resident) is available and willing to accept the
context of export delivery or licence contracts; position offered. This principle is enforced very
– to set up, dismantle and look after exhibition restrictively in the Netherlands, since no work per-
stands owned by the foreign company or render mits at all were issued for this category in 1995.
comparable services which no business partner in
Germany can provide. The limited scope of the work permit
The authorisation to engage in a seasonal activ-
Special conditions
ity is limited, unless otherwise provided for by bilat-
The admission of seasonal workers is some- eral agreements, to a single type of activity (France,
times subject to special conditions. For example, in Switzerland, United Kingdom) with a single
France, foreign workers must be between 17 and employer (France, Switzerland, United Kingdom), 193
and is often restricted to a specific geographical new worker. Some countries distinguish between
area (France, Switzerland). several categories of trainees. Australia has two sub-
classes of visas for trainees. The first (visa sub-
Family reunion class 442) provides for the temporary entry of peo-
ple who come for training in their current area of
Seasonal workers are not entitled to family employment. The second (visa sub-class 457) is
reunion in France, Germany, the Netherlands, granted to highly skilled personnel (managers, spe-
Switzerland and in the United Kingdom. In the cialists) participating in company exchange pro-
United States, families of holders of H-2A and grammes or specialised training.
H-2B visas may enter the country but do not have
the right to work. In France, there are two main categories: train-
ees under general legislation, who come to France
for vocational or language training, and trainees
Obligation to leave the country on expiry of the under bilateral agreements. In the United Kingdom,
contract a distinction is made between trainees who are
Seasonal workers must generally leave the admitted for vocational training (they will normally
country on expiry of their contract. However, be graduates and will be studying for a specific pro-
Switzerland allows seasonal workers who have fessional or specialist qualification) and work experi-
resided in the country for a total of 36 months over ence trainees (who should normally already have
four consecutive years to request that their tempo- relevant experience or the appropriate academic or
rary residence permit be converted into an annual vocational qualifications which will enable them to
permit. This option is not subject to quota restric- benefit from the work experience undertaken; no
tions and allows for family reunion. In practice, how- acquisition of qualifications is involved and employ-
ever, only Italian nationals benefit from this ment is in a supernumerary capacity. In the
measure. Netherlands, a distinction is made between trainees
with a job in their country of origin who come to the
Netherlands in order to further their professional
c) Trainees
expertise and knowledge and trainees who come
Trainees are individuals who come to work in an within the framework of their ongoing vocational
enterprise to improve their professional skills or to training. In the United States, there are several
learn the language. This category is found in all the types of visas, in particular J-1 for student trainees
countries examined. However, in all these countries and H-3 for trainees in industry. The number of
the traineeship must be temporary and may not be trainees is, in general, relatively limited (see
a first step towards the permanent settlement of the Table III.3) and the length of stay is usually for 12 to
Table III.3. Inflows of foreign trainees in selected OECD countries, 1992-1996
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Australia1 4 888 3 984 4 395 4 268 4 830

France2 985 905 590 438 520
Germany (Guest workers)3 5 057 5 771 5 529 5 478 4 341
Netherlands 1 200 1 300 1 300 1 100 ..
Switzerland4 1 609 972 907 855 679
United Kingdom5 3 407 3 467 3 791 4 405 3 969
United States (Industrial trainees H-3) 3 352 3 126 3 075 2 787 2 986
1. Data refer to fiscal years (July to June of the given year). The Occupational Trainee programme allows entry of people for occupational training which is
compatible with their background.
2. Trainees who benefit from a provisional work permit only valid for one year; can be exceptionally extended to 18 months.
3. Workers aged 18 to 40, recruited under bilateral agreements, for 12 to 18 months.
4. Workers recruited under bilateral agreements according to professional experience usually for one year; can be exceptionally extended to 18 months.
5. Training and Work Experience Scheme (TWES). Persons recruited for 12 months (Work experience) or up to 3 years (Training). These periods can be
extended by another 12 months or up to 3 years respectively depending on the results obtained.
Sources: Australia: Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (DIEA); France: Office des migrations internationales, Annuaire des migrations 1996;
Germany: Bundesanstalt für Arbeit; Netherlands: Centraal Bureau Arbeidsvoorziening, Rijswijk (Z-H); Switzerland: OFIAMT; United Kingdom:
Department of Employment; United States: United States Department of Justice, 1996 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization
Service.
194
18 months. In most cases, the recruitment is carried Germany. These trainees have completed a voca-
out within the framework of bilateral agreements tional training course and take up temporary
and the professional occupation varies according to employment to improve their job and foreign lan-
the country. guage skills. They must be between the ages of 18
and 40 and have a work contract.
Quotas Trainees are only admitted to France as part of
The number of trainees admitted is subject to an exchange programme between a French and a
quotas in Germany, France and Switzerland, but this foreign enterprise or under bilateral agreements.
is not the case in the United Kingdom or the United The latter provide for age limits between 18 and 30
States (H-3 visas). The number of trainees admitted or 35 depending on the agreements. There are simi-
is normally determined through bilateral lar age limits in the United Kingdom for work experi-
agreements.7 ence traineeships, but not for vocational
traineeships.
Work permits In France and Germany, trainees are gainfully

employed and are subject to the same conditions as
Two approaches are taken as regards work per-
national workers, while in the United Kingdom train-
mits. Some countries require trainees to have a work
ees are unpaid and only receive an allowance to
permit, while others waive this requirement. Never-
cover their personal needs. In the Netherlands, the
theless, for both approaches, exceptions may be
rule that a vacant post must be advertised for five
made for various categories of trainees.
weeks is waived for trainees, as is the requirement
Germany (when the traineeship lasts longer that employers pay a full month’s wages even if the
than three months), France,8 both for trainees under job is for less than one month.
general legislation and trainees under bilateral
agreements, and Switzerland, require trainees to In the United States, as in the United Kingdom,
have a work permit. However, the United Kingdom the traineeship should not be the same as one
does not require a work permit for certain vocational found in the applicant’s home country and the
traineeships (e.g. student nurses, post-graduate doc- trainee should not simply be assigned to carry out
tors and dentists). the same tasks as ordinary workers. Trainees should
In Germany and Switzerland, these permits, not be ‘‘productive’’ and should master skills from
when required, are valid for a maximum of eighteen which they will benefit after leaving the United
months. However, in Germany, foreign specialists States.
and managers temporarily working as part of their
initial or advanced training who are recipients of The employment situation
government grants (government trainees) may be
issued work permits valid for a maximum of up to The extent to which the employment situation
two years. The maximum validity of work permits is is taken into account varies across countries. It may
normally one year with extensions permitted in not constitute grounds for refusal to admit trainees
Canada, two years in the United States, one year in in Germany, the Netherlands and France unders
France9 (although it may be extended up to eigh- international agreements. The same applies in
teen months on an exceptional basis) and in the Switzerland. In the United States, trainees
United Kingdom for work experience traineeships. are only accepted provided they are not depriving a
In the Netherlands, the maximum validity of United States resident of a training opportunity.
employment permits for vocational trainees is one Trainees may not change employers in France,
year and for work experience trainees 24 weeks. Switzerland, the Netherlands or the United
Kingdom.
Special conditions
Family reunion
In Germany, worker trainees are admitted
under international agreements that provide for rec- Family reunion is not allowed in France and
iprocity, but most often (except for Switzerland) Switzerland. Trainees’ spouses and children under
there is a one-way flow of foreign trainees into 18 may be authorised to enter the United Kingdom. 195
The obligation to leave the country Work permits
Trainees must leave the country at the end of Foreign students who work must generally have
their traineeship, and must sign a document to this a work permit. In Canada, the validity of the permit
effect on arrival in France. In the United Kingdom, corresponds to the duration of the studies. In
they may not reapply for another traineeship pro- France, students are granted a provisional work per-
gramme or a new work permit until they have mit valid for a period of six to nine months, which is
worked abroad for at least two years. This foreign renewable. In Germany, work permits are not
residency requirement also applies to certain train- required when foreign students are receiving train-
ees in the US programme. In the Netherlands, the ing or have a holiday job lasting less than three
trainee must provide a document from his or her months. For student trainees, this period is
employer in his or her own country stating that the extended to six months per year, provided that the
latter will re-employ the trainee at the end of the training is directly relevant to the student’s technical
traineeship abroad. This period is one year in studies, that the Federal Labour Office has agreed
Switzerland. and that the student is participating in an interna-
tional exchange programme.
In France, foreign students admitted to com-
d) Students plete a training programme that lasts less than three
months and is relevant to their studies may not be
The principle is that foreign students should denied a work permit on the grounds of the employ-
have only limited access to the labour market. Coun- ment situation. In the Netherlands, the employment
tries either prohibit student work or subject it to situation does not constitute grounds for refusal in
conditions such as the ban on working during the the case of seasonal work in June, July and August or
first year of study (France, United States). In the work not exceeding 10 hours per week. However, in
United Kingdom, students may only take casual France and Germany, the employment situation may
work and must receive authorisation to so. The same constitute grounds for refusal of work permits to stu-
is true of a training course that is relevant to their dents who are not trainees.
studies. There are special rules in France and the
United Kingdom for students studying medicine and
pharmacy. Family reunion
In Canada, post-secondary and university stu-
In principle, Canada allows students to work, dents may be accompanied by their spouses and
with the condition that the job is related to their dependants. Spouses may work provided they can
studies. In this case the work permit is not neces- prove insufficient financial resources. In addition,
sary. Thus, the employment situation may not con- they must obtain a work permit (the employment
stitute grounds for refusal. Australia allows students situation does not enter into consideration) and
to work full time during the holidays and 20 hours they must not be students themselves. In France,
per week during the academic year. In the the members of a student’s family may work regard-
Netherlands, foreign students are allowed to do sea- less of the employment situation. In the United
sonal work during June, July and August or work for Kingdom, family reunion is authorised and the
10 hours per week during the whole year. The rule is spouse may work if the student has been admitted
the same in France where, as from the second year for 12 months or more.
of study, students are allowed to work no more than
20 hours per week provided that the institution with
Obligation to leave the country on completing
which they are registered provides them with social
studies
security coverage specifically designed for students.
In the United States, students with F-1 visas may In principle, students must leave the country on
work on-campus for 20 hours per week and may work completion of their studies. However, Canada allows
full time during the holidays. Work permits may be students to accept a job related to their studies
granted for practical training programmes or on an after graduation for a non-renewable period of no
exceptional basis to students who encounter unfore- more than one year provided they are granted a
seeable financial difficulties if there is no possibility work permit, for which the employment situation
196 of work on-campus. may not be taken into account.
e) Working Holiday Makers f) Entertainers and sportspersons
In Australia and the United Kingdom, there is a There is a wide range of temporary jobs for
special category for young foreigners (in the United these two categories of workers in highly specific
Kingdom, they must be Commonwealth citizens). fields that are subject to special regulations. In
These young people (Working Holiday Makers, Canada, performing artists are exempted from work
WHMs) come for extended holidays during which permits if they belong to a group of at least 15 peo-
ple. This is also the case for sportspersons.
they are allowed to work for a maximum of 2 years
(United Kingdom) or one year (Australia). They must In the Netherlands, no employment situation
have the means to pay for their return journey and considerations are applied in the case of entertain-
do not have recourse to public funds. A work permit ers and musicians appearing for a short period. In
is not required. In the United Kingdom scheme the France, however, performing artists and musicians
intention to take employment must be incidental to are required to have a provisional work permit that
the holiday. Australia defines this scheme more is normally valid for only one year, and for which the
broadly, since WHMs are considered as one of the employment situation may constitute grounds for
main categories of temporary workers. This scheme refusal. For this category, as well for high-level
sportspersons, the United Kingdom also requires a
is based on a series of reciprocal agreements with
specific work permit. It may be denied on the
Canada, Ireland, Japan, Korea, Malta, the
grounds of the employment situation and is only
Netherlands. Nationals of other countries are not
valid for a limited period (twelve months or less
automatically excluded, but are only accepted
depending on the individual case).
under certain conditions.
The United States has introduced the P visas for
The aim of this scheme is essentially cultural, eminent entertainers and high-level sportspersons
i.e. to allow young foreigners between the age of 18 (see Appendix). This visa is not subject to a quota.
and 25 (up to 30 years under certain conditions) to The length of stay is limited to the time necessary to
discover Australia and at the same time to receive complete the series of performances given by the
entertainer. In some cases, the relevant trade
some financial compensation. WHMs work in tempo-
unions must be consulted. Australia does not
rary or seasonal jobs in agriculture, trade or services.
include entertainers and sportspersons in the cate-
This special category is to some extent an exception
gory of temporary workers because of the short time
to Australia’s general policy, which is aimed at limit-
they stay and the small number of individuals
ing temporary immigration to highly skilled staff.
concerned.
Because of the scheme’s success (more than
35 000 visas were issued in 1994-95), Australia had to
impose a quota of 42 000 in 1995-96 and of 50 000 g) Teachers and researchers
the following year. During the previous fiscal year, to In Australia, researchers and university teachers
WHMs. Young people participating in this scheme are allowed to stay four years and extensions are
are authorised to stay in Australia for a period of granted provided they remain with the institution
12 months, not renewable. However, they may only that originally sponsored them. In France, the
work three months with the same employer and employment situation may not constitute grounds
must have sufficient means to pay for their return for refusal to admit foreign teachers and foreign lan-
journey and to support themselves. They are also guage assistants. In the United Kingdom, foreign
only permitted to work a maximum of 6 months exchange teachers are not required to have a work
during the 12 months in Australia permitted by the permit, but may not stay for more than two years.
visa. However, researchers who have not been invited by
a research institution must have a work permit,
The United States has established summer although the validation procedure is not required
schemes for students that allow them to work in the (see above). In the Netherlands, the employment
country on a temporary basis under a category J visa. situation does not constitute grounds for refusal in
There are also cultural exchange programmes that the case of university teachers if their length of stay
include traineeships or temporary jobs for which for- will not exceed one year. In the case of trainee
eigners have, since 1990, been granted a Q visa, research assistants or trainee researchers at univer-
which is not subject to quotas. sity institutions, an employment permit is issued for 197
three years. In the case of post graduate researchers One may also ask whether the countries studied
a permit is issued for two years. are not overly dependent on temporary foreign
In the United States, teachers and researchers labour, both in terms of numbers, skill levels and
may enter under a J visa, which allows them to come the specific sectors involved. Is the labour recruited
into the country on a temporary basis to participate to meet the needs of seasonal activities or under
in teaching, research or training programmes that bilateral agreements regarding ‘‘workers on
have been arranged in advance. projects’’ absolutely indispensable? Is the social
protection of temporary workers adequately
CONCLUSION ensured? One may also question whether the provi-
sions on labour standards and equal treatment with
The comparative analysis of the temporary national workers are really enforced for some cate-
employment of foreigners in several OECD countries gories of temporary workers. Since it is not always
has made it possible to point to a number of com- easy to verify that this is the case, this type of migra-
mon features in the various legislative provisions in tion may be directly detrimental to enterprises and
this field. The most important of these is the gener- employment at local level.
ally favourable attitude of the countries studied
Lastly, in all the countries studied, some move-
towards temporary foreign labour. The admission of
ments of temporary workers are carried out through
skilled or highly skilled temporary foreign workers
makes it possible to introduce greater flexibility into international agreements between developed and
the labour market. The same is true of the employ- less developed countries. This kind of co-operation
ment of seasonal workers in sectors that are highly has become more widespread, especially in Europe
seasonal in nature (agriculture, hotels and catering, in the framework of co-operation agreements
construction). between the countries of the European Economic
Area and central and eastern European countries.
However, the fact that these countries all have a The purpose of these flows of temporary labour is
favourable attitude towards temporary workers does not so much to meet specific job needs as to trans-
not mean that their legislation is identical. Quite the fer know-how and establish lasting ties between
reverse; this study has shown the great diversity of countries, regions or enterprises with a view to
the conditions imposed on the employment of for- opening up and developing international economic
eign temporary workers. The amount of time these
relations.
workers are allowed to stay, for example, varies con-
siderably depending on the category and country This synthesis report has provided a detailed
concerned. It generally ranges from three months to analysis of the nature and magnitude of temporary
four years, and in some cases may be renewable. foreign workers migration. The issues raised in this
However, when workers are allowed to stay longer document concerning the status of these workers,
than several years, it is legitimate to ask whether the the length of stay, the conditions of their employ-
term ‘‘temporary’’ is really appropriate to describe ment and their distribution by sector, show that the
the situation. Some workers are also entitled to analysis of this phenomenon goes beyond the sim-
change their status. In the countries where this is ple notion of categorising immigration flows as
possible, temporary workers may be able to obtain either temporary or permanent. The immigration of
permanent worker status, which means that tempo- temporary foreign workers is playing a growing role
rary migration is a first step towards permanent resi- in the labour markets in some OECD countries. In
dence. This being the case, one may wonder addition, these types of movements are increasingly
whether this practice should be encouraged or taking place within the framework of economic rela-
would be better dropped. While some view it as a tions and co-operation between countries of emigra-
‘‘pre-selection’’ of future candidates for permanent tion and immigration. For these reasons, this first
immigration, others think that the admission of tem- comparative study of temporary foreign workers
porary workers for increasingly longer stays makes it should be extended to include additional OECD
possible to circumvent the restrictive legislation Member countries and further analysis should be
regarding permanent immigration. carried out on this topic.
198
NOTES
1. This summary report was drafted by the Secretariat 6. Germany has entered into agreements concerning
with the assistance of Mme Nicole Guimezanes, a Con- workers under contracts for work or services with the
sultant to the OECD. following countries: Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina,
2. The First-Tier Application Procedure is a simplified Bulgaria, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, the Republic of
procedure introduced in 1991 for certain specific activi- Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, the
ties allowing employers to complete only Part I of the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Turkey and the
work permit application. They simply give their reasons former Yugoslavia.
for recruiting a foreign worker, while in other cases 7. In the course of this study, it has been possible to note
employers must prove that it is necessary for them to a number of bilateral agreements entered into by some
recruit a foreign worker and complete Part II of the of the eight countries: thus, Germany has agreements
form (Second-Tier Application Procedure). with Albania, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia,
3. The maximum penalty is three years imprisonment and Hungary, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Russia, the Slovak
a fine of FF 20 000. Republic and Switzerland; France, with Canada, New
Zealand, Poland, Switzerland and the United States; the
4. A fine of Gld 10 000 or six months imprisonment if the Netherlands, with Austria, Finland, Norway, Sweden
employer is a natural person, a fine of Gld 30 000 if a and Switzerland; the United Kingdom, with Finland,
legal person. Moreover, if the employer has not applied Malta, Switzerland and the United States; and
for an employment permit, the authorities assume that Switzerland, with 23 countries.
the worker has been employed for at least six months,
8. Provisional work permit.
unless there is proof to the contrary. This means that
the employer must pay the wages due for this period if 9. Under the various bilateral agreements, this period
they have not yet been paid. ranges from three to twelve months, and may not
exceed eighteen months.
5. On the grounds that a grandparent was born in the
United Kingdom, Gibraltarians, the spouses and chil-
dren under 18 of work permit holders or persons
exempt from the permit requirement.
199
BIBLIOGRAPHY
COUNCIL OF EUROPE (1996), ‘‘Temporary migration WERNER, H. (1996), Temporary Migration of Foreign Work-
for employment and training purposes’’, Report and ers, Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung
Guidelines. (IAB), Nürnberg.
ROBIN, S. (1996), The Provision of Services and the Movement
of Labour in the Countries of the European Union, OCDE/
GD(96)63.
200
APPENDIX
202
Appendix
Recruitment conditions and conditions for staying of the main categories of temporary foreign workers for selected OECD countries
PRELIMINARY RECRUITMENT CONDITIONS CONDITIONS FOR STAYING
Categories of workers Availability

Authorised length Possibility Possibility
by country Admission of domestic Restrictions
Quotas of stay (possibility for family for changing
conditions workers as grounds on activity1
for renewal) reunification status2
for refusal
AUSTRALIA
1. Skilled temporary Nominated3 Yes No – 2 years (renewable Yes Yes Yes
residents (generally Labour Market once under certain
by the employer) Testing (LMT)4 conditions)
– 4 years
(renewable) for the
category
‘‘Education’’
– between 3 months
and 4 years for
holders of a TBE
visa5
2. Entries under
‘‘International
relations’’
programme
of which mainly:
Working Holiday – Bilateral No Yes Up to one year Yes7 No Yes
Makers (WHM) agreements6 (since 1995/1996 (not renewable)
– Age limit fiscal year)
(generally between
18 and 25)
CANADA
1. Persons with an Preliminary Yes No 3 years maximum Yes Yes No
employment authorisation (renewable) (with a
authorisation few exceptions)
under the
obligation
of validation8
2. Persons exempt – Bilateral No No 9 months maximum No Yes Yes
from the agreements (renewable)
validation – Medical exam
obligation9
3. Categories exempt No condition No No 3 years maximum No Yes No
from work in principle (renewable)
authorisation10
4. Seasonal workers Agreements with Yes No 3 years maximum Yes Yes No
certain countries (renewable)
Appendix
Recruitment conditions and conditions for staying of the main categories of temporary foreign workers for selected OECD countries (cont.)

for refusal
FRANCE
1. EU and EEA Holding a residence No No – 1 year without No Yes Yes
citizens permit when the stay restriction
is longer than – 5 years for
3 months permanent
residents
(automatically
renewable for
10 years)11
2. Seasonal workers – Recruitment Yes In the framework – The activity must Yes, the permit No No
procedure initiated of certain bilateral not exceed is only valid for
by the employer12 agreements 6 months in any the requested
– Age limit (Morocco and 12 consecutive occupation, in
(between 17 and Tunisia for example) month period a pre-determined
50) for an (8 months for geographic zone
anonymous certain activities13) for a single employer
contract – Minimum duration
– The worker must of 4 months for
hold a temporary seasonal workers
residence permit from distant
valid for the countries
period of (Morocco and
employment Tunisia)
3. Workers on The salaried Yes, except for the No 9 months Yes No14 No
secondment executive must work salaried workers (renewable once,
in a French company earning more than and in exceptional
which carries out the 21 000 FF per month cases twice)
process of obtaining
the work permit
4. Trainees
4.1. Professional – Must hold a No No 1 year Yes, not authorised No No
trainees residence permit (in exceptional to change employer
under general and a temporary cases, extended
legislation work authorisation to 18 months)
(APT)
– The stay must
be within the
framework of an
exchange between
companies
4.2. Trainees Age limit No Yes 1 year maximum Yes, not authorised No No
under (between 18 (in exceptional to change employer
bilateral and 30)15 cases, extended to
agreements 18 months)
APPENDIX
203
204
Appendix

for refusal
GERMANY
1. Workers employed – Bilateral No Yes (adjusted 2 years maximum Yes No No
under a contract agreements16 annually according (3 years in
for services (seconded by the to the labour market exceptional cases)
employer in the situation)
country of origin) by economic sector
– Holding a work and by country
permit17
2. Guest workers – Bilateral No Yes (by country) 12 to 18 months Yes No No
(Gastarbeiter) agreements18
– Age limit
(between 18
and 40)
3. Seasonal workers – Bilateral Yes No, but placement 3 months each year Yes No No
agreements19 is limited to certain
– The request must sectors
be made by the
employer
– Minimum
age:18 years
Appendix

for refusal
NETHERLANDS
1. Newly arriving The employer must Yes, except for No 1 year (renewable) Yes Yes, Yes21
immigrants with a ask for a permit high-level personnel after 3 years
first employment of multinational of residence
permit20 companies and for
the temporary
employment
of artists and
musicians, trainees,
guest lecturers and
researchers at
university level,
participants of Youth
Exchange
Programmes
2. Workers exempt – Being a national No No 5 years (renewable)22 No Yes Yes
from a work of the EU or
permit of the EEA or
– Having obtained
the status
of refugee or
– Holding a
permanent
residence
permit or
– Being employed
under
international
treaties
3. Accompanying – Holding a No No Linked to the No Not applicable Yes
dependants residence permit duration of the
– Holding a residence permit
declaration24
APPENDIX
205
206
Appendix

for refusal
SWITZERLAND
1. Seasonal workers – Bilateral Yes Yes, at local level Variable according Yes No Yes
agreements25 (Canton) to sector of activity (after
– Request made 9 months maximum 36 months
by the employer per year of work for
Renewable under 4 consecutive
certain conditions years)
2. Short-stay permits Proof of Yes, except for Yes, except for 18 months maximum Yes No No
holders professional highly skilled permits of less than (renewable after
experience or specialists 4 months 1 year of absence
diploma from Switzerland,
after 2 months
absence for permits
of less than
4 months)
3. One-year permits – Proof No Yes 4 years maximum Yes (with a few Yes Yes27
for a specified of professional exceptions)
period holders26 experience or
(highly skilled diploma
specialists) – Restricted to
highly skilled
persons
4. Trainees – Bilateral No Yes28 1 year (extended Traineeship carried No No
agreements signed 6 months in special out in the learnt
with 25 countries cases) occupation
– Proof of training
or diploma
– Age limit
(between 18
and 30)
Appendix

for refusal
UNITED KINGDOM
1. Persons who need – A work permit for Yes, the employer No Up to 4 years Yes, a change Yes, if the holder After 4 years working
a work permit a specific person must show that the Renewals possible, of employer is of the permit has in the UK, can apply
must be requested post cannot be filled subject to the same possible only for sufficient financial for indefinite
by the future by a UK or EU conditions identical work and resources and residence
employer29 national (Second- ‘‘Keyworkers’’ will on the condition housing and if authorisation which
– Restricted to Tier procedure) not normally exceed that the new members of the gives the right to
highly skilled except for some 36 months employer has family obtain an work
persons according specific activities, received entry authorisation
to their degrees, i.e. intracompany authorisation from
professional transferees the Department for
qualifications and Education and
technical abilities Employment30
(‘‘Keyworkers’’).
Must have
specialised skills,
knowledge and
experience not
readily available in
the EEA and jobs
of others
dependant on
them
– Adequate
command
of English
2. Persons exempt – Being a EEA or a No No 12 months No Yes Yes, same as for
from a work Commonwealth (renewable) but work permit holders
permit national (if one 4 years for
of the Commonwealth
grandparents was citizens with a
born in the UK) or UK-born grandparent
a Gibraltar
national or
– Ministers of
religion
– Employees
of certain types
of overseas
organisation
APPENDIX
207
208
Appendix

for refusal
– Being the spouse

or a minor child of
a person holding a
permanent work
permit or a person
exempt from this
permit
3. Working Holiday – Being a No No 2 years No Yes, providing No
Makers Commonwealth (no renewals) spouse qualifies in
national own right and any
– Age restriction child is less than
(between 17 and 5 years old
27 years)
– Unmarried31
– Intention to take
employment is
incidental to
holiday
– Sufficient financial
resources for
return32
– No need for a
work permit
4. Seasonal – Students in No Yes33 Until 30 November No No No
agricultural full-time education of year in question
workers – Aged between
18-25 years
– Holders of a
H.O. work card
5. Trainees
5.1. Training for – Sufficient level No No Restricted to the Yes Yes No
professional of education34 and training period
or specialist adequate (up to 3 years)
qualifications command Extension depends
of English on the results
obtained
5.2. Work – Sufficient level No No 12 months Yes Yes No
experience of education and Extension possible
adequate for up to 12 months
command
of English
– Person must not
be filling a
genuine vacancy
Appendix

for refusal
UNITED STATES
1. Highly qualified
workers
1.1. E (Treaty – No labour No No Depends on the Yes, related to a Yes Yes
traders E-1 certification agreement with the specific activity
and investors required36 country of origin
E-2)35 – Existence of a Initial period: up to
TCN or a BIT37 1 year (renewable
between the US without limit)
and the country
of origin (for E-1)
– Substantial
amount of trade
(E-1) or
investment (E-2)
1.2. B-1 (Business Applicant must No No Up to 1 year Yes, related to Yes Yes
visitors) maintain a foreign (renewed 6 months business activities
residence and have a by 6 months)
foreign employer Consistent with the
purpose of visit
1.3. J-1 (Exchange – Must have No No Varies according to Yes, generally not Yes Yes, in some cases,
visitors sufficient funds field of activity allowed to engage in exchange visitors
including – Sufficient employment must return to
some knowledge unrelated to the country of origin for
students) of English programme at least 2 years
– Foreign residence
required
1.4. L-1 Must have been No No Initial admission for Yes, related to a Yes Yes
(Intracompany engaged in an up to 3 years specific activity
transferees) 38 executive, Total of 5 years (6 in
managerial, some exceptional
specialised full-time cases)
position for a
business entity
during one year
(of the past 3 years)
1.5. H-1B – Prevailing wages No Yes39 Initial admission for Yes, related to a Yes Yes
(Specialty required 3 years (can be specific activity
occupation) – Minimum renewed once)
of Bachelor degree
(4 years degree) +
practice in the
occupation
APPENDIX
209
210
Appendix

for refusal
1.6. O Requires No No Up to 10 years Must continue to Yes Yes

(Extraordinary consultation with Depends upon work in the field
ability) peers/management/ activity of expertise
labour groups, as
appropriate
1.7. P (Athletes International No No Corresponds to the Yes, specific activity Yes Yes
and recognition or duration of the
entertainers) participation in exhibition
reciprocal exchange Up to 10 years
programme
2. Seasonal workers
2.1. H-2A – Temporary labour Yes No Initial admission for Yes, specific activity Yes Yes
(Agricultural certification 1 year and location
activities) required Extensions up to
– Employers must 3 years increments
respect certain of 12 months each
conditions on
wages
2.2. H-2B (No Temporary labour Yes Yes40 Initial admission for Yes, specific activity Yes Yes
agricultural certification required 1 year and location
activities) Extensions up to
3 years if the
foreigner has
unbroken stay in the
United States
3. H-3 (Industrial – Not considered No No Generally 2 years Yes, specific activity Yes Yes
trainees) primarily as maximum and location
productive Consistent with the
employees but training programme
may receive
remuneration
– Must justify why
cannot be trained
in his country
– A foreign
residence must be
maintained
APPENDIX
Appendix: notes
1. In the United Kingdom, there is no limitation to geographical mobility 19. Signed with Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland,
of temporary workers. Therefore, comments on this column are only Romania, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia. Workers are placed in
related to professional mobility. In the United States, limitations are co-operation with labour administrations and partner countries.
seldom applicated. However some applicants are obliged to engage in
20. Self-employed are included as of 1 September 1995.
employment related to their visa.
2. In the United States, except some J-1 visitors, most non-immigrants can 21. After 3 years of uninterrupted work and 5 years residing in the
adjust to other temporary or permanent categories, if they are qualified. Netherlands, a permanent residence permit is delivered which gives the
If not, they are obliged to leave the country. right to work in the Netherlands without any professional or
geographical restriction.
3. Except for a stay of less than 3 months.
22. When the duration of the employment is between 3 months and one
4. Except business people. year, the duration of the authorisation corresponds to that of the job.
5. Holders of a TBE visa are allowed to come as often as they wish for a
23. The following categories are included: children and spouses of
stay of 3 months (maximum) during the validity of their visa.
permanent residence permit holders, persons who entered the
6. Admission conditions are more restrictive for nationals of other Netherlands before their majority and who still had a temporary
countries. residence permit at the time of their majority.
7. Holiday Makers are permitted to work a maximum of 3 months with any 24. Declarations stipulate that the holder is free to carry out any profession
one employer, they are also only permitted to work a maximum (without any geographical or professional restrictions).
of 6 months during their stay (1 year maximum).
25. Signed with Italy and Spain.
8. The procedure of validation allows to ensure that entrance into the
labour force is beneficial for the Canadian economy and not detrimental 26. Include in resident foreign population.
to employment opportunities for Canadians. The list of jobs that can be 27. A one-year permit (renewable) can be issued upon the expiration of a
validated excludes unskilled jobs, those restricted to Canadian citizens one-year permit for a specified period.
and those with a high rate of unemployment.
28. 20 to 500 permits according to the country.
9. Includes the following categories: applicants for landing under family
class, asylum seekers, Convention refugees, Minister permit’s holders, 29. When applications are made (ordinary permits for foreigners residing
some foreign students, foreign workers entering to oversee the abroad, first permissions for foreigners who have never worked in the
installation or maintenance of special machinery from abroad. United Kingdom), the following documents must be provided: evidence
10. Persons who take up specific duties: diplomats, military personnel, of the person’s qualifications and experience, and evidence of
clergy members, performing artists and business people who are citizens advertising to fill the vacancy and reasons no UK or EU nationals was
of the United States or Mexico. recruited. A simplified procedure was introduced in 1991 for some
categories of highly skilled workers. The employer has to complete only
11. When the duration of the employment is between 3 months and one Part I of the permit application (First-tier procedure) and simply gives
year, the duration of the authorisation corresponds to that of the job. his reasons for recruiting an overseas national.
Exceptions also exist for students who obtain a residence permit, valid
only as long as the student’s course of study or for one year if the course 30. A change of job within the same firm is also submitted for authorisation.
of study is longer than one year (renewable for one year at a time). 31. Unless spouse applies and qualifies in own right.
12. The employer must apply at the relevant local employment office. The 32. Employment is incidental to holiday, i.e. persons may not pursue a
application must include the proposed work contract, information on career in the United Kingdom.
housing, and additional information if the recruitment is for a specific
person. The application is transmitted to the Departmental Directorate 33. 10 000 persons per year.
for Labour and Employment (Direction départementale du travail et de 34. Equivalent to UK degree level or National/Scottish Vocational
l’emploi – DDTE), which if approved, transmits it to Office des Qualification level 4.
migrations internationales (OMI), which is then responsible for
admitting the worker to France. Applications are approved based on the 35. Temporary migrants under trade and navigation treaties signed by the
specific needs of each region (Département) and employment situation. United States and their country of origin, in order to carry out business
or manage an enterprise in which they have invested a large sum
13. Intensive market-gardening, fruit growing, high-altitude wood cutting. of money.
14. Family members may accompany the permit holder in cases when it
36. Employees recruited by Treaty traders or investors must be employed in
seems they will adapt rapidly to life in France. They are not allowed to
supervisory/executive positions or possess skills essential to the
carry out any professional activity.
enterprise.
15. The maximum is 35 years for Canada, Poland and the United States.
37. Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (TCN); Bilateral Investment Treaty
16. Agreements signed with Former Yugoslavia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, (BIT).
Lithuania, Russian Federation, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic,
Bulgaria, Latvia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Republic of 38. Foreign workers who temporarily enter the United States in order to
Macedonia and Turkey. continue in their position of responsibility (director, higher management
or specialist) for the same company or subsidiary.
17. Installers and workers who carry out maintenance, reparation or
installation of machines furnished by a foreign company do not need a 39. Since 1992, when numerical limits were imposed, the number of
work permit if they stay in Germany less than 3 months. applications has always been below the numerical limit (Exception:
H-1B in fiscal year 1997).
18. Signed with Albania, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary,
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, the Slovak 40. Since 1992, when numerical limits were imposed, the number of
Republic and Switzerland. applications has always been below the numerical limit.
211
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Data on the flows and stocks of migrants and A. SOURCES AND COMPARABILITY
related issues, such as their performance in the OF MIGRATION STATISTICS
labour market, are derived from a wide variety of
sources and the nature of these sources varies Compared to some other areas of statistics,
across countries. This makes the application of such as labour force data, there exists little interna-
standardised definitions difficult and hence particu- tional standardisation of migration statistics. Conse-
lar attention needs to be paid to the characteristics quently there are varying degrees of comparability
of the data, especially in the context of international between countries. One reason for this is that rela-
comparisons. Section A of this annex describes the tively few sources have as their raison d’être the
sources and methods used to generate migration recording of migration. Population registers, a com-
statistics and is followed by presentation of data in mon source of migration statistics, are used for a
Section B. These data are a selection from the number of other administrative and statistical pur-
OECDs’ database of migration statistics. A more poses. As a result, tailoring registers such that migra-
comprehensive set of data is available on diskette tion data conform to an international standard is
(International Migration Statistics, OECD, 1997). made more difficult. Comparability is also problem-
atic if data are based on residence or work permits.
Some preliminary remarks are required con-
The data reflect migration systems and the policies
cerning the nature of the OECDs’ migration data.
of national governments and so, once again, it can
Most of the data are taken from the individual con-
be difficult to generate harmonised data. Hence,
tributions of correspondents appointed by the
although there has been some development and
OECD Secretariat with the approval of national gov-
agreement in the definition and classification of
ernments. In this regard it should be noted that:
migration for statistical purposes (see Box 1), these
– As discussed in the Foreword to this report, the standards have proved difficult to implement.
Continuous Reporting System on Migration
(SOPEMI) covers almost all of the Member coun- Aside from problems relating to international
tries of the OECD. comparability, there are other difficulties with migra-
tion statistics, most notably the problem of measur-
– The coverage of countries in the data and the ing illegal immigration. Estimation is difficult and
ability to construct time-series is to a certain the figures that exist should be viewed, therefore,
extent affected by the dates at which countries with some scepticism (see OECD, 1989). For this
became members of the SOPEMI network. Recent reason, explicit estimates of illegal immigrants have
participants to SOPEMI do not necessarily pro- not been included in this annex. However, some
vide historical data in their reports and, in addi- stock and flow data partially incorporate illegal
tion, further clarification is sometimes required migration, therefore the phenomenon does not nec-
before data can be published. essarily go completely unmeasured. For example,
– SOPEMI has no authority to impose changes in individuals may remain on population registers after
data collection procedures. It has an observatory their permits have expired, residing as illegal (or
role which, by its very nature, has to use existing ‘‘undocumented’’) immigrants. Finally, it should be
statistics. However, it does play an active role in noted that those achieving legal status under ‘‘regu-
suggesting what it considers to be essential larisation programmes’’ are sometimes included in
improvements in data collection and makes every inflow data and must be taken into account when
effort to present consistent and well documented analysing trends. In addition, regularisation pro-
statistics. grams may be followed by an additional wave of 213
Box 1. Definitions of migration flows and immigrant populations developed by the United Nations
Migration flows
The United Nations has endeavoured to encourage the standardisation of migration statistics through
establishing data collection procedures and defining the resultant data (UN, 1989, pp. 28-30). The UN’s aim is to
account for all categories of persons crossing international borders, regardless of their place of residence. Taking
this very general definition, the criterion of residence allows an initial distinction between migrants and ‘‘non-
migrants’’, i.e. tourists, short-term business travellers, visitors and ‘‘special categories’’ (seasonal workers, stu-
dents, refugees, diplomatic and consular representatives, etc.).
According to the United Nations recommendations, migrants consist of four categories: a) long-term immi-
grants (or emigrants); b) short-term immigrants (or emigrants); c) residents returning after (or leaving for) a period
working abroad, i.e. short-term emigrants returning (or leaving); and d) nomads.
The United Nations define long-term migrants as follows (these definitions apply equally to all population
categories, whether nationals or not, foreign-born or not):
– long-term emigrants are residents or persons who have resided continuously in the country for more than one
year and who are departing to take up residence abroad for more than one year;
– long-term immigrants are non-residents or persons who have arrived for a length of stay of more than one year
but have not yet continuously lived in the country for more than one year.
Whilst this definition has not been widely adopted and is difficult to apply, it continues to provide a useful
benchmark and focus for further efforts towards harmonisation. The UN is currently working on a new method of
defining migration flows which is aimed at increasing the viability of harmonised statistics.
Immigrant population
The immigrant population is usually measured either as the part of the resident population who are foreign
nationals, or as the part of the foreign-born in the resident population. In the latter case there are situations
where individuals are difficult to classify due to changes in national boundaries. The United Nations recom-
mends that the ‘‘foreign-born’’ be defined as those born outside the country or area where the ‘‘country or area
of birth’’ is based on current national boundaries (or, more precisely, those that existed at the time the data
were collected) (UN, 1989, pp. 103).
immigration depending on the extent to which the sus data are the most common means of measuring
acquisition of legal status allows family reunion. flows and stocks of international migrants.
The following provides a brief review of the
sources of migration statistics (1); this is followed by Population registers
a discussion of the techniques used for measuring
migration flows (2), and of data issues relating to Population registers are accounts of residents
stocks of migrants and the immigrant population (3). within a country. They are typically maintained via
the legal requirement that both nationals and for-
eigners residing in the country must register with
1. Sources of migration statistics
the local authorities. Aggregation of these local
The principle sources of migration statistics are accounts results in a record of population and popu-
population registers, residence or work permits, lation movement at the national level. As a result,
censuses and surveys. However, a wide variety of the registers can provide data on all migrant flows
other data sources (e.g. special surveys, counts at (inflows and outflows of both nationals and foreign-
border crossings, analysis of landing cards) may ers) as well as data on stocks of foreigners and
sometimes be used. Table 1 provides an overview nationals. For this reason they tend to be widely
of data sources and shows that population registers used. However there are some drawbacks: individu-
are commonly used as a source of flow and stock als often fail to record their departures and there-
data on migration, especially in northern Europe. In fore data on outflows can be less reliable. Also,
214 other countries, data on residence permits and cen- there are differences in the type of migrants
STATISTICAL ANNEX
counted which must be taken into account in inter- intention to leave the country, however a period of
national comparisons. (intended) absence is not typically specified.
Key features of migration data derived from
Permit data population registers are as follows:
Residence and work permit data commonly – Departures tend to be less well recorded than
form the basis of flow statistics for countries which arrivals, often because registration results in cer-
do not have population registers. The data are nec- tain rights and benefits to the individual, whereas
essarily more limited in scope as they do not cap- there is less incentive to inform authorities of
ture all flows and it can be difficult to use them to departure. In order to provide more accurate
generate stock and outflow data as these require figures, some countries use additional information
careful accounting of the number of permits both such as host-country estimates to generate emi-
issued and expired. gration data.
– The rules governing entry into the register and
Census and household survey data who is defined as a migrant vary across countries.
Notably, the minimum duration of stay for individ-
Census data enables comprehensive, albeit uals to be defined as immigrants varies between
infrequent analysis of the stock of immigrants (cen- three months and one year, implying that for
suses are generally conducted every 5 to 10 years). some countries the data include short as well as
In addition, many labour force surveys now include longer term migration flows.
questions about nationality and place of birth, thus – Asylum seekers are included in some register
providing a source of annual stock data. However, data but excluded from others. Inclusion typically
some care has to be taken with detailed break- occurs when the asylum seekers live in private
downs of the immigrant population from survey data households (as opposed to reception centres and
as sample sizes can be very small. Inevitably, both hotels). In the data presented in this annex, some
census and survey data may under-represent asylum seekers are included in the data for
migrants, especially where they tend not to be regis- Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Norway.
tered for census purposes, or where they do not live
in private households (labour force surveys do not Despite these qualifications, population regis-
usually cover those living in institutions, such as ters are generally regarded as a good source of
reception centres and hostels for immigrants). migration data and are used in preference to other
sources, especially in the generation of annual
estimates.
2. Measurement of migration flows
The inflows and outflows included in this annex Flows derived from residence and work permits
are all based either on population registers or on
Countries which do not have population regis-
permit data. The types of flow measured differ quite
ters use a variety of sources to generate flow data.
markedly between these two sources and there are
Inflows for Australia, the United States, Canada and
also differences to account for between different
France are based on residence and/or work permits.
registers and the different types of permit used to
Data for the United Kingdom are based on informa-
generate the statistics.
tion from landing cards. Note that permit data usu-
ally represent the number of permits issued in a
Flows derived from population registers given period and have the following general
Population registers can usually produce inflow characteristics:
and outflow data for both nationals and foreigners, – The nature of the flows measured obviously
however there are differences in the type of flows depends on the type of permit(s) used to gener-
measured due to differences in the way migrants are ate the statistic. Inflows for the so-called ‘‘settle-
defined in the registers. In this regard, a key condi- ment countries’’ (Australia, Canada and the
tion used to define immigrants is intention to reside United States) are calculated as the number of
for more than a specified length of time. In addition, permanent residence permits (also known as
foreigners who register may have to indicate posses- ‘‘acceptances for settlement’’) issued. In the case
sion of an appropriate residence and/or work per- of France, a sum of various types of permit issued
mit. Emigrants are usually identified by a stated (all of limited duration) is used. 215
– Flows of nationals are not recorded in the data inflows unless they are subsequently granted asy-
and some flows of foreigners may also not be lum. However there are some countries where they
recorded, depending on the type of permit used are partially, or wholly included in the data. For
as a basis for the statistic and also on the nature example, asylum seekers often enter population
of free-circulation agreements. In France, some registers because they have been resident for some
inflows from other EU countries are included in time and live outside reception centres.
the data as permanent work permits are still
Statistics on asylum seekers and the numbers
required for EU nationals (this is a formality rather
granted asylum are usually readily available from
than a means of restricting entry).
administrative sources, however there are some dif-
– Permit data do not necessarily reflect physical ferences in the type of data made available. In a
flows or actual lengths of stay since: i) permits number of countries, asylum seekers are only
may be issued overseas but individuals may counted when their application has been approved,
decide not to use them, or delay their arrival; in which case they appear in the statistics, not
ii) permits may be issued to persons who have in according to the date of arrival but according to the
fact been resident in the country for some time, date of approval (note that approval of application
the permit indicating a change of status, or a simply means that the application will be consid-
renewal of the same permit. The data for Australia ered by the authorities and allows the individual
do not include those who have been accepted for certain rights as an asylum seeker whilst their appli-
permanent settlement whilst resident in Australia, cation is being processed). For some countries (e.g.
whereas data for Canada and the United States Switzerland), the data include the dependants of
include all issues of permanent settlement the principal applicant; for certain others
permits. (e.g. France), they do not, since dependants are
– Permit data may be influenced by the processing admitted under other provisions
capacity of government agencies. In some
In addition to asylum seekers entering under
instances a large backlog of applications may
the usual administrative channels there are some
build up and therefore the true demand for per-
cases where individuals are allowed entry under
mits may only emerge once backlogs are cleared.
exceptional circumstances and who are given other
forms of status. For example, in the early 1990s, a
Estimation of net migration number of European countries (e.g. Austria and the
From the preceding discussion on flow data it is Nordic countries) granted temporary residence to
evident that some countries have readily available those fleeing conflict in the former Yugoslavia. To
means to calculate net migration (e.g. through popu- date, evidence suggests that these individuals have
lation registers) whilst others face greater difficulties largely been allowed to remain in these countries
and estimates must be made on the basis of a vari- through renewal of permits and therefore effectively
ety of sources. This annex contains data for the net represent a group of de facto refugees.
migration of foreigners. Note that for some coun-
tries, figures for total net migration (i.e. including the 3. Stocks of migrants and characteristics
movement of both foreigners and nationals) are of the immigrant population
presented in the Country Notes. The OECD also
publishes a series of total net migration figures in Time series of stocks are used in conjunction
Labour Force Statistics. These are calculated as a with flow data to examine trends in migration. In
residual from data on annual population change and addition, data which include socio-economic vari-
natural increase. ables can be used to examine differences between
immigrants and native populations. In both cases,
there are differences in how ‘‘immigrants’’ are
Refugees and asylum seekers defined.
Asylum seekers are usually allowed to remain in
the country whilst their applications are processed.
Definition of the immigrant population
The time taken to process applications varies and it
is therefore difficult to determine whether they In data, the immigrant population is usually
should be counted as migrants or not. In practice, defined in one of two ways. Some countries have
216 asylum seekers are not generally counted in migrant traditionally focused on producing data that repre-
STATISTICAL ANNEX
sents foreign nationals (European countries, Japan The foreign-born population can be viewed as
and Korea) whilst others refer to the foreign-born representing first-generation migrants, and may con-
(Australia, Canada and the United States). This dif- sist of both foreign and national citizens. The size
ference in focus relates in part to the nature and the and composition of the foreign-born population is
history of immigration systems and legislation on influenced by the history of migration flows and
citizenship and naturalisation (see Box 2). mortality amongst the foreign-born. For example,
Box 2. Migration systems
Historically, migration systems developed alongside the evolution of nation-states and the concomitant
desire to enumerate and sometimes influence the size and composition of the resident population. The need to
implement immigration control is also linked to the increased numbers of individuals who are aware of attractive
economic and social conditions elsewhere and able to afford the expense and risk associated with a long-term,
or permanent move overseas. In some areas of the world, immigration control has also developed at an
international as well as national level, creating zones of free movement, the most notable example being the
European Union.
Whether operating at a national or an international level, most migration systems have the following
features:
– The opportunity to enter the country and remain there for a limited length of time (often three months).
Depending on the nationality of the entrant, a visa may or may not be required. Generally, the regulations are
designed to encourage movements of individuals which provide economic benefits. Such movements include,
inter alia, tourism and business travel. However, there are situations where entry may be strictly monitored.
This type of movement is not regarded as migration as such and is commonly referred to as ‘‘short-term
movement’’.
– A mechanism for spouses and close relatives of citizens or permanent residents to enter the country on a
permanent basis. They may arrive as ‘‘accompanying family’’ at the same time as the migrant, or at a later date
under what is often called ‘‘family reunion’’.
– A means for individuals who claim social and political persecution in their country of origin to apply for
asylum. Such ‘‘asylum seekers’’ are usually treated on a case-by-case basis and may also have the right to
remain in the country whilst their application is being processed.
– Mechanisms for individuals to enter largely for the purpose of employment and business. Policies governing
this type of migration may reflect purely economic considerations such as perceived labour shortages or a
desire to encourage international business links. However, policy may also be influenced by diplomatic
considerations as well as policies and agreements in international trade.
– Means by which foreign citizens can acquire national citizenship (‘‘naturalisation’’). The ease with which this
may be achieved and the incentives to do so vary across countries and may also depend on the implications
of a change in legal status in the country of origin (see OECD, 1995, pp. 157-181).
Beyond these general features of immigration systems, it is common to distinguish between ‘‘temporary
permit’’ systems and ‘‘permanent residence’’ systems (for a more detailed classification, see OECD ,1994). In
temporary residence systems, characteristic of most OECD countries, initial entry to the country is typically
made on the basis of a temporary residence permit and permanent status can only be granted after several
years stay in the country. Only certain special groups (e.g. close relatives, refugees) are able to acquire
permanent residence status on entry into the country. In permanent residence systems, typified by settlement
countries (e.g. Australia, Canada and the United States), there are more channels available for individuals to
enter with permanent resident status, beyond those catering for special groups. This reflects the historical, if not
always current, use of migration policy as a means for populating the country. The additional channels available
to immigrants take a variety of forms but are generally based on attracting individuals with certain characteris-
tics, such as high levels of skill or experience in certain occupations.
There are differences between these systems in the type of migration statistics commonly used. ‘‘Perma-
nent residence’’ type countries tend to focus on acceptances for permanent settlement as an indication of
inflows and on the population of foreign-born as an indication of the stock of immigrants. ‘‘Temporary permit’’
type countries, coincidentally, tend to have population registers and use these to focus on inflows and stocks of
foreign citizens (as distinct from the foreign-born). Two notable exceptions are France and the United Kingdom
who do not have population registers and rely on other sources of data.
217
where inflows have been declining over time, the readily acquire the nationality of the country,
stock of the foreign-born will tend to age and increases in the foreign population through immigra-
represent an increasingly established community. tion and births can eventually contribute to a signifi-
The population of foreign nationals may cant rise in the native population. In Germany and
represent second and higher generations as well as Switzerland (see OECD, 1995), on the other hand,
first-generations of migrants. The characteristics of where naturalisation is more difficult, increases in
the population of foreign nationals depend on a immigration and births amongst foreigners manifest
number of factors: the history of migration flows, themselves almost exclusively as rises in the foreign
natural increase in the foreign population and population. In addition, changes in rules regarding
naturalisations. Higher generations of immigrants naturalisation can have significant numerical effects,
arise in situations where they retain their foreign for example during the 1980s, a number of countries
citizenship even when native-born. The nature of made naturalisation easier and this resulted in
legislation on citizenship and the incentives foreign- noticeable falls in the foreign population (and rises
ers have to naturalise both play a role in determin- in the population of nationals).
ing the extent to which this occurs in practice.
However, host-country legislation is not the
A more comprehensive view of the immigrant only factor affecting naturalisation. For example,
population is possible when both nationality and where naturalisation involves forfeiting citizenship
birthplace are known. This type of data is becoming of the country of origin, there may be incentives to
increasingly available for some OECD countries and remain as a foreign citizen. Where the difference
allows four sub-populations to be examined: the for- between remaining a foreign citizen or becoming a
eign-born who are foreign citizens; the foreign-born national is marginal, naturalisation may largely be
who are nationals; the native born who are foreign influenced by the time and effort required to make
nationals and the native born who are nationals. The the application for naturalisation and the symbolic
first three of these groups represent the ‘‘immigrant and political value individuals attach to being citi-
population’’, as defined either by nationality or by zens of one country or another.
place of birth. Note that in some countries, such as
the United States, those who are native-born but Data on naturalisations are usually readily avail-
who are foreign nationals are a non-existent or negli- able from administrative sources. As with other
gible group as legislation is such that birth within administrative data, resource constraints in process-
the country usually entitles individuals to ing applications may result in a backlog of
citizenship. unprocessed applications which are not reflected in
the figures.
Time series of stocks of immigrant population
Time series of stocks are generally derived B. STATISTICAL SERIES
either from population registers or from labour force
1. Introduction to the Statistical Annex tables
survey or census data. In this annex, the figures for
Australia, Canada France, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, The Tables are divided into two series. The
the United Kingdom and the United States are serie A tables provides aggregate data on stock and
based on survey, census or permit data, data for all flow statistics as well as administrative data on asy-
other countries are from population registers (see lum seekers and naturalisations. The serie B tables
Table 1). presents data disaggregated by country of origin (as
defined either by country of birth or by nationality).
Impact of naturalisation on the development As is evident from the preceding discussion on the
of the immigrant population sources and methods used to generate migration
statistics, the presentation of the tables in a rela-
Naturalisations must be taken into account in tively standard format should not lead users to think
the analysis of the populations of foreigners and that the data have been fully standardised and are
nationals. Also, differing approaches to naturalisa- comparable at an international level. In order to
tion between countries must be considered when facilitate understanding of the data, detailed notes
making international comparisons. In France and on the sources and definitions are presented at the
218 Belgium, for example, where foreigners can fairly end of the Statistical Annex.
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table 1. Summary table on the sources of migration statistics
Foreign and foreign-born population Foreign and foreign-born labour force
Stocks Stocks
Stocks Inflows Stocks
Inflows Outflows Asylum of foreign- Naturali- Seasonal of foreign-
of foreign of foreign of foreign
of foreigners of foreigners seekers born sation workers born
population workers workers
population workers
Australia P A C A R A S
Austria F A F A R R R
Belgium F F A F A R R
Canada P A C A R A C
Czech Republic A F
Denmark F F A F F A R F
Finland F F A F A
France R A C A R A S
Germany F F A F A R R A
Greece A
Hungary F F A R R
Ireland A S R S
Italy A R A R R R
Japan F F F A R
Korea F A
Luxembourg F F A F A R R
Netherlands F F A F F A A A
Norway F F A F F A R F
Poland A
Portugal A R R
Spain A R A R R
Sweden F F A F F A S
Switzerland F F A F A R R R
United Kingdom A A S A R A S
United States P A C, S C A R R C
F: Population register or register of foreigners.

R: Residence or work permits (renewable).
P: Acceptances for permanent settlement.
C: Census.
S: Labour Force Survey.
A: Other administrative sources.
A number of general comments apply to the are ranked by decreasing order of the stocks for
tables: the last year available.
a) In general tables include annual series from d) In the tables by country of origin (series B) only
1986. In the case of tables covering stocks of the main 15 countries are shown (10 in the case
foreigners by nationality (Tables B.1.6 and B.2.2) of stock data). ‘‘Other countries’’ is a residual
only selected years of data have been shown calculated as the difference between the total
(1985, 1990, 1995 and the latest available year). foreign population and the sum of the nationali-
ties indicated in the table. For some nationali-
b) Up to 1994 (inclusive), European Union refers to ties, data are not available for all years and this
the following 12 countries: Belgium, Denmark, is reflected in the residual entry of ‘‘Other coun-
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, tries’’. This must be borne in mind when inter-
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain preting changes in this category.
and the United Kingdom, members of the Euro-
pean Union at 31 December 1994. As of 1995 and e) The rounding of entries may cause totals to differ
slightly from the sum of the component entries.
1996, European Union also includes the following
three countries: Austria, Finland and Sweden. f) The symbols used in the tables are the following:
c) The series A tables are presented in alphabetical .. Data not available.
order by the name of the country in English. In
the other tables, the nationalities or countries – Nil, or negligible. 219
BIBLIOGRAPHY
OECD (1989), Trends in International Migration, Annual OECD (1997), Trends in International Migration, Annual
Report 1989, Paris. Report 1996, Paris.
OECD (1994), Migration and Development; New Partnerships UN (1991), 1989 Demographic Yearbook, New York.
for Co-operation, Paris.
OECD (1995), Trends in International Migration, Annual
Report 1994, Paris.
220
2. TABLES OF THE STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table A.1.1. Inflows of foreign population into selected OECD countries

Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Inflow data based on

population registers:
Belgium 39.3 40.1 38.2 43.5 50.5 54.1 55.1 53.0 56.0 53.1 51.9
Denmark 17.6 15.2 13.8 15.1 15.1 17.5 16.9 15.4 15.6 33.0 ..
Finland .. .. .. 4.2 6.5 12.4 10.4 10.9 7.6 7.3 7.5
Germany 478.3 473.3 648.6 770.8 842.4 920.5 1 207.6 986.9 774.0 788.3 708.0
Hungary .. .. 23.5 33.7 37.2 23.0 15.1 16.4 12.8 13.2 9.4
Japan 157.5 180.3 234.8 237.4 223.8 258.4 267.0 234.5 237.5 209.9 225.4
Luxembourg 7.4 7.2 8.2 8.4 9.3 10.0 9.8 9.2 9.2 9.6 ..
Netherlands 52.8 60.9 58.3 65.4 81.3 84.3 83.0 87.6 68.4 67.0 77.2
Norway 16.8 23.8 23.2 18.5 15.7 16.1 17.2 22.3 17.9 16.5 17.2
Sweden 34.0 37.1 44.5 58.9 53.2 43.9 39.5 54.8 74.7 36.1 29.3
Switzerland 66.8 71.5 76.1 80.4 101.4 109.8 112.1 104.0 91.7 87.9 74.3
Inflow data based on residence
and work permits:
Australia (permanent migrants) 92.4 113.3 143.5 145.3 121.2 121.7 107.4 76.3 69.8 87.4 99.1
Austria .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 280.5 276.9 308.6 224.2
Canada (permanent migrants) 99.2 152.1 161.9 192.0 214.2 230.8 252.8 255.8 223.9 212.2 226.1
France 38.3 39.0 44.0 53.2 102.4 109.9 116.6 99.2 91.5 77.0 74.0
United Kingdom .. .. .. .. .. .. 203.9 190.3 193.6 206.3 216.4
United States (permanent
migrants) 601.7 601.5 643.0 1 090.9 1 536.5 1 827.2 974.0 904.3 804.4 720.5 915.9
Note: Data from population registers are not fully comparable because the criteria governing who gets registered differ from country to country. Counts for the
Netherlands, Norway and especially Germany include substantial numbers of asylum seekers. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end
of the Annex.
Table A.1.2. Outflows of foreign population from selected OECD countries

Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Belgium 31.8 34.2 32.3 27.5 27.0 35.3 28.1 31.2 34.1 33.1 32.4
Denmark 4.3 4.9 5.3 4.8 4.6 5.2 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.3 ..
Finland .. .. .. 1.0 0.9 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 3.0
Germany 347.8 334.2 359.1 438.3 466.0 497.5 614.7 710.2 621.5 561.1 559.1
Japan 131.2 151.3 183.7 204.8 166.1 181.3 204.8 200.5 204.2 195.2 ..
Luxembourg 5.5 5.0 5.3 5.5 5.5 5.9 5.6 5.0 5.3 4.9 ..
Netherlands 23.6 20.9 21.4 21.5 20.6 21.3 22.7 22.2 22.7 21.7 22.4
Norway 8.4 8.6 9.3 10.6 9.8 8.4 8.1 10.5 9.6 9.0 10.0
Sweden 15.4 11.6 11.8 13.1 16.2 15.0 13.2 14.8 15.8 15.4 14.5
Switzerland 52.8 53.8 55.8 57.5 59.6 66.4 80.4 71.2 64.2 67.5 67.7
Note: Data are from population registers. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table A.1.3. Net migration of foreign population in selected OECD countries

Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Belgium 7.5 5.9 6.0 16.1 23.4 18.8 26.9 21.8 21.9 20.0 19.5
Denmark 13.3 10.4 8.5 10.3 10.5 12.3 12.1 10.5 10.5 27.7 ..
Finland .. .. .. 3.2 5.6 11.2 8.9 9.4 6.1 5.8 4.5
Germany 130.5 139.1 289.5 332.5 376.4 423.0 592.9 276.6 152.5 227.2 148.9
Japan 26.3 29.0 51.1 32.6 57.7 77.1 62.2 34.0 33.3 14.7 ..
Luxembourg 1.9 2.2 2.9 2.8 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.2 3.9 4.7 ..
Netherlands 29.2 40.0 36.9 43.9 60.7 63.0 60.3 65.4 45.7 45.3 54.8
Norway 8.4 15.2 13.9 8.0 5.9 7.7 9.1 11.8 8.3 7.5 7.2
Sweden 18.6 25.5 32.7 45.8 37.0 28.9 26.3 40.0 59.0 20.7 14.9
Switzerland 14.0 17.7 20.3 22.9 41.8 43.3 31.7 32.8 27.5 20.4 6.6
Note: Data are derived from Tables A.1.1. and A.1.2. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
222
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table A.1.4. Inflows of asylum seekers into selected OECD countries

Thousands
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 19971
Australia .. .. 0.5 3.8 17.0 4.1 4.6 4.2 5.1 6.0 7.7
Austria 11.4 15.8 21.9 22.8 27.3 16.2 4.7 5.1 5.9 7.0 6.7
Belgium 6.0 4.5 8.2 13.0 15.4 17.6 26.5 14.7 11.7 12.4 11.6
Canada 35.0 45.0 19.9 36.7 32.3 37.7 21.1 21.7 25.6 25.7 23.9
Czech Republic .. .. .. 1.8 2.0 0.9 2.2 1.2 1.4 2.0 2.1
Denmark 2.7 4.7 4.6 5.3 4.6 13.9 14.3 6.7 5.1 5.9 5.1
Finland – 0.1 0.2 2.7 2.1 3.6 2.0 0.8 0.8 0.7 1.0
France 27.6 34.3 61.4 54.8 47.4 28.9 27.6 26.0 20.4 17.4 21.4
Germany 57.4 103.1 121.3 193.1 256.1 438.2 322.6 127.2 127.9 116.4 104.4
Greece 6.3 9.3 6.5 4.1 2.7 2.0 0.8 1.3 1.4 1.6 4.2
Ireland .. .. .. 0.1 – – 0.1 0.4 0.4 1.2 3.9
Italy 11.0 1.4 2.3 4.7 31.7 2.6 1.3 1.8 1.7 0.7 1.4
Luxembourg 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4
Netherlands 13.5 7.5 13.9 21.2 21.6 20.3 35.4 52.6 29.3 22.9 34.4
Norway 8.6 6.6 4.4 4.0 4.6 5.2 12.9 3.4 1.5 1.8 2.3
Poland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.6 0.8 3.2 2.9
Portugal 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.6 2.1 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.4
Spain 3.7 4.5 4.1 8.6 8.1 11.7 12.6 12.0 5.7 4.7 3.7
Sweden 18.1 19.6 30.0 29.4 27.4 84.0 37.6 18.6 9.0 5.8 9.7
Switzerland 10.9 16.7 24.4 35.8 41.6 18.0 24.7 16.1 17.0 18.0 23.9
United Kingdom 5.9 5.7 16.8 38.2 73.4 32.3 28.0 42.2 55.0 37.0 41.5
United States 26.1 60.7 101.7 73.6 56.3 104.0 144.2 146.5 154.5 128.2 79.8
Note: For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. January to September 1997 for Italy, Luxembourg, Poland and Spain.
Table A.1.5. Stocks of foreign-born population in selected OECD countries

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Australia .. 3 753.3 .. .. .. .. 3 908.3

% of total population .. 22.3 .. .. .. .. 21.1
Canada .. 4 342.9 .. .. .. .. 4 971.1
% of total population .. 16.1 .. .. .. .. 17.4
Denmark .. .. 207.4 215.0 222.1 244.5 259.2
% of total population .. .. 4.0 4.1 4.3 4.7 4.9
Netherlands 1 217.1 .. .. 1 375.4 1 387.4 1 407.1 ..
% of total population 8.1 .. .. 9.0 9.0 9.1 ..
Norway .. 195.7 .. 216.2 233.4 240.3 246.9
% of total population .. 4.6 .. 5.0 5.4 5.5 5.6
Sweden .. .. 834.5 869.1 922.1 936.0 943.8
% of total population .. .. 9.6 9.9 10.5 10.5 11.0
United States 19 767.3 .. .. .. 22 600 23 000 24 600
% of total population 7.9 .. .. .. 8.7 8.8 9.3
Note: Data are from censuses for Australia, Canada and the United States (1990), from the Current Population Survey for the United States from 1994 on and
from population registers for the other countries. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
223
Table A.1.6. Stocks of foreign population in selected OECD countries

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Austria 314.9 326.2 344.0 387.2 456.1 532.7 623.0 689.6 713.5 723.5 728.2
% of total population 4.1 4.3 4.5 5.1 5.9 6.8 7.9 8.6 8.9 9.0 9.0
Belgium 853.2 862.5 868.8 880.8 904.5 922.5 909.3 920.6 922.3 909.8 911.9
Czech Republic .. .. .. .. .. .. 41.2 77.7 103.7 158.6 198.6
% of total population .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.4 0.8 1.0 1.5 1.9
Denmark 128.3 136.2 142.0 150.6 160.6 169.5 180.1 189.0 196.7 222.7 237.7
Finland 17.3 17.7 18.7 21.2 26.3 37.6 46.3 55.6 62.0 68.6 73.8
France .. .. .. .. 3 596.6 .. .. .. .. .. ..
% of total population .. .. .. .. 6.3 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Germany 4 512.7 4 240.5 4 489.1 4 845.9 5 342.5 5 882.3 6 495.8 6 878.1 6 990.5 7 173.9 7 314.0
Hungary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 137.9 139.9 142.5
% of total population .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1.3 1.4 1.4
Ireland 77.0 77.0 82.0 78.0 80.0 87.7 94.9 89.9 91.1 96.1 118.0
Italy 450.2 572.1 645.4 490.4 781.1 863.0 925.2 987.4 922.7 991.4 1 095.6
Japan 867.2 884.0 941.0 984.5 1 075.3 1 218.9 1 281.6 1 320.7 1 354.0 1 362.4 1 415.1
Korea 41.6 42.8 45.1 47.2 49.5 51.0 55.8 66.7 84.9 110.0 148.7
Luxembourg 97.3 102.8 105.8 106.9 113.1 117.8 122.7 127.6 132.5 138.1 142.8
Netherlands 568.0 591.8 623.7 641.9 692.4 732.9 757.4 779.8 757.1 725.4 679.9
Norway 109.3 123.7 135.9 140.3 143.3 147.8 154.0 162.3 164.0 160.8 157.5
Portugal .. .. 94.7 101.0 107.8 114.0 123.6 131.6 157.1 168.3 172.9
% of total population .. .. 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.7 1.7
Spain 293.2 334.9 360.0 249.6 278.7 360.7 393.1 430.4 461.4 499.8 539.0
Sweden 390.8 401.0 421.0 456.0 483.7 493.8 499.1 507.5 537.4 531.8 526.6
Switzerland 956.0 978.7 1 006.5 1 040.3 1 100.3 1 163.2 1 213.5 1 260.3 1 300.1 1 330.6 1 337.6
United Kingdom 1 820 1 839 1 821 1 812 1 723 1 750 1 985 2 001 1 946 2 060 1 972
United States .. .. .. .. 11 770.3 .. .. .. .. .. ..
% of total population .. .. .. .. 4.7 .. .. .. .. .. ..
Note: Data are from population registers or from register of foreigners except for France and the United States (Census), Portugal and Spain (residence
permits), Ireland and the United Kingdom (Labour Force Survey) and refer to the population on the 31 December of the years indicated unless otherwise
stated. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
224
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table A.1.7. Acquisition of nationality in selected OECD countries

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Countries where national /

foreigner distinction is prevalent
Austria 8.2 8.5 9.2 11.4 11.9 14.4 16.3 15.3 16.2
% of foreign population 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.5 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.1 2.2
Belgium .. .. .. 8.5 46.4 16.4 25.8 26.1 24.6
% of foreign population .. .. .. 0.9 5.0 1.8 2.8 2.8 2.7
Denmark 3.7 3.3 3.0 5.5 5.1 5.0 5.7 5.3 7.3
Finland 1.1 1.5 0.9 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.7 1.0
France 74.0 82.0 88.5 95.5 95.3 95.5 126.3 92.4 109.8
% of foreign population .. .. .. 2.7 .. .. .. .. ..
Germany 40.8 68.5 101.4 141.6 179.9 199.4 259.2 313.6 302.8
Hungary .. 1.1 3.2 5.9 21.9 11.8 9.9 10.0 12.3
% of foreign population .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7.3 8.7
Italy .. .. .. 4.5 4.4 6.5 6.6 7.4 7.0
% of foreign population .. .. .. 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7
Japan 5.8 6.1 6.8 7.8 9.4 10.5 11.1 14.1 14.5
Korea 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.4
Luxembourg 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8
Netherlands 9.1 28.7 12.8 29.1 36.2 43.1 49.5 71.4 82.7
Norway 3.4 4.6 4.8 5.1 5.1 5.5 8.8 11.8 12.2
Spain 8.1 5.9 7.0 3.8 5.3 8.4 7.8 6.8 8.4
Sweden 18.0 17.6 16.8 27.7 29.3 42.7 35.1 32.0 25.6
Switzerland 11.4 10.3 8.7 8.8 11.2 12.9 13.8 16.8 19.4
United Kingdom 64.6 117.1 57.3 58.6 42.2 45.8 44.0 40.5 43.1
Countries where native-born/
foreign-born distinction is prevalent
Australia 81.2 119.1 127.9 118.5 125.2 122.1 112.2 114.8 111.6
Canada 58.8 87.5 104.3 118.6 116.2 150.6 217.3 227.7 ..
United States 242.1 233.8 270.1 308.1 240.3 314.7 407.4 445.9 1 044.7
Note: Statistics cover all means of acquiring the nationality of a country, except where otherwise indicated. These include standard naturalisation procedures
subject to age, residency, etc. criteria, as well as situations where nationality is acquired through a declaration or by option (following marriage,
adoption, or other situations related to residency or descent), recovery of former nationality and other special means of acquiring the nationality of a
country. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex. The naturalisation rate (‘‘ % of foreign population’’) indicates the
number of persons acquiring the nationality of the country as a percentage of the stock of the foreign population at the beginning of the year.
225
Table A.2.1. Inflows of foreign workers into selected OECD countries

Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Australia
Permanent settlers1 12.6 22.7 34.8 43.8 42.8 48.4 40.3 22.1 12.8 20.2 20.0
Temporary workers1 .. .. .. .. .. .. 14.6 14.9 14.2 14.3 15.4
Austria 18.0 15.3 17.4 37.2 103.4 62.6 57.9 37.7 27.1 15.4 16.3
Belgium 2.2 2.4 2.8 3.7 .. 5.1 4.4 4.3 4.1 3.0 2.2
Canada .. .. .. 289.2 229.5 233.8 230.4 185.6 172.9 .. ..
Denmark .. .. 3.1 2.7 2.8 2.4 2.4 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.7
France
Permanents 9.9 10.7 12.7 15.6 22.4 25.6 42.3 24.4 18.3 13.1 11.5
APT 1.4 1.5 1.9 3.1 3.8 4.1 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.5 4.8
Germany 37.2 48.1 60.4 84.8 138.6 241.9 408.9 325.6 221.2 270.8 262.5
Hungary .. .. .. 25.3 51.9 41.7 24.6 19.5 18.6 18.4 14.5
Ireland .. .. .. 1.2 1.4 3.8 3.6 4.3 4.3 4.3 3.8
Italy .. .. .. .. .. 125.5 123.7 85.0 99.8 111.3 129.2
Luxembourg 8.4 10.5 12.6 14.7 16.9 16.9 15.9 15.5 16.2 16.5 18.3
Spain .. .. .. .. 19.8 85.0 52.8 17.4 23.5 36.6 ..
Switzerland 29.4 33.6 34.7 37.1 46.7 46.3 39.7 31.5 28.6 27.1 24.5
United Kingdom
Long term 7.9 8.1 10.4 13.3 16.1 12.9 12.7 12.5 13.4 15.5 16.9
Short term 8.0 9.4 11.8 12.2 13.8 12.6 14.0 13.3 12.9 15.6 16.8
Trainees 2.8 2.9 3.8 4.2 4.8 3.5 3.4 3.5 3.8 4.4 4.0
Total 18.7 20.4 26.0 29.7 34.6 29.0 30.1 29.3 30.1 35.5 37.7
United States
Permanent settlers 56.6 57.5 58.7 57.7 58.2 59.5 116.2 147.0 123.3 85.3 117.5
Temporary workers 85.4 97.3 113.4 141.3 144.9 169.6 175.8 182.3 210.8 220.7 254.4
Note: For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Including accompanying dependents.
Table A.2.2. Inflows of seasonal workers into selected OECD countries

Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Australia .. .. .. 32.0 38.0 36.7 25.2 25.6 29.6 35.4 40.3

Austria .. .. .. 24.3 26.3 17.6 20.4 15.8 .. .. ..
Canada .. .. .. .. .. .. 11.1 11.2 10.4 10.9 ..
France 81.7 76.6 70.5 61.9 58.2 54.2 13.6 11.3 10.3 9.4 8.8
Germany – – – – – – 212.4 181.0 155.2 192.8 220.9
Italy .. .. .. .. .. .. 1.7 2.8 5.8 7.6 8.9
Netherlands .. .. .. .. .. .. 1.0 0.9 0.5 – –
Norway .. .. .. .. 4.3 4.3 4.7 4.6 4.5 5.0 5.4
Switzerland 142.8 150.8 154.0 156.4 153.6 147.5 126.1 93.5 83.9 72.3 62.7
United Kingdom .. .. .. .. .. .. 3.6 4.2 4.4 4.7 5.5
United States .. .. .. .. .. .. 16.4 16.3 13.2 11.4 9.6
226
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table A.2.3. Stocks of foreign and foreign-born labour force in selected OECD countries
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Stocks of foreign labour

force
Austria1 155.0 157.7 160.9 178.0 229.5 277.2 295.9 304.6 316.5 325.2 328.0
% of total labour force 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.9 7.4 8.7 9.1 9.3 9.7 9.9 10.0
Belgium 179.2 176.6 179.4 196.4 .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
% of total employment 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.5 .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Denmark 60.1 62.7 65.1 66.9 68.8 71.2 74.0 77.7 80.3 83.8 ..
% of total labour force 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.0 ..
France 1 555.7 1 524.9 1 557.0 1 593.8 1 549.5 1 506.0 1 517.8 1 541.5 1 593.9 1 573.3 1 604.7
Germany 1 833.7 1 865.5 1 910.6 1 940.6 2 025.1 2 179.1 2 360.1 2 575.9 2 559.6 2 569.2 2 559.3
Hungary .. .. .. .. 31.7 33.4 15.7 17.6 20.1 21.0 18.8
% of total labour force .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5
Ireland 33.0 33.0 35.0 33.0 34.0 39.3 40.4 37.3 34.5 42.1 52.4
Italy .. .. .. .. .. 285.3 296.8 304.8 307.1 332.2 ..
% of total employment .. .. .. .. .. 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.7 ..
Japan .. .. .. .. .. .. 85.5 95.4 105.6 88.0 98.3
% of total labour force .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1
Luxembourg 58.7 63.7 69.4 76.2 84.7 92.6 98.2 101.0 106.3 111.8 117.8
% of total employment 35.6 37.6 39.9 42.4 45.2 47.5 49.2 49.7 51.0 52.4 53.8
Netherlands 169 176 176 192 197 214 229 219 216 221 218
Norway .. .. 49.5 47.7 46.3 46.3 46.6 47.9 50.3 52.6 54.8
% of total employment .. .. 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.6
Portugal .. .. 45.5 48.7 51.8 54.9 59.2 63.1 77.6 84.3 86.8
% of total labour force .. .. 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.8
Spain .. .. 58.2 69.1 85.4 171.0 139.4 117.4 121.8 139.0 161.9
% of total labour force .. .. 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0
Sweden 215 215 220 237 246 241 233 221 213 220 218
Switzerland 566.9 587.7 607.8 631.8 669.8 702.5 716.7 725.8 740.3 728.7 709.1
United Kingdom 815 815 871 914 882 828 902 862 847 899 878
Stocks of foreign-born
labour force
Australia 1 900.5 .. .. .. .. 2 182.3 .. 2 194.9 2 164.1 2 138.8 2 238.8
% of total labour force 25.4 .. .. .. .. 25.7 .. 25.3 24.8 23.9 24.6
Canada .. .. .. .. .. 2 681 .. .. .. .. ..
% of total labour force .. .. .. .. .. 18.5 .. .. .. .. ..
United States .. .. .. .. 11 564.6 .. .. .. .. .. ..
% of total labour force .. .. .. .. 9.4 .. .. .. .. .. ..
1. Data for 1990 and 1991 have been adjusted to correct for a temporary over-issue of work permits relative to the number of jobs held by foreigners, between
August 1990 and June 1991.
227
Table B.1.1. AUSTRALIA, inflows of permanent settlers and temporary residents by country
or region of birth
Thousands
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
A. Permanent settlers1
New Zealand 13.6 20.9 23.5 11.2 7.5 7.2 6.7 7.8 10.5 12.3 13.1
United Kingdom 20.2 24.6 23.9 23.5 20.7 14.5 9.5 9.0 10.7 11.3 9.6
China 2.7 3.3 3.8 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.0 2.7 3.7 11.2 7.8
Former Yugoslavia 2.6 3.3 2.9 2.0 1.9 2.5 4.2 4.3 6.7 7.7 5.3
Hong Kong (China) 3.4 5.6 7.3 8.1 13.5 12.9 6.5 3.3 4.1 4.4 3.9
South Africa 4.7 3.8 3.0 2.4 2.1 1.3 1.0 1.7 2.8 3.2 3.2
Vietnam 6.6 6.0 8.0 11.2 13.2 9.6 5.7 5.4 5.1 3.6 3.0
Philippines 6.4 10.4 9.2 6.1 6.4 5.9 3.7 4.2 4.1 3.2 2.8
India 2.5 3.0 3.1 3.0 5.1 5.6 3.6 2.6 3.9 3.7 2.7
Chinese Taipei 0.8 1.1 2.1 3.1 3.5 3.2 1.4 0.8 0.8 1.6 2.2
Fiji 1.6 3.0 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.1 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.7
United States 1.8 2.0 2.1 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.3 1.4 1.8 1.6 1.5
Sri Lanka 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.2 3.3 2.8 1.6 1.4 2.0 2.0 1.4
Former USSR 0.2 0.4 1.0 1.7 0.9 2.0 2.7 1.4 2.3 1.22 1.42
Malaysia 3.9 6.3 7.7 6.4 5.7 3.1 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.1
Other countries 39.5 46.9 42.1 32.8 30.3 29.5 22.3 21.2 26.4 29.4 24.7
Total 113.3 143.5 145.3 121.2 121.7 107.4 76.3 69.8 87.4 99.1 85.8
B. Temporary residents
United Kingdom and Ireland 28.6 38.2 51.2 53.6 47.0 34.9 26.5 35.7 42.1 42.8 52.5
Northern Europe 11.1 13.8 15.8 15.6 15.5 14.4 12.7 15.9 16.9 17.7 18.9
Southern Europe 3.4 3.4 4.4 3.4 3.9 2.7 2.9 3.3 3.0 2.8 2.8
Asia (excluding Middle East) 23.1 32.2 40.9 39.5 38.0 34.9 26.1 30.6 30.4 33.1 38.5
Middle East 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.2 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.2
United States and Canada 24.5 29.2 33.2 32.8 29.5 26.1 20.8 24.1 26.1 27.9 27.5
South and other America 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.4 1.0 0.8 0.9
Africa 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.9 2.2 1.8 2.7
Oceania 1.1 1.4 2.7 0.9 1.7 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.8 1.6
Other and not stated 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5
Total 94.3 120.9 151.4 149.0 139.0 117.8 93.2 115.2 124.4 130.2 147.13
Note: Data refer to fiscal years (July to June of the given year). For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Counts include both principal applicants and their accompanying dependents, if any.
2. Exclude the Baltic States.
3. Including 17 049 holders of a Temporary Business Entry (TBE) visa (Long stay).
Table B.1.1. BELGIUM, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Netherlands .. .. .. 6.2 6.6 6.7 4.3 6.5 7.8

France .. .. .. 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.2 6.2 6.6
Morocco 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.4 3.3 3.4 4.8 3.6 4.0
Germany .. .. .. 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2
United States .. .. .. 2.9 3.1 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.0
United Kingdom .. .. .. 3.2 3.1 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8
Italy 2.5 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.8 1.9 2.6 2.7
Turkey 1.4 1.8 2.4 2.9 2.7 2.5 3.6 2.5 2.5
Former Yugoslavia 0.3 0.5 1.6 1.0 1.5 0.8 0.7 2.5 2.5
Portugal 1.3 1.7 1.7 1.9 3.2 2.1 1.2 1.7 1.8
Spain 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Poland .. .. .. 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9
Japan .. .. .. 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.1 0.9 0.8
Zaire .. .. 1.8 1.9 2.7 2.3 2.2 1.0 0.8
China .. .. .. 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6
Other countries 30.0 33.7 36.9 17.1 14.6 14.6 19.1 14.3 10.8
Total 38.2 43.5 50.5 54.1 55.1 53.0 56.0 53.1 51.9
of which: EU 19.8 22.5 24.6 24.8 27.1 26.4 27.0 26.6 28.7
Note: Data are from population registers. Asylum seekers awaiting a decision are excluded from 1995. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes
at the end of the Annex.
228
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.1. CANADA, inflows of permanent settlers by region or country of birth

Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Asia and the Pacific 35.3 57.9 70.0 76.5 89.6 97.6 120.9 130.8 128.2 112.7 124.1
Hong Kong (China) 5.9 16.2 23.3 19.9 29.3 22.3 38.9 36.6 44.2 31.7 29.9
India 6.9 9.7 10.4 8.8 10.6 12.8 12.7 20.5 17.2 16.2 21.2
China 1.9 2.6 2.8 4.4 8.0 13.9 10.4 9.5 12.5 13.3 17.5
Chinese Taipei 0.7 1.5 2.2 3.4 3.7 4.5 7.5 9.9 7.4 7.7 13.2
Philippines 4.1 7.3 8.3 11.4 12.0 12.3 13.3 19.8 19.1 15.1 12.9
Pakistan .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 3.7 4.0 7.7
Sri Lanka 1.8 4.2 2.4 2.4 3.1 6.8 12.6 9.1 6.7 8.9 6.1
Iran .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2.7 3.7 5.8
Vietnam 6.8 5.8 6.3 9.4 9.1 9.0 7.7 8.3 6.2 3.9 2.5
Other Asian countries 7.2 10.6 14.3 16.7 13.8 15.9 17.9 17.2 8.5 8.1 7.4
Europe 22.7 37.6 40.7 52.1 51.9 48.1 44.9 46.6 38.6 41.2 39.7
United Kingdom 5.1 8.5 9.2 8.4 8.2 7.5 7.1 7.2 6.0 6.2 5.6
Bosnia Herzegovina .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2.8 4.9 6.3 5.1
Poland 5.2 7.0 9.2 16.0 16.6 15.7 11.9 6.9 3.4 2.3 ..
Other European countries 12.4 22.0 22.3 27.7 27.1 24.8 25.9 29.7 24.3 26.5 29.0
Africa and the Middle East 12.3 19.8 22.3 31.0 38.3 41.6 41.6 36.5 29.4 32.8 36.1
Lebanon 2.3 3.4 3.1 6.2 12.5 12.0 6.5 4.7 2.6 1.9 ..
Other African countries 9.9 16.4 19.2 24.9 25.8 29.7 35.1 31.9 26.8 30.9 36.1
America 28.9 36.9 29.0 32.4 34.5 43.5 45.4 41.9 27.6 25.6 24.2
United States 7.3 8.0 6.6 6.9 6.1 6.6 7.5 8.0 6.2 5.2 5.8
El Salvador 3.2 3.5 2.7 2.8 4.3 7.0 5.6 2.9 1.2 0.7 ..
Other American countries 18.5 25.4 19.7 22.6 24.1 29.9 32.3 31.0 20.3 19.7 18.4
Total 99.2 152.1 161.9 192.0 214.2 230.8 252.8 255.8 223.9 212.2 226.1
Note: Counts include both principal applicants and their accompanying dependents, if any. Figures include backlog clearance. For details on definitions and
sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.1. DENMARK, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Somalia .. .. .. .. 1.3 1.5
Iceland 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.2
Germany 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.0
Iraq 0.4 0.5 1.3 1.0 0.7 1.0
Norway 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
United Kingdom .. .. .. .. 1.1 0.9
Turkey 1.1 1.8 1.1 0.7 0.6 0.8
Sweden 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8
United States 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6
Netherlands 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5
Thailand .. .. .. .. 0.4 0.3
France 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3
Poland 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3
Italy 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2
Other countries 9.0 10.2 9.8 8.9 6.1 5.7
Total 15.1 17.5 16.9 15.4 15.6 33.0
of which: EU2 2.3 2.6 2.7 3.0 3.7 4.4
Note: Entries of foreigners staying in Denmark more than one year. Asylum seekers and refugees with a provisional residence status are not included. For
details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Including 16 077 ex-Yugoslavs who have been recognised as refugees after 3 years of legal residence in Denmark as war refugees (temporay status).
2. Including Finland and Sweden in 1995.
229
Table B.1.1. FINLAND, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Former USSR 2.9 2.2 1.9 2.0 2.0

Estonia 2.1 2.0 1.4 1.0 0.7
Sweden 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6
Iraq 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.5
Bosnia Herzegovina 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.4
Somalia 0.3 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.3
United States 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
United Kingdom 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Iran 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2
Germany 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2
Turkey 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1
China 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1
Thailand 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Vietnam 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1
Other countries 2.4 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.6
Total 10.4 10.9 7.6 7.3 7.5
Note: Entries of foreigners intending to stay in Finland for longer than one year. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the
Annex.
Table B.1.1. FRANCE, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Algeria 5.3 5.3 4.9 6.3 13.8 12.9 12.3 13.1 9.7 8.4 7.8
Morocco 8.2 8.6 10.8 13.6 18.0 18.2 16.4 13.8 8.1 6.6 6.6
Turkey 4.3 4.6 4.7 5.3 7.0 9.2 9.2 6.8 4.7 3.6 3.4
United States .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2.4 2.4 2.7
Tunisia 2.4 2.6 2.9 3.2 4.0 4.3 4.0 3.5 2.3 1.9 2.2
Former Yugoslavia 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 1.2 1.1 1.2 4.0 1.3 1.6 1.3
Japan .. .. .. .. 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1
Zaire .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2.2 1.3 0.9 0.9
Sri Lanka .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.8 0.9
Haiti .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 3.2 1.9 1.4 0.8
China .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1.3 0.9 0.7
Poland .. 1.1 0.9 1.4 2.9 2.5 1.2 1.1 0.8 0.9 0.7
Vietnam .. .. .. .. 3.5 3.1 1.3 1.3 0.8 0.7 0.7
Brazil .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.9 0.7
Russian Federation .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.6
Other countries 17.7 16.3 19.2 22.8 50.7 57.1 69.8 48.9 33.7 24.8 24.3
Total1 38.3 39.0 44.0 53.2 102.4 109.9 116.6 99.2 69.3 56.7 55.6
of which: EU .. .. .. .. 11.3 11.7 25.9 14.4 10.8 7.9 7.1
Total2 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 91.5 77.0 74.0
Note: For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Up to 1989, inflows include permanent workers, holders of provisional work permits and persons admitted under family reunification. From 1990 on,
spouses of French nationals, parents of French children, refugees, the self-employed and others eligible for a residence permit are also included.
Provisional work permits, on the other hand, are not included.
2. Figures include estimates of some unregistered flows (inflows of family members of European Economic Area citizens for example).
230
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.1. GERMANY, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Poland 207.8 260.3 200.9 128.4 131.7 75.2 78.6 87.2 77.4
Turkey 78.4 85.7 83.6 81.9 80.6 67.8 63.9 73.6 73.2
Italy 41.8 40.2 36.9 35.4 30.1 31.7 38.7 48.0 45.8
Portugal 3.6 5.3 7.0 10.7 10.1 12.9 26.5 30.5 32.0
Russian Federation1 .. .. .. .. 24.6 29.4 33.4 33.0 31.9
Greece 33.0 29.5 26.5 28.3 23.6 18.3 18.9 20.3 18.8
Romania 11.2 14.2 78.2 61.4 109.8 81.6 31.4 24.8 17.1
Hungary .. .. 15.9 24.9 27.9 24.2 19.3 18.8 16.6
United States .. .. .. .. 21.3 17.6 15.8 16.0 16.3
Croatia2 .. .. .. .. 38.6 26.0 16.7 14.9 12.3
Bosnia Herzegovina3 .. .. .. .. .. 107.0 68.3 55.2 11.1
Spain 3.9 4.4 4.4 5.1 5.4 5.8 6.0 7.2 7.8
Bulgaria .. .. .. .. 31.4 27.2 10.4 8.0 6.3
Morocco 4.5 4.7 5.5 6.0 6.4 5.1 3.8 3.6 4.1
Other countries 208.7 265.0 318.3 317.4 324.6 315.3 279.0 293.2 294.2
Total 648.6 770.8 842.4 920.5 1 207.6 986.9 774.0 788.3 708.0
of which: EU4 140.1 142.0 139.6 147.4 140.8 136.7 155.8 177.2 172.5
1. Included in Former USSR until 1991.
2. Included in Former Yugoslavia until 1991.
4. European Union 15 for all years.
Table B.1.1. HUNGARY, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Romania 17.8 26.6 29.6 10.9 6.5 6.1 4.3 4.7 2.9
China – 0.1 0.7 2.1 0.4 0.5 0.5 1.2 1.4
Ukraine 0.7 0.6 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.1
Former Yugoslavia1 0.4 0.4 0.4 3.6 3.2 5.0 2.3 1.4 0.6
Germany 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4
Russian Federation 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.3
Slovak Republic 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Poland 1.2 1.3 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2
Greece 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1
Israel – 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
Vietnam 0.3 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Libya 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 – 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Norway – – – – – – 0.1 0.1 0.1
Croatia 0.1 0.1 – 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1
United Kingdom 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1
Other countries 1.9 2.2 2.8 2.5 2.1 1.8 2.1 2.2 1.6
Total 23.5 33.7 37.2 23.0 15.1 16.4 12.8 13.2 9.4
of which: EU2 0.8 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.0
Note: Data are from the Register of long-term residence permits. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Excluding Croatia.
231
Table B.1.1. JAPAN, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
China 71.4 53.1 29.9 35.6 52.4 45.2 38.9 38.8 45.6
Philippines 48.1 48.0 48.8 63.8 57.5 48.2 58.8 30.3 30.3
United States 28.5 28.6 30.8 29.8 29.3 27.4 27.6 27.0 27.9
Brazil 3.1 5.3 11.6 17.3 19.2 14.6 11.8 11.9 22.4
Korea 13.5 21.0 23.1 26.6 26.0 21.3 21.3 18.8 17.1
Thailand 5.9 6.1 7.0 8.3 7.7 6.5 6.8 6.5 6.6
United Kingdom 6.4 6.9 7.5 6.1 6.7 5.9 6.6 6.4 6.4
Canada 2.5 3.1 3.8 4.2 4.2 3.8 4.1 4.1 4.5
Chinese Taipei 6.8 6.5 7.3 7.6 6.0 5.2 4.7 4.7 4.4
Germany1 4.2 3.7 4.3 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.0 3.7 4.1
Peru 0.6 4.3 2.8 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.7 2.4
Other countries 43.8 50.8 46.9 53.9 52.9 51.3 51.9 55.9 53.7
Total 234.8 237.4 223.8 258.4 267.0 234.5 237.5 209.9 225.4
Note: New entry except temporary visitors. Re-entry are excluded. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Data for 1988 relate to western Germany.
Table B.1.1. LUXEMBOURG, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Portugal 3.0 2.9 3.4 3.5 2.4 2.9 2.4 2.4

France 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5
Belgium 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9
Germany 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.6
Italy 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5
Netherlands 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
United States 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3
Spain .. .. .. .. .. 0.1 0.2 0.1
Other countries 1.9 2.0 2.3 2.9 3.9 2.5 2.6 2.9
Total 8.2 8.4 9.3 10.0 9.8 9.2 9.2 9.6
of which: EU1 7.0 6.9 7.6 7.8 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1
Table B.1.1. NETHERLANDS, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Turkey 8.4 9.6 10.4 11.0 12.6 12.4 9.1 7.8 4.3 4.8 6.4
Germany 4.3 4.1 4.4 4.6 5.6 6.8 7.1 7.4 6.1 4.7 5.7
United Kingdom 4.4 4.5 4.0 4.2 5.4 6.0 6.5 5.0 3.5 3.7 4.3
Morocco 6.6 7.0 8.2 8.4 9.4 8.9 7.2 5.9 3.2 3.1 4.3
Former Yugoslavia .. .. .. .. .. .. 4.9 8.9 8.4 7.3 3.4
United States 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.9 2.6 2.2 2.2 3.1
Suriname 3.7 4.3 2.9 4.4 6.8 6.7 6.9 7.8 2.9 1.7 2.8
Belgium 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.3 1.9
France 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.5 1.4 .. 1.7
Poland .. .. 0.7 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3 0.8 .. 1.4
China .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1.1 1.0 .. 1.3
Japan .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1.0 1.1 .. 1.3
Italy 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 .. 1.2
Other countries 18.9 24.6 20.9 24.6 32.3 34.4 32.0 34.2 30.8 38.2 38.4
Total 52.8 60.9 58.3 65.4 81.3 84.3 83.0 87.6 68.4 67.0 77.2
of which: EU1 .. .. 15.6 15.7 18.6 20.8 22.3 19.7 16.0 14.8 19.2
232
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.1. NORWAY, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Sweden 2.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.9
Denmark 3.2 2.2 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.9 1.6 1.6
United Kingdom 1.5 0.9 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.9
United States 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9
Germany 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6
Pakistan 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5
Somalia 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.4
Sri Lanka 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.4
Turkey 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Iran 1.7 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3
China .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.3
Philippines 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2
Poland 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2
Other countries 8.8 7.1 6.5 6.5 6.5 5.9 5.9 6.2 6.6
Total 23.2 18.5 15.7 16.1 17.2 22.3 17.9 16.5 17.2
of which: EU2 6.0 4.1 3.4 3.6 3.9 4.0 3.9 6.6 7.7
Note: Data are from population registers. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Included in former Yugoslavia before 1993.
Table B.1.1. SWEDEN, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Finland 5.4 4.5 4.1 3.0 2.7 2.4 2.8 2.8 2.6
Iraq 1.3 1.4 2.0 2.5 3.8 4.6 3.5 2.3 2.1
Norway 3.2 8.7 7.3 2.6 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.5
Denmark 2.3 4.5 3.1 1.7 1.3 1.2 1.8 1.8 1.4
United States 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.1
Turkey 1.2 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.1 0.8 1.1 1.1 1.1
United Kingdom 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.9
Iran 8.1 7.0 4.5 3.8 3.6 1.9 1.5 1.1 0.8
Poland 1.5 1.7 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.7
Somalia .. .. .. .. .. .. 2.8 0.5 0.4
Ethiopia 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4
Lebanon 0.6 1.8 2.0 1.6 1.3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4
Chile 2.9 5.9 1.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4
Other countries 13.7 16.9 19.2 19.6 17.7 14.7 14.6 14.0 13.5
Total 44.5 58.9 53.2 43.9 39.5 54.8 74.8 36.1 29.3
of which: EU2 10.6 11.6 10.2 7.2 6.2 5.8 7.0 .. ..
1. Included in former Yougoslavia before 1993.
2. EU 15 for all years.
233
Table B.1.1. SWITZERLAND, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Germany 8.1 8.4 9.8 9.9 9.6 8.6 8.7 8.6 8.7
Portugal 8.4 9.5 13.8 14.1 13.3 10.0 8.6 7.6 5.5
Italy 8.4 7.9 8.8 8.3 8.3 7.3 6.9 6.7 5.4
France 4.6 4.9 5.4 4.9 5.1 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0
Turkey 3.6 4.0 6.0 6.7 5.3 4.8 3.8 3.8 3.4
United States 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.0 2.6 2.4 2.6 2.9 2.9
United Kingdom 2.3 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.6 2.4
Spain 5.1 4.8 5.6 4.6 3.9 3.1 2.3 2.7 2.0
Netherlands 1.7 1.6 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.4
Austria 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.1 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.3
Canada 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.8
Other countries 15.7 16.2 20.4 24.2 23.4 22.8 22.3 22.0 21.6
Total 76.1 80.4 101.4 109.8 112.1 104.0 91.7 87.9 74.3
of which: EU .. .. .. .. .. .. 37.8 39.3 35.7
Note: Data are from the register of foreigners. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.1. UNITED KINGDOM, inflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
United States 43.9 37.3 38.2 39.4 43.2

Australia 25.0 21.5 27.2 26.6 25.1
India 9.2 8.9 9.9 11.6 13.0
South Africa 2.3 2.6 5.6 11.1 12.9
New Zealand 10.6 9.3 12.1 12.0 11.0
Japan 10.4 9.4 10.4 10.1 10.8
Pakistan 8.3 7.5 6.6 7.2 7.8
Canada 6.4 5.8 6.7 6.7 7.4
Philippines 2.6 3.3 5.2 6.5 6.8
Poland 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.6
Russian Federation .. .. 3.5 4.2 3.6
Bangladesh 3.2 3.2 3.2 2.8 3.3
Malaysia 3.0 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.3
China 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.2
Other countries 73.6 72.7 55.4 58.1 61.5
Total 203.9 190.3 193.6 206.3 216.4
Note: Passengers, excluding European Economic Area nationals, admitted to the United Kingdom. Data exclude visitors, passengers in transit or returning on
limited leave or who previously settled. Students and au pair girls are excluded. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of
the Annex.
234
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.1. UNITED STATES, inflows of permanent settlers by region or country of birth
Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
North and Central America 207.7 216.6 250.0 607.4 957.6 1 211.0 384.0 301.4 272.2 231.5 340.5
Mexico 66.5 72.4 95.0 405.2 679.1 946.2 213.8 126.6 111.4 89.9 163.6
Dominican Republic 26.2 24.9 27.2 26.7 42.2 41.4 42.0 45.4 51.2 38.5 39.6
Cuba 33.1 28.9 17.6 10.0 10.6 10.3 11.8 13.7 14.7 17.9 26.5
Jamaica 19.6 23.1 21.0 24.5 25.0 23.8 18.9 17.2 14.3 16.4 19.1
Haiti 12.7 14.8 34.8 13.7 20.3 47.5 11.0 10.1 13.3 14.0 18.4
El Salvador 10.9 10.7 12.0 57.9 80.2 47.4 26.2 26.8 17.6 11.7 17.9
Canada 11.0 11.9 11.8 12.2 16.8 13.5 15.2 17.2 16.1 12.9 15.8
Other North or Central American
countries 27.7 29.9 30.6 57.2 83.3 80.9 45.2 44.4 33.5 30.1 39.7
Asia 268.2 257.7 264.5 312.1 338.6 358.5 357.0 358.0 292.6 267.9 307.8
Philippines 52.6 50.1 50.7 57.0 63.8 63.6 61.0 63.5 53.5 51.0 55.9
India 26.2 27.8 26.3 31.2 30.7 45.1 36.8 40.1 34.9 34.7 44.9
Vietnam 30.0 24.2 25.8 37.7 48.8 55.3 77.7 59.6 41.3 41.8 42.1
China 25.1 25.8 28.7 32.3 31.8 33.0 38.9 65.6 54.0 35.5 41.7
Korea 35.8 35.8 34.7 34.2 32.3 26.5 19.4 18.0 16.0 16.0 18.2
Other Asian countries 98.6 93.9 98.3 119.7 131.3 135.0 123.2 111.3 92.8 88.9 105.1
Europe 62.5 61.2 64.8 82.9 112.4 135.2 145.4 158.3 160.9 128.2 147.6
Former USSR 2.6 2.4 2.9 11.1 25.5 57.0 43.6 58.6 63.4 54.5 62.8
Poland 8.5 7.5 9.5 15.1 20.5 19.2 25.5 27.8 28.0 13.8 15.8
Other European countries 51.4 51.3 52.3 56.7 66.3 59.1 76.3 71.8 69.4 59.9 69.0
South America 41.9 44.4 41.0 58.9 85.8 79.9 55.3 53.9 47.4 45.7 61.8
Colombia 11.4 11.7 10.3 15.2 24.2 19.7 13.2 12.8 10.8 10.8 14.3
Other South American countries 30.5 32.7 30.7 43.7 61.6 60.2 42.1 41.1 36.5 34.8 47.5
Africa 17.5 17.7 18.9 25.2 35.9 36.2 27.1 27.8 26.7 42.5 52.9
Oceania 3.9 4.0 3.8 4.4 6.2 6.2 5.2 4.9 4.6 4.7 5.3
Total 601.7 601.5 643.0 1 090.9 1 536.5 1 827.2 974.0 904.3 804.4 720.5 915.9
Note: Data refer to fiscal years (October to September of the given year). Since 1989, approximately 2.9 millions of immigrants obtained a permanent
residence permit following legalization under the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at
the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.2. BELGIUM, outflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
France .. .. .. 4.4 3.3 3.4 4.0 4.2 4.3

Netherlands .. .. .. 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.9 3.9 4.1
United States .. .. .. 3.1 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.7
United Kingdom .. .. .. 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.0 2.7 2.6
Germany .. .. .. 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.3
Italy 3.0 2.5 2.5 3.6 2.0 2.0 0.7 2.1 1.9
Spain 1.5 1.2 1.2 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.1
Portugal 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.9 0.6 0.9 1.0
Japan .. .. .. 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9
Morocco 1.1 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.8
Zaire .. .. 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.6 1.1 0.9 0.7
Turkey 1.1 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.5
China .. .. .. 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4
Poland .. .. .. 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3
Former Yugoslavia 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 ..
Other countries 24.9 21.8 20.5 9.1 6.9 9.3 12.3 8.5 8.8
Total 32.3 27.5 27.0 35.3 28.1 31.2 34.1 33.1 32.4
of which: EU 16.8 15.6 15.5 20.7 15.7 16.6 19.1 20.0 19.7
235
Table B.1.2. DENMARK, outflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
United Kingdom .. .. .. .. 0.6 0.6

Norway 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Sweden 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4
Germany 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4
United States 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4
Iceland 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2
Turkey 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
France 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2
Finland 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Netherlands 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Italy 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Iran 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
Poland 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Pakistan 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Other countries 1.7 1.9 1.9 2.0 1.4 1.6
Total 4.6 5.2 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.3
of which: EU1 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.7 2.2
Note: Departures of foreigners for more than one year. Departures of asylum seekers and refugees with a provisional residence status are not included. For
details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.2. FINLAND, outflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Former USSR 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5

Sweden 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4
Estonia – 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3
United States 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
United Kingdom 0.1 0.1 – 0.1 0.2
Germany 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
China – – – – 0.1
Somalia – – – 0.1 0.1
Total 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 3.0
236
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.2. GERMANY, outflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Poland 99.3 142.5 157.7 115.3 109.5 101.8 65.8 70.7 71.7
Turkey 39.9 37.7 35.1 36.1 40.3 45.5 46.4 43.2 43.5
Italy 37.2 38.5 34.1 36.4 32.7 31.0 32.1 33.5 36.8
Portugal 1.9 2.8 2.9 4.1 4.9 6.3 14.3 20.5 25.4
Greece 12.8 14.6 14.3 15.4 16.2 17.5 19.2 19.3 20.1
Croatia2 .. .. .. .. 28.5 25.0 28.5 22.0 17.3
Hungary .. .. 8.7 14.9 21.2 25.1 22.0 18.8 17.0
Romania 3.4 3.5 15.8 30.2 51.9 101.9 44.0 25.2 16.6
United States .. .. .. .. 16.2 16.9 17.2 16.0 16.0
Spain 6.0 6.4 6.1 6.2 6.5 7.2 7.6 7.2 8.2
Bulgaria .. .. .. .. 10.8 34.9 17.8 10.3 7.0
Morocco 1.3 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.3 2.7 2.5
Other countries 131.3 155.0 151.5 183.9 168.1 202.8 212.4 202.1 203.1
Total 359.1 438.3 466.0 497.5 614.7 710.2 621.5 561.1 559.1
of which: EU4 96.9 104.9 100.9 114.6 111.8 116.4 133.4 139.6 153.9
Table B.1.2. JAPAN, outflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Philippines 44.3 .. 42.5 .. 59.1 44.5 52.1 45.2

Brazil 2.6 .. 7.3 .. 23.2 32.2 33.1 29.3
United States 28.6 .. 28.3 .. 27.3 26.2 25.9 26.0
China 42.1 .. 14.9 .. 19.5 26.0 24.8 24.0
Korea 15.8 .. 21.0 .. 21.7 21.4 21.5 22.0
Thailand 5.0 .. 6.2 .. 7.4 6.5 5.8 5.9
United Kingdom 6.6 .. 7.3 .. 6.2 2.4 6.2 5.7
Chinese Taipei 7.9 .. 7.1 .. 6.9 5.8 5.6 5.3
Germany1 3.2 .. 4.3 .. 4.0 4.2 4.2 3.7
Canada 2.4 .. 3.1 .. 3.6 3.4 3.4 3.6
Peru 0.2 .. 1.4 .. 3.2 2.7 2.8 2.7
Other countries 25.0 .. 22.7 .. 22.7 25.2 18.8 21.8
Total 183.7 204.8 166.1 181.3 204.8 200.5 204.2 195.2
Note: Data are from the register of foreigners. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.2. LUXEMBOURG, outflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Portugal 1.1 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.2

France 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.8
Belgium 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5
Germany 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Italy 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3
Netherlands 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3
United States 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2
Spain 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Other countries 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.0
Total 5.3 5.5 5.5 5.9 5.6 5.0 5.3 4.9
Note: Data are from the Central Population Register. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
237
Table B.1.2. NETHERLANDS, outflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Germany 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.5 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.2 2.9 3.5
United Kingdom 2.8 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 2.5
United States 1.9 1.6 1.7 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.5 1.9
Turkey 5.2 3.8 3.5 3.0 2.3 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.5
Belgium 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.3 0.9 1.2
Japan .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.9 0.9 .. 1.1
Morocco 1.7 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.0
France 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 .. 0.8
Italy 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 .. 0.5
Former Yugoslavia .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.3 0.3 0.3 .. 0.4
Suriname 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3
Poland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1.2 0.2 .. 0.3
China .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.1 0.2 .. 0.2
Other countries 7.0 6.6 7.0 7.7 7.9 8.4 9.1 6.6 7.5 10.4 7.4
Total 23.6 20.9 21.4 21.5 20.6 21.3 22.7 22.2 22.7 21.7 22.4
of which: EU1 .. .. 9.1 9.7 8.9 9.6 10.0 10.5 10.4 10.0 10.7
Table B.1.2. NORWAY, outflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Denmark 2.6 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.7

Sweden 1.6 1.7 1.1 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.0
United States 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.8 0.9
United Kingdom 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.1 0.9 1.1 0.9 0.9
Bosnia Herzegovina1 .. .. .. .. .. – 0.2 0.3
Germany 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3
Pakistan 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2
Former Yugoslavia 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.6 1.1 0.6 0.2
Chile – 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1
Sri Lanka – – 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1
Iran – 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 –
Other countries 2.7 2.9 3.1 2.8 2.9 3.8 3.5 3.2
Total 9.3 10.6 9.8 8.4 8.1 10.5 9.6 9.0
of which: EU2 4.7 5.4 4.5 3.6 3.0 3.5 3.3 5.0
238
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.2. SWEDEN, outflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Finland 5.2 5.4 5.4 4.5 3.1 2.8 2.6 2.7 2.9
Norway 1.6 2.0 3.9 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.4 2.2 2.0
Denmark 1.0 1.8 2.4 2.2 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6
United States 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.8
United Kingdom 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5
Chile 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2
Greece 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2
Poland 0.1 0.1 .. .. 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2
Iran 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.2
Turkey 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2
Other countries 2.3 2.3 2.9 2.8 3.2 4.5 5.2 6.5 5.5
Total 11.8 13.1 16.2 15.0 13.2 14.8 15.8 15.4 14.5
of which: EU2 7.5 8.5 9.2 7.9 6.2 6.0 6.1 .. ..
1. Excluding Bosnia-Herzegovina from 1993 on.
Table B.1.2. SWITZERLAND, outflows of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Italy 12.2 11.6 11.7 11.5 15.3 11.7 9.9 10.3 10.8
Portugal 3.9 4.2 4.7 6.3 10.1 8.7 7.5 7.4 7.9
Spain 6.1 6.6 7.2 7.9 11.6 8.1 6.1 6.1 6.3
Germany 6.1 6.2 6.2 7.2 7.1 7.3 6.2 6.6 6.2
France 3.4 3.6 3.8 3.9 4.0 3.8 3.5 3.8 3.7
Turkey 2.6 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.5
Austria 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.3 1.4 1.2
Other countries 15.4 16.1 16.0 18.9 20.2 20.0 18.9 20.5 20.1
Total 55.8 57.5 59.6 66.4 80.4 71.2 64.2 67.5 67.7
of which: EU .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 42.3 42.6
Note: Data are from registers of foreigners. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.3. BELGIUM, net migration of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Netherlands .. .. .. 2.8 3.3 3.2 0.4 2.6 3.8

Morocco 0.9 1.6 1.9 2.5 2.8 2.7 4.2 2.7 3.2
France .. .. .. 1.4 2.6 2.5 2.2 2.0 2.3
Turkey 0.3 1.1 1.8 2.2 2.2 1.9 2.8 1.9 2.0
Germany .. .. .. 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9
Italy –0.5 0.2 0.2 –1.0 0.6 0.8 1.1 0.4 0.8
Portugal 0.9 1.3 1.2 1.1 2.6 1.2 0.6 0.7 0.8
Poland .. .. .. 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.6
United States .. .. .. –0.2 0.1 –0.3 – 0.1 0.2
United Kingdom .. .. .. 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.8 0.1 0.2
China .. .. .. 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2
Zaire .. .. 0.9 0.9 2.2 1.7 1.1 0.1 0.1
Spain –0.8 –0.4 –0.4 –1.3 – – –0.2 –0.4 –0.1
Japan .. .. .. – –0.1 0.2 0.3 – –0.1
Former Yugoslavia – 0.3 1.4 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.4 2.3 ..
Other countries 5.2 12.0 16.4 7.9 7.7 5.3 6.7 5.8 4.6
Total 6.0 16.1 23.4 18.8 26.9 21.8 21.9 20.0 19.5
of which: UE 3.0 6.9 9.1 4.1 11.3 9.8 8.0 6.5 9.0
Note: Data are derived from Tables B.1.1 and B.1.2. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
239
Table B.1.3. DENMARK, net migration of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Iceland –0.1 – –0.1 0.1 0.4 1.0
Germany 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.7
Turkey 1.0 1.6 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.6
Norway 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4
Sweden 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4
Netherlands 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3
United Kingdom .. .. .. .. 0.5 0.3
United States 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2
Poland 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
Pakistan 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
France 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Iran 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
Italy – – 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Finland 0.1 – 0.1 – 0.1 0.1
Other countries 6.4 7.4 8.1 7.1 6.2 6.4
Total 10.5 12.3 12.1 10.5 10.5 27.7
of which: EU2 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3
Note: Data are derived from Tables B.1.1. and B.1.2. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Including 16 077 former Yugoslavs who have been recognised as refugees after 3 years of legal residence in Denmark as war refugees (temporay status).
Table B.1.3. FINLAND, net migration of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Former USSR 2.8 2.0 1.7 1.7 1.6

Iraq .. .. .. .. 0.4
Bosnia Herzegovina .. .. .. .. 0.4
Estonia 2.1 1.9 1.2 0.8 0.4
Sweden 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3
Somalia 0.3 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.2
Iran 0.2 0.1 0.2 .. 0.1
Turkey 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1
Thailand 0.1 .. 0.1 0.1 0.1
Former Yugoslavia .. 1.7 0.1 .. 0.1
Vietnam .. 0.2 .. .. –
Germany – – – 0.1 –
United Kingdom 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 –
China 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 –
United States 0.1 – – 0.1 –
Total 8.9 9.4 6.1 5.8 4.5
240
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.3. GERMANY, net migration of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Turkey 38.5 48.0 48.5 45.8 40.3 22.3 17.6 30.4 29.7
Italy 4.6 1.7 2.8 –1.0 –2.7 0.7 6.6 14.5 9.0
Portugal 1.7 2.5 4.1 6.6 5.2 6.6 12.2 10.0 6.6
Poland 108.5 117.8 43.1 13.1 22.2 –26.6 12.9 16.5 5.7
Morocco 3.2 3.4 4.0 4.0 4.2 2.3 0.5 0.9 1.6
Romania 7.8 10.7 62.4 31.2 58.0 –20.2 –12.6 –0.3 0.4
United States .. .. .. .. 5.1 0.7 –1.3 – 0.4
Hungary .. .. 7.2 10.0 6.8 –0.8 –2.7 – –0.4
Spain –2.1 –2.0 –1.7 –1.1 –1.1 –1.3 –1.6 – –0.4
Bulgaria .. .. .. .. 20.6 –7.6 –7.5 –2.3 –0.7
Greece 20.2 14.9 12.2 12.9 7.4 0.7 –0.3 0.9 –1.2
Croatia2 .. .. .. .. 10.1 1.0 –11.8 –7.1 –5.0
Bosnia Herzegovina3 .. .. .. .. .. 96.7 51.8 39.4 –16.1
Other countries 77.4 110.0 166.8 133.5 156.5 112.5 66.6 91.1 91.2
Total 289.5 332.5 376.4 423.0 592.9 276.6 152.5 227.2 148.9
of which: EU4 43.2 37.1 38.7 32.8 29.0 20.3 22.4 37.7 18.6
Table B.1.3. JAPAN, net migration of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
China 29.3 .. 15.0 .. 32.9 19.2 14.1 14.8

United States –0.1 .. 2.5 .. 2.0 1.2 1.7 1.0
United Kingdom –0.2 .. 0.2 .. 0.5 3.5 0.4 0.7
Thailand 0.9 .. 0.8 .. 0.3 – 1.0 0.6
Canada 0.1 .. 0.7 .. 0.6 0.4 0.7 0.5
Germany1 1.0 .. – .. 0.2 – –0.2 –
Chinese Taipei –1.1 .. 0.2 .. –0.9 –0.6 –0.9 –0.6
Peru 0.4 .. 1.4 .. –2.3 –1.7 –1.8 –1.0
Korea –2.3 .. 2.1 .. 4.3 –0.1 –0.2 –3.2
Philippines 3.8 .. 6.3 .. –1.6 3.7 6.7 –14.9
Brazil 0.5 .. 4.3 .. –4.0 –17.6 –21.3 –17.4
Other countries 18.8 .. 24.2 .. 30.2 26.1 33.1 34.1
Total 51.1 32.6 57.7 77.1 62.2 34.0 33.3 14.7
241
Table B.1.3. LUXEMBOURG, net migration of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Portugal 1.9 1.9 2.2 2.2 1.0 1.7 1.2 1.2

France 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.6
Belgium 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.4
Germany 0.1 0.1 – 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2
Italy – –0.1 – 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2
Netherlands – – 0.1 – – 0.1 – –
United States –0.1 – – –0.1 0.1 – – –
Spain .. .. .. .. .. – 0.1 –
Other countries 0.6 0.5 0.9 1.6 2.5 1.3 1.4 1.9
Total 2.9 2.8 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.2 3.9 4.7
Table B.1.3. NETHERLANDS, net migration of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Turkey 3.2 5.8 6.9 8.0 10.3 10.7 7.3 6.0 2.7 3.2 4.9
Morocco 4.9 5.7 6.7 7.1 8.4 7.8 6.1 4.8 2.0 2.0 3.2
Former Yugoslavia .. .. .. .. .. .. 4.6 8.6 8.1 .. 3.0
Suriname 3.3 4.0 2.4 3.9 6.3 6.1 6.2 7.2 2.4 1.3 2.4
Germany 2.0 1.7 2.1 2.1 3.3 4.1 4.2 4.4 3.0 1.8 2.2
United Kingdom 1.6 2.0 1.5 1.7 2.9 3.5 4.1 2.4 0.7 0.7 1.9
United States 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.7 1.2
China .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1.0 0.9 .. 1.1
Poland .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.1 0.5 .. 1.1
France 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.6 .. 0.9
Belgium 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.4 0.5 0.7
Italy 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.4 .. 0.7
Japan .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 0.1 0.2 .. 0.2
Other countries 11.9 18.0 14.6 18.0 25.7 27.5 24.4 27.7 23.5 35.2 31.2
Total 29.2 40.0 36.9 43.9 60.7 63.0 60.3 65.4 45.7 45.3 54.8
of which: EU1 .. .. 6.4 6.0 9.7 11.1 12.2 9.2 5.6 4.8 8.6
Table B.1.3. NORWAY, net migration of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Bosnia Herzegovina1 .. .. .. .. .. 6.2 3.1 1.4

Sweden 0.4 –0.6 – 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.0
Pakistan 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3
Germany 0.2 – 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2
Iran 1.7 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
Sri Lanka 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1
United Kingdom 0.5 –0.6 –0.8 –0.2 0.2 –0.1 –0.1 –
United States 0.2 –0.1 – 0.2 0.2 –0.1 – –0.1
Denmark 0.6 –0.4 –0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 –0.1
Other countries 8.2 6.4 4.9 5.3 4.9 3.2 3.3 4.0
Total 13.9 8.0 5.9 7.7 9.1 11.8 8.3 7.5
of which: EU2 1.3 –1.3 –1.0 0.1 0.9 0.5 0.6 1.6
242
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.3. SWEDEN, net migration of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Turkey 1.1 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.0 0.7 0.9 1.0 0.9
Iran 8.0 6.8 4.3 3.6 3.4 1.4 0.8 0.9 0.6
Poland 1.4 1.6 .. .. 1.4 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5
United Kingdom 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.4
United States 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.2 – 0.2 0.3
Chile 2.8 5.7 1.4 0.4 0.1 –0.1 –0.3 – 0.1
Denmark 1.3 2.7 0.7 –0.5 –0.5 –0.4 0.2 0.2 –0.2
Finland 0.2 –0.9 –1.3 –1.5 –0.4 –0.4 0.2 0.2 –0.2
Norway 1.6 6.7 3.4 –1.5 –1.5 –1.4 –0.8 –0.5 –0.5
Other countries 14.6 19.5 23.9 24.2 20.3 36.2 41.9 15.4 12.4
Total 32.7 45.8 37.0 28.9 26.3 40.0 59.0 20.7 14.9
of which: EU2 3.1 3.2 1.0 –0.7 0.0 –0.2 0.9 .. ..
1. Excluding Bosnia-Herzegovina from 1993 on.
Table B.1.3. SWITZERLAND, net migration of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Germany 2.0 2.2 3.6 2.7 2.5 1.4 2.5 2.0 2.4
France 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.0 1.1 0.8 1.5 1.2 1.3
Turkey 1.0 1.5 3.4 4.0 2.4 1.8 0.8 1.1 0.8
Austria 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.2 – 0.2 – 0.1
Portugal 4.5 5.3 9.0 7.8 3.2 1.3 1.1 0.2 –2.3
Spain –1.0 –1.8 –1.6 –3.3 –7.7 –4.9 –3.7 –3.4 –4.3
Italy –3.8 –3.7 –2.8 –3.1 –7.1 –4.4 –3.0 –3.6 –5.4
Other countries 7.2 7.0 12.0 13.3 10.9 9.7 10.7 9.4 8.9
Total 20.3 22.9 41.8 43.3 31.7 32.8 27.5 20.4 6.6
of which: EU .. .. .. .. .. .. .. –3.0 –7.0
Table B.1.4. FRANCE, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality

Thousands
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Romania 3.3 2.4 2.2 2.7 4.0 4.0 4.0

China 0.8 2.4 2.1 0.4 1.3 1.6 1.4
Turkey 11.8 9.7 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.7 1.2
Zaire 5.8 4.3 3.1 2.2 1.2 1.2 1.1
Former Yugoslavia 0.4 0.9 2.4 2.5 1.9 1.4 0.9
Algeria 0.1 0.2 0.6 1.1 2.4 1.8 0.6
Former USSR 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.6
Cambodia 1.1 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.4
Vietnam 3.3 2.3 1.1 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.4
Laos 1.1 1.2 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.3
Haiti 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.1
Sri Lanka 2.5 3.4 4.0 2.8 1.7 1.1 ..
Other countries 23.6 18.7 9.5 11.4 10.1 6.0 6.3
Total 54.8 47.4 28.9 27.6 26.0 20.4 17.4
243
Table B.1.4. GERMANY, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality

Thousands
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Turkey 20.0 22.1 23.9 28.3 19.1 19.1 25.5 23.8

Iraq .. .. .. .. 1.2 2.1 6.9 10.8
Afghanistan 3.7 7.3 7.3 6.4 5.5 5.6 7.5 5.7
Sri Lanka .. 4.4 5.6 .. 3.3 4.8 6.0 5.0
Iran 5.8 7.3 8.6 3.8 2.7 3.4 3.9 4.8
Armenia .. .. .. .. .. 2.1 3.4 3.5
Bosnia Herzegovina .. .. .. 6.2 21.2 7.3 4.9 ..
Romania 3.1 35.3 40.5 103.8 73.7 9.6 3.5 ..
Vietnam 1.0 9.4 8.1 12.3 11.0 3.4 2.6 ..
Bulgaria 0.4 8.3 12.1 31.5 22.5 3.4 1.2 ..
Lebanon 6.2 16.2 .. 5.6 .. .. .. ..
Poland 26.1 9.2 .. 4.2 1.7 .. .. ..
Other countries 35.6 51.4 75.1 113.4 86.6 35.9 36.2 44.7
Total 121.3 193.1 256.1 438.2 322.6 127.2 127.9 116.4
Table B.1.4. NETHERLANDS, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality

Thousands
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Iraq 0.4 0.7 0.8 3.2 2.9 2.4 4.4

Afghanistan 0.6 0.3 0.4 1.5 2.5 1.9 3.0
Former USSR 0.2 1.0 0.6 1.6 4.5 1.9 1.7
Iran 1.7 1.7 1.3 2.6 6.1 2.7 1.5
Sri Lanka 3.0 1.8 1.0 1.9 1.8 1.3 1.5
Somalia 1.7 1.7 4.2 4.3 5.4 4.0 1.5
Turkey 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7
Sudan .. .. 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.7
Liberia 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.6
Romania 2.2 1.7 1.0 1.1 2.8 0.4 0.1
Other countries 9.8 8.7 4.3 7.5 11.9 6.9 5.2
Total 21.2 21.6 20.3 35.4 52.6 29.3 22.9
Table B.1.4. SWEDEN, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality

Thousands
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Iraq 2.0 2.2 3.2 2.3 1.7 1.8 1.6

Somalia 2.4 1.4 2.7 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.4
Iran 4.3 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4
Russian Federation .. .. .. 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2
Turkey 1.0 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2
Afghanistan .. .. .. 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.1
Peru .. 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.1
Ethiopia 2.0 0.5 0.2 0.1 – – 0.1
Romania 2.7 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1
Cuba .. .. .. 0.2 1.2 0.3 –
Other countries 12.7 8.4 6.1 3.5 2.5 1.9 1.6
Total 29.4 27.4 84.0 37.6 18.6 9.0 5.8
244
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.4. SWITZERLAND, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality

Thousands
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Former Yugoslavia .. .. 0.8 1.4 5.6 14.2 .. 12.1 7.5 9.0 7.5
Sri Lanka 0.6 0.9 1.5 4.8 4.8 7.3 .. 1.7 1.5 1.0 2.0
Turkey 4.1 5.8 9.7 9.4 7.3 4.3 .. 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.3
Somalia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2.3 .. .. 0.7
Other countries 3.9 4.2 4.7 8.9 18.2 15.8 .. 7.5 6.1 5.7 6.5
Total 8.5 10.9 16.7 24.4 35.8 41.6 18.0 24.7 16.1 17.0 18.0
Table B.1.4. UNITED KINGDOM, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality

Thousands
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Nigeria – – 0.1 0.3 0.6 1.7 4.3 5.8 2.5

India 0.3 0.6 1.5 2.1 1.5 1.3 2.0 3.3 1.8
Somalia 0.3 1.9 2.3 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.8 3.5 1.8
Pakistan 0.3 0.3 1.5 3.2 1.7 1.1 1.8 2.9 1.6
Turkey 0.3 2.4 1.6 2.1 1.9 1.5 2.0 1.8 1.4
Former USSR – – 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.4
Sri Lanka 0.4 1.8 3.3 3.8 2.1 2.0 2.4 2.1 1.3
Kenya – – 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.6 1.1 1.4 1.2
Former Yugoslavia – – – 0.3 5.6 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.0
Colombia – 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 1.0
Iraq 0.2 0.2 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.0
Algeria – – – – 0.2 0.3 1.0 1.9 0.7
Ghana 0.2 0.3 1.3 2.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 1.9 0.7
Zaire 0.2 0.5 2.6 7.0 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.7
Sierra Leone – – – 0.1 0.3 1.1 1.8 0.9 0.3
Other countries 1.8 3.5 10.7 20.1 5.4 5.9 8.7 13.8 9.6
Total (excluding dependents) 4.0 11.6 26.2 44.8 24.6 22.4 32.8 44.0 27.9
Total (including dependents) 5.7 16.8 38.2 73.4 32.3 28.0 42.2 55.0 37.0
Table B.1.4. UNITED STATES, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality

Thousands
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
El Salvador 6.8 14.6 18.6 75.9 65.6

Guatemala 43.9 34.2 34.4 23.2 13.9
Mexico 0.6 6.4 9.3 9.7 9.7
India 3.2 5.7 4.5 3.4 4.7
Haiti 5.4 10.9 9.5 2.6 4.4
China 3.5 14.5 10.9 5.0 3.5
Former USSR 4.5 0.4 0.1 2.4 2.4
Nicaragua 2.1 3.2 4.7 1.9 2.0
Honduras 1.1 2.8 4.4 3.2 1.8
Philippines 4.0 4.0 2.4 1.0 1.7
Pakistan 3.3 4.5 3.3 2.5 1.4
Mauritania .. .. .. .. 1.3
Somalia 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 1.2
Ethiopia 1.0 1.2 0.9 0.9 1.1
Bangladesh 1.0 3.8 3.7 1.9 1.0
Cuba 2.4 2.7 3.2 1.3 0.8
Other countries 20.9 35.2 36.5 19.6 11.7
Total 104.0 144.2 146.5 154.5 128.2
Note: Data refer to fiscal years (October to September of the given year). For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
245
Table B.1.5. AUSTRALIA, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth,

census results of 1986, 1991 and 1996
Thousands
1986 1991 1996
United Kingdom 1 083.1 1 122.4 1 072.5

New Zealand 211.7 276.1 291.4
Italy 261.9 254.8 238.2
Former Yugoslavia 150.0 161.1 175.5
Vietnam 83.0 122.3 151.1
Greece 137.6 136.3 126.5
China1 37.5 78.8 111.0
Germany 114.8 114.9 110.3
Philippines 33.7 73.7 92.9
Netherlands 95.1 95.8 87.9
India 47.8 61.6 77.5
Malaysia 47.8 72.6 76.2
Lebanon 56.3 69.0 70.2
Hong Kong (China) 28.3 59.0 68.4
Poland 67.7 68.9 65.1
Other and not stated 791.0 986.0 1 093.5
Total 3 247.4 3 753.3 3 908.3
% of total population 20.8 22.3 21.1
1. Excluding Chinese Taipei.
Table B.1.5. CANADA, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth,

Thousands
1986 1991 1996
United Kingdom 793.1 717.7 655.5

Italy 366.8 351.6 332.1
United States 282.0 249.1 244.7
Hong Kong (China) 77.4 152.5 241.1
India 130.1 173.7 235.9
China 119.2 157.4 231.1
Poland 156.8 184.7 193.4
Philippines 82.2 123.3 184.6
Germany 189.6 180.5 181.7
Portugal 139.6 161.2 158.8
Vietnam 82.8 113.6 139.3
Netherlands 134.2 129.6 124.5
Jamaica 87.6 102.4 115.8
Other and not stated 1 178.9 1 456.8 1 810.6
Total 3 908.0 4 342.9 4 971.1
246
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.5. DENMARK, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth

Thousands
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Turkey 24.0 24.4 24.7 25.3 26.3
Germany 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9 22.3
Sweden 11.9 11.9 11.8 11.9 12.9
Norway 11.8 11.8 11.9 13.0 12.3
Lebanon 10.4 10.8 10.9 11.0 11.2
Iran 9.6 9.8 9.9 10.0 10.3
United Kingdom 9.0 9.4 9.8 9.9 10.2
Poland 9.3 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8
Pakistan 8.4 8.5 8.7 8.9 9.1
Somalia 2.0 3.2 4.4 5.7 7.9
Vietnam 6.9 7.2 7.4 7.5 7.6
Iraq 4.1 4.9 5.5 6.3 7.2
Sri Lanka 5.1 5.3 5.5 5.8 6.0
United States 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.4
Other countries 58.9 61.7 65.1 68.1 73.0
Total 207.4 215.0 222.1 244.5 259.2
% of total population 4.0 4.1 4.3 4.7 4.9
Table B.1.5. NETHERLANDS, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth

Thousands
1990 1993 1994 1995
Suriname 162.9 182.9 180.9 181.0

Indonesia 186.1 183.7 180.4 177.7
Turkey 149.5 166.0 166.0 167.5
Morocco 122.9 139.4 139.8 140.7
Germany 128.7 129.4 131.2 130.1
Belgium 42.2 44.0 43.2 43.3
United Kingdom 38.3 44.8 43.3 42.3
United States 14.7 17.0 17.1 17.4
Spain 17.3 17.5 17.5 17.4
Somalia 3.6 11.9 14.9 17.2
China 11.8 15.2 15.2 16.1
Italy 14.3 15.6 15.4 15.5
France 13.7 15.3 15.4 15.4
Iran 6.3 10.8 12.7 14.9
Other countries 289.7 352.1 357.3 366.9
Total 1 217.1 1 375.4 1 387.4 1 407.1
% of total population 8.1 9.0 9.0 9.1
247
Table B.1.5. NORWAY, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth

Thousands
1986 1993 1994 1995 1996
Sweden 17.9 20.0 23.2 24.3 26.0

Denmark 19.9 20.5 21.2 20.9 20.9
United States 15.5 14.7 15.4 15.2 15.0
United Kingdom 14.5 13.4 13.7 13.6 13.5
Pakistan 8.2 11.4 11.6 11.8 12.1
Bosnia Herzegovina1 .. 5.1 8.1 10.8 11.1
Vietnam 5.4 10.4 10.6 10.8 10.8
Germany 7.8 8.4 9.3 9.5 9.7
Iran 0.8 6.9 7.1 7.1 7.3
Sri Lanka 1.6 6.0 6.1 6.3 6.5
Turkey 3.2 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.3
Korea 4.1 5.1 5.4 5.5 5.6
Poland 3.0 5.0 5.2 5.3 5.4
Chile 1.6 5.3 5.2 5.2 5.2
Other countries 43.2 69.0 76.5 79.9 84.1
Total 148.9 216.2 233.4 240.3 246.9
% of total population 3.6 5.0 5.4 5.5 5.6
1. Included in former Yugoslavia in 1986.
Table B.1.5. SWEDEN, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth

Thousands
1993 1994 1995 1996
Finland 209.5 207.8 205.7 203.4

Iran 48.1 48.7 49.0 49.2
Bosnia Herzegovina1 .. .. .. 46.8
Norway 47.1 45.9 53.9 43.8
Denmark 41.1 40.9 40.5 39.8
Poland 38.5 39.0 39.4 39.5
Germany 36.6 36.5 36.5 36.5
Turkey 28.5 29.2 29.8 30.2
Iraq 20.2 23.4 26.4 29.0
Chile 27.7 27.2 27.0 26.9
Lebanon 21.2 21.6 .. 21.6
Hungary 15.0 14.8 14.7 14.7
United States 13.8 13.7 13.8 13.8
Ethiopia 13.2 13.4 13.4 13.4
Other countries 238.1 247.6 266.5 262.4
Total 869.1 922.1 936.0 943.8
% of total population 9.9 10.5 10.5 11.0
1. Included in former Yugoslavia until 1995.
248
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.5. UNITED STATES, stock of foreign-born population by place of birth,

Thousands
1970 1980 1990
Mexico 759.7 2 199.2 4 298.0

Philippines 184.8 501.4 912.7
Canada 812.4 842.9 744.8
Cuba 439.0 607.8 737.0
Germany 833.0 849.4 711.9
Italy 1 008.7 831.9 580.6
Korea 88.7 289.9 568.4
Vietnam .. 231.1 543.3
China 172.2 286.1 529.8
India 51.0 206.1 450.4
Former USSR 463.5 406.0 398.9
Poland 548.1 418.1 388.3
Dominican Republic .. 169.1 347.9
Jamaica .. 196.8 334.1
Other and not stated 3 550.0 5 375.0 7 581.1
Total 9 619.3 14 079.9 19 767.3
Table B.1.6. BELGIUM, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
Italy 252.9 241.2 210.7 208.2 92.8

Morocco 123.6 141.7 140.3 138.3 64.4
France 92.3 94.3 100.1 101.7 52.2
Netherlands 59.6 65.3 77.2 80.6 35.6
Turkey 74.2 84.9 81.7 78.5 38.7
Spain 51.2 52.2 48.3 47.9 23.0
Germany 24.3 27.8 31.8 32.7 15.9
United Kingdom 20.8 23.3 26.0 26.2 12.0
Portugal 9.5 16.5 23.9 24.9 12.2
Greece 19.3 20.9 19.9 19.5 9.1
Other countries 118.8 136.3 149.9 153.4 76.0
Total 846.5 904.5 909.8 911.9 431.9
of which: EU 538.1 551.2 554.5 559.6 262.0
249
Table B.1.6. CZECH REPUBLIC, stock of foreign residents by nationality

Thousands
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Slovak Republic1 .. .. 16.7 39.7 50.3

Ukraine .. 6.0 14.2 28.2 46.3
Poland 12.7 21.2 20.0 23.1 24.5
Vietnam 2.6 7.8 9.6 14.2 17.6
United States 1.5 2.6 3.5 4.4 10.1
Russia .. 1.2 3.6 4.4 6.7
Germany 1.5 2.9 4.2 5.6 5.9
China 1.4 2.6 2.9 4.2 4.8
Bulgaria 2.9 4.0 3.8 4.3 4.3
Austria .. 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.2
Other countries 18.6 27.7 23.2 28.4 25.9
Total 41.2 77.7 103.7 158.6 198.6
1. Up to 1 January 1993, Slovak permanent residents were registered in the National Population Register. Since the split of the Czech and Slovak Republics,
Slovak citizens residing in the Czech Republic are subject to the same rules as any other foreign resident and they are registered in the Central Register of
Foreigners.
Table B.1.6. DENMARK, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
Turkey 20.4 29.7 35.7 36.8 18.1

United Kingdom 9.7 10.2 12.1 12.5 4.5
Norway 9.8 10.2 11.1 11.5 6.6
Germany 8.2 8.4 10.6 11.4 5.2
Somalia .. 0.6 6.9 9.7 4.4
Sweden 8.1 8.2 9.1 9.4 5.4
Iraq 0.7 2.8 7.1 8.1 3.5
Iran 4.7 9.0 7.4 7.0 3.0
Pakistan 6.6 6.2 6.6 6.7 3.6
Other countries 40.8 65.3 88.1 92.3 47.5
Total 117.0 160.6 222.7 237.7 117.3
of which: EU1 37.3 38.2 46.5 48.9 ..
250
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.6. FINLAND, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
Former USSR1 1.6 4.2 15.9 17.0 10.3

Estonia1, 2 .. .. 8.4 9.0 5.3
Sweden 4.9 6.1 7.0 7.3 3.3
Somalia .. .. 4.0 4.6 2.0
Former Yugoslavia .. .. 2.4 2.6 1.1
Vietnam .. .. 2.1 2.1 1.1
Iraq .. .. 1.3 1.9 0.8
Germany 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.8 0.7
United States 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.8 0.8
United Kingdom 1.1 1.3 1.9 1.8 0.5
Other countries 6.6 12.1 22.1 23.8 9.8
Total 17.0 26.6 68.6 73.8 35.8
of which: EU .. .. 13.7 14.1 ..
1. Figures include Ingrians (ethnic Finns).
2. Included in former USSR until 1990.
Table B.1.6. FRANCE, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1975 1982 1990
1990
Portugal 758.9 767.3 649.7 304.2

Algeria 710.7 805.1 614.2 253.9
Morocco 260.0 441.3 572.7 250.7
Italy 462.9 340.3 252.8 108.0
Spain 497.5 327.2 216.0 103.7
Tunisia 139.7 190.8 206.3 84.8
Turkey 50.9 122.3 197.7 87.5
Cambodia 4.5 37.9 47.4 22.6
Poland 93.7 64.8 47.1 28.9
Other countries 393.3 554.8 740.2 345.3
Total 3 442.4 3 714.2 3 596.6 1 614.3
of which: EU 1 869.9 1 594.8 1 311.9 613.9
251
Table B.1.6. GERMANY, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women4
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
Turkey 1 401.9 1 694.6 2 014.3 2 049.1 654.1

Former Yugoslavia1 591.0 662.7 797.7 754.3 241.0
Italy 531.3 552.4 586.1 599.4 187.2
Greece 280.6 320.2 359.5 362.5 136.2
Bosnia Herzegovina2 .. .. 316.0 340.5 121.6
Poland 104.8 242.0 276.7 283.4 107.9
Croatia2 .. .. 185.1 201.9 83.5
Austria 172.5 183.2 184.5 184.9 78.0
Spain 152.8 135.5 132.3 132.5 55.9
Portugal 77.0 85.5 125.1 130.8 45.3
Other countries 1 067.0 1 466.4 2 196.6 2 274.7 822.3
Total 4 378.9 5 342.5 7 173.9 7 314.0 2 533.0
of which: EU3 1 539.0 1 632.6 1 811.7 1 839.9 694.6
1. From 1993 on, Serbia and Montenegro.
3. European Union 15 for all years (except Swedish citizens before 1991).
4. Women aged 16 years and over.
Table B.1.6. HUNGARY, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1994 1995 1996
1996
Romania 68.3 65.7 61.6 28.1

Ukraine 11.1 11.5 12.0 7.1
Germany 7.4 7.8 8.3 5.3
China 3.5 4.3 6.7 2.3
Poland 4.6 4.5 4.3 1.8
Russian Federation 3.7 3.7 4.1 2.5
Slovak Republic 3.4 3.5 3.7 2.6
Greece 1.4 1.6 1.8 0.7
Vietnam 1.3 1.3 1.6 0.7
Total 137.9 139.9 142.5 66.1
of which: EU 11.8 13.0 14.7 7.6
252
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.6. ITALY, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1985 1990 1995 19961
Morocco 2.6 78.0 94.2 119.5

Albania .. .. 34.7 64.0
Philippines 7.6 34.3 43.4 57.1
United States 51.1 58.1 60.6 54.7
Former Yugoslavia2 13.9 29.8 56.1 48.3
Tunisia 4.4 41.2 40.5 44.8
Germany 37.2 41.6 39.4 36.5
Senegal 0.3 25.1 24.0 31.9
Romania .. 7.5 24.5 31.7
China 1.6 18.7 21.5 29.1
Other countries 304.3 446.8 552.6 578.2
Total 423.0 781.1 991.4 1 095.6
of which: EU .. 148.6 164.0 152.1
1. Data include permits delivered following the 1995-1996 regularisation programme.
2. Excluding the data for Croatia, Republic of Macedonia and Bosnia Herzegovina.
Table B.1.6. JAPAN, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1985 1990 1995 1996
Korea 683.3 687.9 666.4 657.2

China1 74.9 150.3 223.0 234.3
Brazil 2.0 56.4 176.4 201.8
Philippines 12.3 49.1 74.3 84.5
United States 29.0 38.4 43.2 44.2
Peru 0.5 10.3 36.3 37.1
Thailand 2.6 6.7 16.0 18.2
United Kingdom 6.8 10.2 12.5 13.3
Vietnam 4.1 6.2 9.1 10.2
Indonesia 1.7 3.6 7.0 8.7
Iran .. .. 8.6 8.4
Total 850.6 1 075.3 1 362.4 1 415.1
1. Including Chinese Taipei.
Table B.1.6. KOREA, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1986 1990 1995 1996
1996
China – 0.1 19.2 26.7 11.3

of which: Chinese with Korean descents – – 7.4 9.3 3.4
United States 8.4 14.0 22.2 26.4 12.2
Chinese Taipei 24.8 23.6 23.3 23.3 10.7
Japan 3.0 5.3 9.4 12.4 7.6
Philippines 0.2 0.6 9.0 10.8 4.3
Vietnam – – 5.7 10.3 3.6
Indonesia – 0.1 3.4 9.6 1.9
Bangladesh – – 2.7 6.3 0.0
Canada 0.4 0.6 3.0 3.7 1.8
Sri Lanka – 0.1 1.7 2.9 1.0
Other countries 4.8 5.1 10.6 16.3 5.3
Total 41.6 49.5 110.0 148.7 59.7
of which: EU 3.1 3.0 3.6 4.4 1.6
253
Table B.1.6. LUXEMBOURG, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1985 1990 1995 1996
Portugal 29.0 39.1 51.5 53.1

Italy 20.7 19.5 19.8 19.8
France 12.6 13.0 15.0 15.7
Belgium 8.5 10.1 11.8 12.4
Germany 8.9 8.8 9.7 9.9
Spain 2.2 2.5 2.8 ..
Total 97.9 113.1 138.1 142.8
Table B.1.6. NETHERLANDS, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
Morocco 116.4 156.9 149.8 138.7 63.8

Turkey 156.4 203.5 154.3 127.0 60.4
Germany 41.0 44.3 53.9 53.5 26.3
United Kingdom1 38.5 39.0 41.1 39.3 15.9
Belgium 22.8 23.6 24.1 24.0 12.6
Italy 17.8 16.9 17.4 17.3 5.7
Spain 19.0 17.2 16.7 16.6 7.6
United States 10.5 11.4 12.8 12.6 6.2
Portugal 7.5 8.3 9.1 8.8 4.0
Other countries 110.9 157.8 212.7 209.3 100.6
Total 552.5 692.4 725.4 679.9 318.8
of which: EU2 166.4 173.9 191.1 188.3 86.4
1. Including Hong Kong (China).
Table B.1.6. NORWAY, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
Denmark 15.7 17.2 17.9 18.1 9.1

Sweden 10.0 11.7 15.4 17.3 8.1
United Kingdom 12.5 11.8 11.1 10.9 4.5
United States 10.0 9.5 9.0 8.7 4.6
Pakistan 8.4 11.4 9.7 8.6 4.5
Germany 3.7 4.3 4.8 5.1 2.7
Vietnam 5.3 6.9 5.9 4.6 2.3
Sri Lanka 1.0 5.2 5.1 4.4 2.3
Other countries 33.2 61.0 64.3 62.3 33.4
Total 101.5 143.3 160.8 157.5 79.9
of which: EU2 52.9 55.9 61.6 64.1 33.0
254
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.6. PORTUGAL, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1988 1990 1995 19961
1996
Cape Verde 27.1 28.8 38.7 39.6 15.6

Brazil 9.3 11.4 19.9 20.0 9.2
Angola 4.4 5.3 15.8 16.3 6.5
Guinea-Bissau 3.1 4.0 12.3 12.6 3.3
United Kingdom 7.1 8.5 11.5 12.0 5.5
Spain 7.1 7.5 8.9 9.3 4.5
United States 6.1 6.9 8.5 8.5 3.7
Germany 4.1 4.8 7.4 7.9 3.4
France 2.8 3.2 4.7 5.1 2.4
Mozambique 2.8 3.2 4.4 4.4 1.9
Other countries 20.7 24.1 36.2 21.2 15.9
Total 94.7 107.8 168.3 172.9 71.9
of which: EU 25.3 28.8 41.5 43.7
1. Data include 21 800 permits delivered following the 1996 regularisation programme.
Table B.1.6. SPAIN, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
1985 1990 1995 19961
Morocco 5.8 11.4 74.9 77.2

United Kingdom 39.1 55.5 65.3 68.4
Germany 28.5 31.2 41.9 45.9
Portugal 23.3 22.8 37.0 38.3
France 17.8 19.7 30.8 33.1
Italy 10.3 10.8 19.8 21.4
Argentina 9.7 12.1 18.4 18.2
Peru 1.7 2.6 15.1 18.0
Dominican Republic 1.2 1.5 14.5 17.8
United States 12.2 11.0 14.9 15.7
Other countries 92.2 100.2 167.3 185.0
Total 242.0 278.8 499.8 539.0
of which: EU 143.5 164.6 235.6 251.9
1. Data include 21 300 permits delivered following the 1996 regularisation programme.
255
Table B.1.6. SWEDEN, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
Finland 138.6 119.7 104.9 103.1 57.1

Norway 26.4 38.2 32.3 31.7 16.5
Iran 8.3 39.0 29.3 27.2 13.4
Denmark 25.1 28.6 26.5 26.0 11.1
Iraq 3.5 7.7 21.3 22.8 10.0
Turkey 21.5 25.5 20.3 18.9 9.7
Poland 15.5 15.7 16.0 15.9 10.8
Germany 12.0 13.0 13.4 13.9 6.6
Chile 9.2 19.9 13.0 12.4 5.9
Other countries 90.1 135.3 216.4 218.1 107.2
Total 388.6 483.7 531.8 526.6 266.1
Table B.1.6. SWITZERLAND, stock of foreign population by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
Italy 392.5 378.7 358.9 350.3 150.4

Portugal 30.9 85.6 134.8 137.1 65.7
Spain 108.4 116.1 101.4 97.7 44.2
Germany 81.0 83.4 90.9 92.7 42.4
Turkey 50.9 64.2 78.6 79.4 36.6
France 47.1 50.0 53.6 54.2 25.8
Austria 29.2 28.8 28.1 28.1 12.3
United Kingdom 15.4 16.7 18.4 18.3 7.9
Netherlands 10.8 11.9 13.6 13.9 6.7
Other countries 104.0 124.1 157.9 160.9 80.8
Total 939.7 1 100.3 1 330.6 1 337.6 615.6
of which: EU 702.7 760.2 824.9 817.2 367.6
Table B.1.6. UNITED KINGDOM, stock of foreign population by country or region of nationality
Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1997
1997
Ireland 569 478 443 446 242

India 138 156 114 110 64
United States 86 102 110 104 57
Italy 83 75 80 77 33
Pakistan 49 56 81 68 40
Bangladesh 41 38 53 63 32
Australia 28 44 47 62 37
Germany 36 41 51 59 37
Turkey .. 12 29 56 25
France 27 38 60 54 35
Other countries 674 683 992 967 504
Total 1 731 1 723 2 060 2 066 1 106
of which: EU 796 731 902 810 442
256
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.6. UNITED STATES, stock of foreign

population by country of birth
Thousands
1990
Mexico 3 328.3
Philippines 420.5
El Salvador 393.9
Cuba 361.0
Canada 341.9
Korea 337.5
United Kingdom 322.3
Vietnam 311.5
China 296.4
India 293.2
Other countries 5 363.8
Total 11 770.3
Note: For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end
of the Annex.
Table B.1.7. AUSTRALIA, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United Kingdom 23 732 26 574 42 883 39 495 36 488 41 963 39 876 36 401 36 134 35 431 27 294
China 2 197 2 371 2 911 3 342 1 743 5 018 4 872 5 242 5 971 4 250 16 173
New Zealand 3 406 3 973 6 995 7 538 6 562 8 502 9 772 7 786 9 033 11 724 9 982
Vietnam 7 445 6 668 9 815 8 256 6 723 9 697 12 406 10 713 7 772 7 741 5 083
Philippines 1 913 2 723 5 024 9 504 9 275 6 763 6 633 6 600 5 408 4 021 3 815
Former Yugoslavia 3 133 2 871 3 999 4 726 3 679 3 487 2 972 3 043 3 534 5 188 3 207
India 1 058 1 231 1 547 1 933 1 960 2 130 2 645 2 836 3 107 2 638 2 563
Fiji .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2 018 2 204 1 815 1 721
United States .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 634 1 912 2 272 1 701
Sri Lanka 1 547 1 347 2 113 2 516 2 576 2 003 2 104 1 691 1 730 1 644 1 620
South Africa 1 481 2 030 3 211 3 029 2 569 2 006 1 781 1 595 1 324 1 262 1 578
Ireland 685 1 025 1 650 1 921 2 520 2 459 1 980 1 805 1 882 1 688 1 278
Cambodia 1 356 1 277 1 798 1 686 4 584 1 259 577 .. .. .. 1 149
Italy .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 988 1 079 1 469 1 101
Lebanon 2 388 2 476 3 115 4 090 3 405 2 585 2 976 2 122 1 392 1 105 1 076
Other countries 26 236 26 652 34 079 39 821 36 426 37 286 33 491 27 712 32 275 29 389 28 925
Total 76 577 81 218 119 140 127 857 118 510 125 158 122 085 112 186 114 757 111 637 108 266
Table B.1.7. AUSTRIA, acquisition of nationality by country or region of former nationality
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Turkey 509 723 1 106 1 809 1 994 2 688 3 379 3 209 7 499
Former Yugoslavia 1 731 2 323 2 641 3 221 4 337 5 791 5 623 4 538 3 133
Central and Eastern Europe 1 985 1 664 2 118 2 413 1 839 1 858 2 672 2 588 2 083
Germany 1 125 886 517 455 410 406 328 202 140
Other countries 2 883 2 874 2 817 3 496 3 340 3 659 4 268 4 772 3 388
Total 8 233 8 470 9 199 11 394 11 920 14 402 16 270 15 309 16 243
Note: Figures include naturalisations granted to persons living abroad. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
257
Table B.1.7. BELGIUM, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Morocco 2 091 6 862 5 500 8 638 9 146 7 912

Turkey 879 3 886 3 305 6 273 6 572 6 609
Italy 762 22 362 1 431 2 326 2 096 1 940
Algeria 191 932 543 714 780 556
France 514 2 179 532 618 608 539
Zaire 185 454 410 474 452 442
Tunisia 96 486 416 573 537 406
Spain 110 1 795 196 281 246 261
Netherlands 217 1 179 222 335 336 259
Greece 104 940 170 312 294 253
Poland 151 237 174 239 176 175
China 64 113 101 181 170 166
India 179 165 119 159 148 158
Lebanon 58 103 81 158 137 150
Former Yugoslavia 211 386 353 417 416 ..
Other countries 2 645 4 289 2 823 4 089 4 015 4 755
Total 8 457 46 368 16 376 25 787 26 129 24 581
Note: Data cover all means of acquiring the nationality. From 1992 on, following a change in nationality law a significant number of foreigners where granted
Belgian nationality. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.7. CANADA, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Hong Kong (China) 2 888 3 502 5 556 9 845 13 347 11 717 17 109 14 978
Poland 2 808 3 674 5 853 6 270 7 155 11 528 16 384 14 011
Philippines 2 525 3 235 3 932 5 988 6 776 9 388 11 508 12 953
China 2 736 3 995 4 574 4 982 4 706 7 777 14 228 12 878
India 2 456 3 284 3 893 4 297 4 946 6 306 8 953 11 677
United Kingdom 7 710 11 015 8 908 11 257 9 131 10 012 12 620 11 173
Sri Lanka 570 1 034 2 645 2 609 2 164 2 848 5 768 10 154
Lebanon 880 1 750 2 518 3 925 2 992 6 772 15 875 9 802
Iran 1 185 1 621 2 462 2 214 2 329 3 229 5 124 6 457
Vietnam 3 469 5 884 8 527 3 744 2 623 3 833 5 223 6 426
El Salvador 1 081 2 111 2 883 2 677 2 014 3 140 5 314 5 943
Jamaica 1 763 2 574 3 509 3 604 3 122 3 341 4 159 5 258
United States 1 223 1 999 1 729 3 521 3 266 4 334 5 244 4 812
Portugal 2 189 2 871 3 084 3 122 3 093 3 937 4 797 4 464
Somalia .. .. .. .. 271 567 2 420 3 925
Stateless and others 25 327 38 929 44 194 50 575 48 266 61 841 82 594 92 809
Total 58 810 87 478 104 267 118 630 116 201 150 570 217 320 227 720
258
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.7. DENMARK, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Turkey 437 195 107 376 502 560 915 797 917
Iran 23 21 73 989 1 083 710 491 531 829
Former Yugoslavia 117 133 130 128 78 138 806 413 629
Iraq 14 9 20 181 236 241 166 177 339
Poland 166 120 152 317 278 219 151 175 237
Pakistan 394 611 433 551 265 192 203 145 220
Morocco 181 109 114 202 167 168 136 122 201
Vietnam 650 583 501 568 209 169 125 137 200
Norway 175 158 188 165 174 164 163 143 151
Sweden 189 143 131 163 177 188 154 149 135
Germany 240 175 167 231 158 134 140 118 126
United Kingdom 118 121 106 133 109 85 94 82 98
Other countries 1 040 880 906 1 480 1 668 2 069 2 192 2 271 3 201
Total 3 744 3 258 3 028 5 484 5 104 5 037 5 736 5 260 7 283
Table B.1.7. FINLAND, acquisition of nationality by country or region of former nationality
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Europe 817 686 1 000 539 736 506 450 342 335 365
of which:
Former USSR .. .. .. 85 142 232 158 48 149 198
Nordic countries 350 331 404 240 306 162 114 94 104 111
Asia 150 152 201 130 200 140 214 152 144 328
Africa 68 63 80 70 101 104 67 56 81 120
North America 58 44 107 46 57 7 5 11 1 5
South America 22 43 37 41 45 48 39 32 27 30
Oceania 14 9 14 4 10 4 1 – 2 1
Stateless and unknown 44 66 65 69 87 66 63 58 78 132
Total 1 173 1 063 1 504 899 1 236 875 839 651 668 981
Table B.1.7. FRANCE, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 19941 19951 19961
Morocco 4 435 5 393 7 741 10 289 12 292 13 131 22 676 12 249 15 452
Algeria 3 256 4 070 5 355 6 631 7 410 7 909 10 868 9 499 13 218
Tunisia 2 347 2 538 3 076 4 375 4 991 5 370 9 248 4 182 5 109
Portugal 7 984 7 027 6 876 7 126 5 575 5 233 6 908 3 775 4 644
Turkey 690 921 914 1 124 1 296 1 515 3 197 2 143 3 447
Cambodia 1 511 1 724 1 827 1 729 1 701 1 847 3 319 2 445 2 950
Vietnam 2 012 2 478 2 326 2 139 1 888 1 775 2 660 1 950 2 773
Lebanon .. .. 1 287 1 390 1 508 1 568 2 445 1 689 2 390
Former Yugoslavia 1 015 1 249 1 405 1 367 1 400 1 652 2 278 1 499 1 722
Laos 1 294 1 305 1 468 1 343 1 305 1 187 1 991 1 496 1 647
Italy 3 081 2 576 1 869 1 475 1 117 936 1 370 1 022 1 255
Haiti .. .. 626 714 678 744 1 351 962 1 202
Poland 1 298 1 587 1 446 1 230 873 755 1 047 892 1 164
Cameroon .. .. 618 625 707 729 1 271 809 973
Spain 4 460 3 320 2 868 2 317 1 528 1 385 1 514 780 924
Other countries 12 968 15 142 14 664 15 781 14 977 14 271 20 939 16 492 21 108
Total2 46 351 49 330 54 366 59 655 59 246 60 007 93 082 61 884 79 978
Total (estimates)3 74 000 82 000 88 500 95 500 95 300 95 500 126 337 92 410 109 823
1. From 1994 onwards, data broken down by nationality include children acquiring French nationality as a consequence of the parent’s naturalisation.
2. Data exclude people automatically acquiring French nationality upon reaching legal majority (this procedure was in effect until 1993) as well as people
born in France to foreign parents who declared their intention to become French in accordance with the legislation of 22 July 1993.
3. Data include estimates of people acquiring French nationality upon reaching legal majority until 1993 as well as the number of people born in France to
foreign parents who declared their intention to become French in accordance with the legislation of 22 July 1993.
259
Table B.1.7. GERMANY, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Kazakhstan1 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 101 000 94 961

Russian Federation1 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 60 000 60 662
Turkey 1 492 1 184 1 243 1 713 2 034 3 529 7 377 12 915 19 590 31 578 46 294
Former USSR 945 1 111 4 810 13 557 33 339 55 620 84 660 105 801 43 086 35 477 21 457
Romania 12 386 11 557 10 881 11 868 14 410 29 011 37 574 28 346 17 968 12 028 9 777
Poland 7 251 9 439 13 958 24 882 32 340 27 646 20 248 15 435 11 943 10 174 7 872
Former Yugoslavia 2 721 2 364 2 119 2 076 2 082 2 832 2 326 5 241 4 374 3 623 2 967
Italy 597 551 618 548 437 679 1 218 1 154 1 417 1 281 1 297
Austria 794 755 756 659 537 793 959 810 772 493 605
Other countries 10 460 10 849 6 398 13 223 16 198 21 520 25 542 29 741 160 020 57 952 56 938
Total naturalisations 36 646 37 810 40 783 68 526 101 377 141 630 179 904 199 443 259 170 313 606 302 830
of which: Naturalisa-
tions by discretion-
ary decision 14 030 14 029 16 660 17 742 20 237 27 295 37 042 44 950 26 295 31 888 37 604
Note: Data include naturalisations on the basis of a claim, which concern essentially ethnic Germans. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of
the Annex.
1. Including in former USSR before 1994.
Table B.1.7. HUNGARY, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Romania 2 568 5 274 20 480 10 589 6 943 7 055 8 549 5 229

Former Yugoslavia 222 12 153 272 852 1 132 1 999 1 610
Former USSR 228 271 788 567 1 585 1 182 1 227 788
Other countries 152 336 459 378 525 651 491 1 030
Total 3 170 5 893 21 880 11 805 9 905 10 021 12 266 8 658
Table B.1.7. ITALY, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Romania 112 194 446 521 577 639

Switzerland 335 385 472 423 638 514
Dominican Republic 89 133 245 375 390 468
Morocco 126 141 235 295 333 323
Poland 228 211 262 211 313 302
Former USSR 112 179 325 260 435 2821
Argentina 278 432 570 392 286 260
Egypt 222 152 246 169 223 228
Brazil 128 123 175 225 191 215
Albania – – – – – 198
Iran 113 64 95 73 131 168
Philippines 164 169 222 139 177 162
Vietnam 80 154 115 88 243 162
Other countries 2 555 2 071 3 077 3 442 3 505 3 040
Total 4 542 4 408 6 485 6 613 7 442 6 961
1. Russian Federation.
260
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.7. JAPAN, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Korea 4 595 4 759 5 216 5 665 7 244 7 697 8 244 10 327 9 898
China 990 1 066 1 349 1 818 1 794 2 244 2 478 3 184 3 976
Other countries 182 264 229 305 325 511 424 593 621
Total 5 767 6 089 6 794 7 788 9 363 10 452 11 146 14 104 14 495
Table B.1.7. LUXEMBOURG, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Italy 162 113 191 123 147 151 169 209 193
France 126 98 106 75 75 89 71 78 85
Belgium 105 78 79 76 86 63 75 67 65
Germany 104 84 97 54 68 78 64 70 55
Netherlands 29 31 30 11 13 18 16 15 20
Other countries 236 200 245 243 220 279 344 363 361
Total 762 604 748 582 609 678 739 802 779
Note: Minor children acquiring nationality as a consequence of the naturalisation of their parents are excluded. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the
end of the Annex.
Table B.1.7. NETHERLANDS, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Turkey 1 480 1 400 820 3 280 1 950 6 110 11 520 18 000 23 870 33 060 30 700
Morocco 1 480 1 440 1 190 6 830 3 030 7 300 7 990 7 750 8 110 13 480 15 600
Suriname 1 270 1 340 830 3 570 1 640 4 010 5 120 4 990 5 390 3 990 4 450
Former Yugoslavia 290 260 110 520 240 520 1 060 2 090 1 880 1 700 2 240
United Kingdom 1 850 2 210 860 1 880 620 900 670 490 460 820 1 170
Egypt .. .. .. .. 20 30 30 350 540 810 1 080
Germany1 1 860 2 010 270 670 190 380 380 330 310 500 780
Portugal 200 190 70 220 120 140 110 130 140 190 300
Belgium 530 600 110 250 100 140 160 120 110 170 290
Italy 910 1 270 90 150 50 90 90 100 140 200 280
Greece 170 130 40 90 40 60 80 90 80 150 250
Spain 450 600 50 100 40 60 60 50 90 120 160
France 310 330 30 100 30 50 70 60 70 110 160
Stateless 680 380 400 510 270 360 210 180 170 610 820
Other countries 7 280 7 100 4 240 10 560 4 450 8 960 8 690 8 340 8 090 15 530 24 420
Total 18 760 19 260 9 110 28 730 12 790 29 110 36 240 43 070 49 450 71 440 82 700
1. Western Germany until 1989, Germany as a whole from 1990 onwards.
261
Table B.1.7. NORWAY, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Pakistan 428 582 899 778 1 054 664 616 997 1 530
Vietnam 457 940 1 039 1 082 931 746 710 727 1 446
Iran 10 23 15 39 72 317 1 287 1 419 1 154
Turkey 281 280 304 474 238 393 752 793 836
Chile 105 127 106 82 81 117 310 923 531
Morocco 111 124 128 280 299 275 257 248 318
Philippines 203 219 294 235 298 213 243 343 315
India 141 131 149 166 220 242 251 346 313
Poland 105 332 264 234 215 265 275 374 267
United Kingdom 65 100 96 93 107 106 136 110 162
Colombia 131 211 199 270 221 217 204 143 144
Korea 233 149 138 95 107 105 135 121 122
Sweden 75 117 72 103 108 153 150 130 112
Denmark 144 200 156 108 108 119 187 102 91
Other countries 766 927 787 876 872 1 332 2 606 4 248 4 342
Total 3 364 4 622 4 757 5 055 5 132 5 538 8 778 11 778 12 237
Table B.1.7. SPAIN, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Argentina 586 806 732 1 096 639 944 1 532 1 690 1 314 1 387
Peru 143 209 154 242 136 212 246 468 658 1 150
Dominican Republic .. .. .. 156 105 146 298 393 499 833
Morocco 4 939 3 091 2 122 1 675 427 597 986 897 785 687
Colombia .. .. .. 260 174 247 433 383 364 457
Philippines 190 236 192 318 188 283 380 340 281 455
Portugal 519 584 404 496 234 447 424 503 372 452
Chile 325 487 342 440 249 344 725 335 317 425
Uruguay .. .. .. 266 147 187 268 246 217 260
Cuba 271 285 144 163 119 146 .. 172 169 250
Guinea-Bissau .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 118 118 183
Venezuela 149 220 136 237 139 183 373 211 130 133
India .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 129 111 128
China .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 106 74 109
Iran .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 107 87 78
Other countries 1 963 2 219 1 692 1 684 1 195 1 544 2 747 1 704 1 260 1 446
Total 9 085 8 137 5 918 7 033 3 752 5 280 8 412 7 802 6 756 8 433
Note: Persons recovering their former (Spanish) nationality are not included. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.7. SWEDEN, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

969 10 940 6 352 3 550 2 416
Turkey 1 173 832 832 1 358 1
569 4 201 2 742 2 836 2 030
Finland 4 294 4 611 3 532 4 208 3
805 3 070 2 974 2 125 2 009
Chile 633 667 663 1 323 1
305 1 762 1 446 946 707
Poland 2 260 1 397 1 205 1 309 1
294 1 164 998 895 636
Norway 512 671 480 539 445 291 450 363 276
Denmark 542 574 397 407 418 283 345 318 272
Germany 209 188 130 169 141 155 137 128 154
Greece 478 669 457 783 377 464 244 140 113
United Kingdom 161 135 102 143 138 101 107 96 90
Spain 75 73 62 74 49 34 38 33 23
Other countries 6 432 6 417 7 758 14 518 15 816 20 194 19 251 20 563 16 826
Total 17 966 17 552 16 770 27 663 29 326 42 659 35 084 31 993 25 552
262
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.1.7. SWITZERLAND, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Italy 2 558 2 479 1 995 1 802 1 930 2 778 3 258 4 376 5 167
Former Yugoslavia 556 528 552 607 936 1 454 1 821 2 491 2 783
Turkey 189 238 211 333 614 820 966 1 205 1 432
France 979 1 025 684 677 809 862 935 871 1 045
Germany 1 799 1 404 1 144 971 1 099 890 657 706 675
Former CSFR 462 344 352 362 338 415 370 385 465
Spain 613 560 401 408 353 319 305 432 453
United Kingdom 247 183 141 135 307 347 263 278 299
Hungary 270 277 202 186 223 207 243 297 278
Portugal 135 160 170 146 101 89 119 175 262
Austria 676 579 431 478 465 413 256 261 248
Netherlands 226 149 153 111 90 76 57 52 55
Other countries 2 646 2 416 2 222 2 541 3 943 4 258 4 507 5 266 6 213
Total 11 356 10 342 8 658 8 757 11 208 12 928 13 757 16 795 19 375
Table B.1.7. UNITED KINGDOM, acquisition of nationality by country or region of former nationality
1993 1994 1995 1996
Africa 7 500 7 900 7 900 9 100

Europe 5 500 5 200 4 700 4 600
EEA (excluding Ireland) 2 100 2 000 1 600 1 600
Ireland 100 100 200 100
Other European countries 3 300 3 100 2 900 2 900
Middle East and Turkey 5 000 5 000 4 200 4 400
America 4 800 4 500 4 100 4 300
North America 2 100 2 000 1 800 1 900
West Indies 1 900 1 800 1 600 ..
Other American countries 800 700 700 2 400
British Dependent Territories citizens 1 900 2 200 2 000 2 100
Oceania 1 500 5 000 1 700 1 500
Other countries 19 600 14 200 15 900 17 100
Total 45 800 44 000 40 500 43 100
Acquisitions of nationality in Hong Kong (China) 41 800 5 900 25 700 5 500
Table B.1.7. UNITED STATES, acquisition of nationality by country or region of former nationality
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Mexico 22 085 18 520 17 564 22 066 12 880 23 630 39 310 67 238 217 418
Cuba 11 228 9 514 10 291 9 554 7 763 15 109 15 896 16 994 62 168
Vietnam 21 636 19 357 22 027 29 603 18 357 22 427 26 833 28 074 47 625
Philippines 24 580 24 802 25 936 33 714 28 579 33 864 37 304 33 634 45 210
Former USSR 5 304 3 020 2 847 2 822 1 648 2 763 6 708 16 172 36 265
El Salvador 2 291 2 001 2 410 3 653 2 056 3 057 4 998 11 505 33 240
China 10 509 11 664 13 563 16 783 13 488 16 851 20 828 20 009 30 656
India 9 983 9 833 11 499 12 961 13 413 16 506 20 454 17 880 28 932
Dominican Republic 5 842 6 454 5 984 6 368 8 464 12 274 11 399 9 892 27 293
Colombia 5 021 4 736 5 540 5 513 6 439 9 976 12 067 12 333 26 115
Korea 13 012 11 301 10 500 12 266 8 297 9 611 11 389 14 170 24 693
Haiti 2 350 3 692 5 009 4 436 3 993 5 202 7 982 7 855 24 556
Jamaica 6 441 6 455 6 762 6 838 6 765 7 976 12 173 10 949 24 270
Africa 7 122 7 209 8 770 10 230 9 628 11 293 15 327 17 020 21 842
United Kingdom 7 042 7 865 8 286 9 935 7 800 10 158 15 003 14 143 20 052
Other countries 87 617 87 354 113 113 121 316 90 682 113 984 149 727 147 985 374 354
Total 242 063 233 777 270 101 308 058 240 252 314 681 407 398 445 853 1 044 689
263
Table B.2.1. AUSTRALIA, foreign-born labour force by place of birth, selected years
Thousands
of which: Women
1986 1991 1996
1996
Europe 1 319.2 1 342.4 1 220.8 473.4

United Kingdom and Ireland 670.2 703.6 660.1 266.8
Italy 153.0 139.5 95.5 30.8
Germany 69.9 70.4 59.8 24.2
Greece 86.4 81.2 59.7 21.6
Netherlands 62.9 55.8 45.0 17.2
Others 170.2 182.2 190.5 74.3
Asia 267.5 342.7 428.2 187.7
Vietnam .. 60.6 82.9 29.5
Philippines .. 44.2 55.9 33.5
China1 .. 59.3 55.5 22.1
Malaysia .. 43.4 50.8 24.6
India .. 40.0 48.8 20.7
Others 267.5 95.2 134.3 57.3
New Zealand 138.1 187.8 208.6 86.7
America 55.4 76.1 96.7 42.5
North Africa and the Middle East2 93.6 94.4 103.7 31.8
Lebanon 23.6 37.0 35.3 8.5
Others 70.0 57.4 68.4 23.3
Other and not stated 26.7 138.9 180.8 77.9
Total 1 900.5 2 182.3 2 238.8 900.0
% of total labour force 25.4 25.7 24.6 23.1
1. Excluding Chinese Taipei.
2. Africa (excluding North Africa) in 1986.
Table B.2.1. CANADA, foreign-born labour force

by place of birth, 1991 census results
Thousands
1991
United Kingdom 422

Italy 214
United States 144
India 127
Germany 115
Portugal 111
Hong Kong (China) 96
China 90
Poland 89
Netherlands 82
Other countries 1 191
Total 2 681
% of total labour force 18.5
264
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.2.1. UNITED STATES, foreign-born labour

force by place of birth, census results of 1990
Thousands
Mexico 2 630.9
Philippines 629.0
Cuba 459.2
Germany 378.3
Canada 371.8
United Kingdom 349.4
Korea 328.7
China 313.6
El Salvador 308.8
India 308.6
Other countries 5 486.3
Total 11 564.6
% of total labour force 9.4
Table B.2.2. AUSTRIA, stock of foreign labour by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1988 19901 1995 1997
1997

Turkey 34.2 50.6 55.7 50.1 12.4
Croatia3 .. .. 16.0 21.3 7.4
Poland .. .. 10.8 9.5 2.6
Hungary .. .. 9.6 8.9 1.9
Romania .. .. 9.3 8.3 2.6
Slovenia .. .. 5.8 6.1 1.5
Czech Republic .. .. 3.6 4.0 1.2
Slovak Republic .. .. 2.9 4.0 1.2
Other countries 33.6 56.5 25.2 19.7 5.7
Total 150.9 217.6 269.7 247.3 82.8
Total including foreign unemployed4 160.9 236.0 325.2 .. ..
1. Data not corrected (data for Table A.2.3. have been corrected. See the note attached to the series).
4. From 1994 on, data on employed foreigners are stock of workers registered with Social Security offices (including EEA nationals).
Table B.2.2. DENMARK, stock of foreign labour by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995
1995
Turkey 10.1 12.8 13.5 5.3

Norway 5.7 5.8 6.0 3.4
Germany 4.8 5.1 5.9 2.4
Sweden 4.7 4.6 5.0 2.8
Pakistan 2.5 2.2 2.4 0.9
Iceland 1.4 1.3 2.3 1.1
Finland 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.7
Total 56.5 68.8 83.8 35.2
of which: EU 14.8 16.7 26.5 10.5
265
Table B.2.2. FRANCE, stock of foreign labour by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1997
1997
Portugal 456.8 428.5 375.0 342.5 150.2

Algeria 279.0 248.5 245.6 246.1 81.8
Morocco 186.4 168.1 197.5 205.0 54.8
Spain 117.8 108.5 82.1 90.7 30.3
Tunisia 75.1 74.7 81.0 85.0 22.7
Turkey 41.6 53.9 66.4 65.8 15.5
Italy 125.9 96.9 76.6 65.5 17.8
Poland 14.2 15.1 7.1 13.8 6.4
Other countries 308.3 325.6 409.6 432.2 171.6
Total 1 649.2 1 549.5 1 573.3 1 569.8 560.2
of which: EU1 771.6 716.2 629.1 594.8 236.0
Note: Data refer to the month of March. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.2.2. GERMANY, stock of foreign labour by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
Turkey 589.0 680.2 752.0 759.1 234.0

Italy 232.8 199.8 245.1 246.4 70.1
Greece 115.4 117.8 139.4 137.0 53.2
Portugal 38.3 45.5 58.1 59.0 21.2
Spain 73.7 66.3 56.4 54.3 20.3
Other countries 449.3 576.5 849.4 849.0 300.1
Total 1 823.4 2 025.1 2 569.2 2 559.3 872.7
Note: Data are for 30 September of each year. Data cover only western Germany for all years. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of
the Annex.
Table B.2.2. HUNGARY, stock of foreign labour

by nationality
Thousands
1990 1995 1996
Romania 26.2 9.8 8.5

China .. 2.6 2.2
Poland .. 1.4 1.0
Former USSR 3.0 1.4 1.0
Former Yugoslavia .. 0.9 0.5
Slovak Republic .. 0.7 0.4
Vietnam .. 0.2 0.1
Other countries 2.5 4.0 5.0
Total 31.7 21.0 18.8
Note: For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the
Annex.
266
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.2.2. ITALY, stock of foreign labour

by nationality
Thousands
of which: Women
1991 1995
1995
Morocco 46.4 47.9 5.2

Tunisia 21.3 19.5 1.4
Albania 14.8 18.2 2.5
Senegal 12.3 13.6 0.3
Sri Lanka 7.4 11.5 3.7
China 9.0 10.0 3.2
Egypt 10.1 9.7 0.4
Ghana 6.0 7.6 2.0
Total 285.3 332.2 111.2
Note: For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of
the Annex.
Table B.2.2. JAPAN, stock of foreign labour

by nationality
Thousands
1992 1995 1996
China1 17.1 23.3 26.6

United States 18.3 17.5 17.7
Korea 5.5 6.4 6.7
Canada 3.3 4.1 4.5
Australia 2.0 2.4 2.6
India 1.3 1.7 2.1
France 1.3 1.4 1.5
Germany 1.3 1.3 1.4
Total 85.5 88.0 98.3
the Annex.
1. Including Chinese Taipei.
Table B.2.2. LUXEMBOURG, stock of foreign labour

by nationality
Thousands
1985 1990 1995 1996
France 11.2 21.2 33.2 36.0

Portugal 15.7 22.8 27.3 27.8
Belgium 8.9 14.6 19.6 20.9
Germany 5.5 9.1 12.7 13.6
Italy 8.5 8.5 7.7 7.6
Spain 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0
Total 55.0 84.7 111.8 117.8
of which: EU 52.3 79.8 105.4 111.2
Total women 18.4 29.4 39.9 42.2
Note: Data are for 1 October of each year. For more details on sources,
refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
267
Table B.2.2. NETHERLANDS, stock of foreign labour

by nationality
Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
Turkey 35 41 39 33 6
Morocco 25 27 32 32 7
Belgium 21 24 22 23 9
United Kingdom 15 18 22 20 7
Germany 16 18 15 17 6
Spain 8 8 7 8 2
Total 166 197 221 218 73
of which: EU 65 88 98 99 37
the Annex.
Table B.2.2. NORWAY, stock of foreign labour

by nationality
Thousands
1988 1990 1995 1996
Denmark 9.2 8.6 9.0 9.1

Sweden 6.2 5.5 7.8 8.7
Germany 1.9 1.9 2.2 2.4
Finland 1.8 1.5 1.9 2.0
Pakistan 2.6 2.2 1.9 1.8
Sri Lanka 1.5 1.9 2.0 1.7
Netherlands 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.5
Chile 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.3
Total 49.5 46.3 52.6 54.8
Note: Data are for the 2nd quarter (except for 1995 and 1996: 4th quarter).
For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of
the Annex.
268
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.2.2. PORTUGAL, stock of foreign labour

by nationality
Thousands
1991 19951 19962
Cape Verde 16.9 21.8 2.2

Brazil 5.4 9.6 9.7
Angola 1.7 7.9 8.2
Guinea-Bissau 2.3 7.0 7.2
Spain 3.9 4.7 4.9
Germany 3.0 4.1 4.4
United States 2.7 3.0 3.1
France 2.1 2.8 3.0
Mozambique 1.6 1.8 1.9
Venezuela 1.0 0.7 0.7
Total 54.9 84.3 86.8
the Annex.
1. Figures include workers benefiting from the 1992-1993 regularisation
procedure.
2. Figures include workers benefiting from the 1996 regularisation
procedure.
Table B.2.2. SPAIN, stock of foreign labour by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1988 1990 1995 19961
19961
Morocco 5.0 8.8 51.6 59.2 9.7

Peru 0.6 0.9 11.4 14.2 9.1
Dominican Republic 0.5 0.7 9.7 12.5 10.6
Philippines 3.3 4.1 7.1 8.1 5.3
China 1.3 1.7 6.2 8.0 2.5
Argentina 3.5 6.3 7.5 7.7 2.7
Colombia 0.8 1.2 3.1 3.6 2.4
Senegal .. .. 3.4 3.4 0.2
Poland .. .. 2.6 3.2 1.0
Algeria .. 0.2 2.7 3.1 0.2
Cuba .. .. 1.4 2.0 0.7
Other countries 43.4 61.5 32.2 36.7 12.4
Total 58.2 85.4 139.0 161.9 56.8
of which: EU 31.4 34.8 .. .. ..
Note: Data are counts of valid work permits. From 1992 onwards, workers from the EU are not included. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the
end of the Annex.
1. Provisional data (including work permits delivered following the 1996 regularisation programme).
269
Table B.2.2. SWEDEN, stock of foreign labour by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
Finland 85 72 56 57 33
Former Yugoslavia 22 21 15 23 9
Norway 14 20 19 19 9
Denmark 15 17 13 13 5
Iran .. .. 15 10 4
Poland .. 8 9 7 5
Turkey .. 11 7 7 2
Total 216 246 220 218 100
Table B.2.2. SWITZERLAND, stock of foreign labour by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1996
1996
A. Resident workers1
Italy 228.7 234.3 214.3 202.5 66.6
Portugal 20.9 55.2 80.5 79.3 33.3
Spain 68.7 75.1 63.5 59.8 23.2
Germany 46.8 53.6 56.3 56.7 20.7
Turkey 26.0 33.2 35.6 34.3 12.1
France 27.2 31.5 32.3 31.3 12.3
Austria 19.7 20.9 19.4 18.8 6.6
United Kingdom 7.6 9.2 9.9 9.8 2.9
Netherlands 5.6 7.0 8.1 8.1 3.2
Other countries 498.4 604.4 654.5 636.8 229.1
Total 549.3 669.8 728.7 709.1 257.9
of which: EU .. 476.1 499.2 479.8 174.5
B. Seasonal workers2
Portugal 26.2 40.5 23.8 20.2 5.0
Italy 17.8 13.5 6.1 4.9 0.4
Spain 21.9 14.6 4.1 3.2 0.4
Germany 1.9 2.4 2.3 2.0 1.0
France 2.0 2.5 2.0 1.8 0.7
Austria 1.9 2.5 1.6 1.3 0.8
Turkey 0.2 – – – –
Total 102.8 121.7 53.7 45.3 10.9
1. Data as of 31 December of each year and are counts of the number of foreigners with an annual residence permit or a settlement permit (permanent
permit), who engage in gainful activity. Cross-border workers and seasonal workers are excluded.
2. Data as of 31 August of each year, when seasonal work is at its peak.
270
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Table B.2.2. UNITED KINGDOM, stock of foreign labour by nationality

Thousands
of which: Women
1985 1990 1995 1997
1997
Ireland 269 268 216 216 106

India 66 84 60 56 25
Australia and New Zealand 23 39 53 56 29
United States 37 50 49 53 24
Italy 56 48 43 42 11
Caribbean and Guyana 77 48 17 37 23
France 17 24 34 33 20
Germany 18 22 27 32 21
Spain 14 16 17 24 13
Pakistan and Bangladesh 27 27 201 201 –
Portugal – 11 18 14 –
Total 808 882 899 949 430
of which: EU 382 419 441 416 202
1. Pakistan only.
271
Notes related to Tables A.1.1. to A.1.3. and B.1.1. to B.1.3.

Migratory flows in selected OECD countries
Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source
Flow data based on Population Registers
Austria Criteria for registering foreigners: The register of foreigners allows to follow Central register of foreigners,
holding a residence permit. Data refer the number of permits granted to non-EU Ministry of the Interior.
to July of the given year through June citizens for employment, studies or reasons
of the next year. of family reunification.
Belgium Criteria for registering foreigners: Until 1994, some asylum seekers were Population register,
holding a residence permit and wishing included in the population register. Since Institut national de la statistique.
to stay in the country for at least 3 months. 1995 then they have been recorded
Outflows include administrative corrections. in a separate register.
Denmark Criteria for registering foreigners: Excluded from inflows are asylum seekers, Central population register,
holding a residence permit and wishing and all those with temporary residence Danmarks Statistik.
to stay in the country for at least 3 months. permits (this includes some war refugees).
However, the data only count immigrants
once they have lived in the country for 1
year.
Outflows include administrative corrections.
Finland Criteria for registering foreigners: Inflows of those of Finnish origin Central population register,
holding a residence permit and wishing are included. Finnish Central Statistical Office.
to stay in the country for at least 1 year.
Germany Criteria for registering foreigners: Includes asylum seekers living in private Population register,
holding a residence permit and wishing households. Excludes inflows of ethnic Statistisches Bundesamt.
to stay in the country for at least 3 months. Germans. The figures represent Germany
as a whole from 1991.
Hungary Criteria for registering foreigners: Data for 1996 are preliminary. Register of long-term residence
holding a long-term residence permit permits, Ministry of the Interior.
(valid for up to 1 year).
Japan Criteria for registering foreigners: Excluding temporary visitors and re-entries. Register of foreigners,
remaining in the country for more Ministry of Justice,
than 90 days. Immigration Office.
Luxembourg Criteria for registering foreigners: – Central population register,

holding a residence permit and wishing Service central de la statistique
to stay in the country for at least 3 months. et des études économiques.
Netherlands Criteria for registering foreigners: Inflows include some asylum seekers Population registers,
holding a residence permit and wishing (except those staying in reception centres). Central Bureau of Statistics.
to stay in the country for at least 6 months.
Outflows include administrative corrections.
Norway Criteria for registering foreigners: From 1987 includes asylum seekers waiting Central population register,
holding a residence permit and wishing decisions on their application for refugee Statistics Norway.
to stay in the country for at least 6 months. status.
Sweden Criteria for registering foreigners: Asylum seekers and temporary workers Population register,
holding a residence permit and wishing are not included in inflows. Statistics Sweden.
to stay in the country for at least 1 year.
Switzerland Criteria for registering foreigners: holding Inflows do not include conversions from Register of foreigners,
a permanent or an annual residence permit. seasonal permits to non-seasonal permits. Federal Foreign Office.
Inflow data based on residence and work permits
Australia A. Permanent migrants: issues Data refer to the fiscal year (July to June Department of Immigration
of permanent residence permits of the year indicated). Data do not include and Population Research.
(including accompanying dependents). those persons granted permanent residence
whilst already temporary residents
in Australia.
B. Temporary residents: entries of temporary – Department of Immigration
residents (i.e. excluding students). and Population Research.
In 1997, data include 17 049 holders
of a Temporary Business entry (TBE)
visa (long stay).
272
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Notes related to Tables A.1.1. to A.1.3. and B.1.1. to B.1.3.

Migratory flows in selected OECD countries (cont.)
Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source
Inflow data based on residence and work permits
Canada Issues of permanent residence permits. Data include those already present Statistics Canada.
in Canada, and also those granted residence
in a programme eliminating a backlog
of applications.
France – Until 1989 the data consist of those Entries from the EU are not counted, Office des migrations
entering as permanent workers, those except permanent workers (including entries internationales.
with provisional work permits and those from the EEA since 1994) who are included
entering under family reunification. through declarations. Made by employers
– Since 1990, those with provisional work to the authorities. From 1994 on, figures
permits are not included. Those entering include estimates of some unregistered flows
as self employed and additional permits (inflows of family members of EEA citizens
relating to family reunification have been for example).
added to the figures.
United Kingdom Passengers, excluding EEA nationals, Data exclude visitors, passengers in transit Home Office.
admitted to the United Kingdom. or returning on limited leave or who
previously settled. Students and au pair girls
are excluded.
United States Issues of permanent residence permits. The figures include those persons already US Department of Justice.
present in the United States: those who
changed status and those benefiting from
the 1986 legalisation program. Data cover
the fiscal year (October to September
of the year indicated).
273
Notes related to tables A.1.4. and B.1.4. Inflows of asylum seekers
Comments Source
Australia Excluding accompanying dependents. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Austria Excluding de facto refugees from Bosnia Herzegovina. Österreichisches Statistisches Zentralamt.
Belgium – Institut national de statistique, Office des étrangers,
Commissaire général aux réfugiés et aux apatrides.
Canada – United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Czech Republic – Ministry of the Interior.
Denmark – Danmarks Statistik.
Finland – Ministry of the Interior.
France Excluding accompanying dependents. Office français de protection des réfugiés et des apatrides.
Germany – Bundesministerium des Innern.
Greece – Ministry of the Interior.
Ireland – Department of Justice.
Italy Excluding accompanying dependents. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Luxembourg – Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Justice.
Netherlands – Ministry of Justice.
Norway – Immigration Directorate.
Poland – Department for Migration and Refugee Affairs, Ministry
of the Interior.
Portugal – Ministry of the Interior.
Spain Excluding accompanying dependents. Officine de Asilo y Refugio.
Sweden – Swedish Immigration Board.
Switzerland – Office fédéral des réfugiés.
United Kingdom Breakdown by country excludes accompanying dependents. Home Office.
United States Excluding accompanying dependents. Fiscal years US Department of Justice.
(October to September of the years indicated). From 1993 on,
figures include applications reopened during year.
Notes related to Tables A.1.5. and B.1.5. Foreign-born population
Comments Source
Australia – Quinquennial censuses, Australian Bureau of Statistics.

Canada – Quinquennial censuses, Statistics Canada.
Denmark Coverage: ‘‘Immigrants’’ defined in Danish statistics Danmarks Statistik.
as foreign-born citizens to parents born abroad
or in the country.
Netherlands Reference date: 31 December. Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS).
Norway Reference date: 31 December. Statistics Norway.
Sweden Reference date: 31 December. Statistics Sweden.
United States Coverage: Persons born overseas whose parents are US citizens Decennial censuses, US Department of Commerce,
are not included in the 1980 and 1990 census figures. Bureau of the Census.
Note that estimates by country of birth are not sufficiently Current Population Survey (1994-1996),
accurate in the Current Population Survey and are not shown Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
in the tables.
274
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Notes related to Tables A.1.6. and B.1.6. Foreign population
Comments Source
Austria Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in population register. Population Register,
Reference date: Annual average. Österreichisches Statistisches
Other comments: The data were revised following the 1991 census. A breakdown Zentralamt.
by nationality is not available.
Belgium Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in population register. Until 1994, asylum Population register,
seekers were included in the population register. Since 1995 then they have been Institut national de la statistique.
recorded in a separate register.
Reference date: 31 December.
Other comments: There are two breaks in the series between 1984-1985 and 1991-1992,
due to important changes in the law on nationality in June 1984 and September 1991.
Czech Republic Coverage: Holders of a permanent residence permit (mainly for family reasons) Register of foreigners,
or a long-term residence permit (1-year permit, renewable). Ministry of the Interior.
Other comments: 1992 data cover former Czech and Slovak Federal Republic.
Denmark Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in population register. Excludes asylum Central population register,
seekers and all those with temporary residence permits (this includes some war Danmarks Statistik.
refugees).
Finland Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in population register. Includes inflows Central population register,
of those who are of Finnish origin. Finnish Central Statistical Office.
France Coverage: Foreigners with permanent residence in France. Comprises of permanent Census (25 per cent sample),
workers, trainees, students and their dependent families. Seasonal and frontier workers Institut national de la statistique
are not included. et des études économiques.
Reference dates: 4 March 1982, 6 March 1990.
Germany Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in population register. Includes asylum Central population register,
seekers living in private households. Excludes foreign citizens of German origin Statistisches Bundesamt.
(ethnic Germans).
Other comments: Since 1992, disaggregation by sex and nationality covers only those
aged 16 and over. Figures represent Germany as a whole from 1991.
1987-1989 figures are adjusted to take into account results of the 1987 census.
Hungary Coverage: Holders of a permanent or a long-term residence permit. Register of foreigners,
Reference date: 31 December. Ministry of the Interior.
Ireland Coverage: Special Survey. Labour Force Survey,
Other comments: The only significant distinction between nationalities is between Central Statistical Office (CSO).
EU/non-EU and the United States (not published in this Annex).
Italy Coverage: Holders of residence permits on population register. Minors registered Ministry of the Interior.
in the permits of their parents are not counted in the figures.
Figures include results of the 1987-88, 1990 and 1995-96 regularisation programmes.
Other comments: The falls in stocks in 1989 and 1994 are the result of a clean-up
of the register of foreigners.
Japan Coverage: Foreigners staying in Japan more than 90 days and registered in population Register of foreigners,
registers as stated by the law. Ministry of Justice,
Reference date: 31 December. Office of Immigration.
Korea Coverage: Foreigners staying in Korea more than 90 days and registered in population Ministry of Justice.
registers as stated by the law.
Luxembourg Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in population register. Does not include Population register,
visitors (less than three months) or frontier workers. Service central de la statistique
Reference date: 31 December. et des études économiques.
Other comments: Figures have been revised from 1987 on to take into account
the effects of the change in the legislation on naturalisation which took place
at the end of 1986.
Netherlands Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in population register. Figures include Population register,
administrative corrections and asylum seekers (except those staying in reception Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS).
centres).
Other comments: The fall in stocks between 1994 and 1995 is due to revision
of estimates. Figures for 1996 are provisional.
275
Notes related to Tables A.1.6. and B.1.6. Foreign population (cont.)
Comments Source
Norway Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in population register. From 1987 CPR, Statistics Norway.
includes asylum seekers waiting decisions on their application for refugee status.
Portugal Coverage: Holders of a valid residence permit. Data take into account the 1992-93 Ministry of the Interior.
and 1996 regularisation programmes.
Spain Coverage: Holders of residence permits. Does not include those with temporary Ministry of the Interior.
permits (less that six months duration) and students. The figures for 1992
include 108 372 permits issued following a regularisation program held in 1991.
Other comments: The fall in figures between 1988 and 1989 is due to a clean-up
of the population register.
Sweden Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in population register. Population register,
Reference date: 31 December. Statistics Sweden.
Switzerland Coverage: Stock of all those with annual or settlement permits. Does not include Register of foreigners,
seasonal or frontier workers. Federal Foreign Office.
Reference date: 31 December
United Kingdom Coverage: Foreign residents. Those with unknown nationality from the New Labour Force Survey,
Commonwealth are not included (around 10 to 15 000 persons). Home Office.
Other comments: Figures are rounded and not published if less than 10 000.
United States Coverage: Foreign-born persons who are not American citizens. Table B.1.6. gives 1990 census,
a breakdown by country of birth. US Department of Commerce,
Reference date: April 1990. Bureau of the Census.
276
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Notes related to Tables A.1.7. and B.1.7. Acquisition of nationality
Comments Source
Australia – Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs.

Austria – Österreichisches Statistisches Zentralamt.
Belgium Significant numbers of foreigners were naturalised as a result Institut national de statistique and Ministry of Justice.
of changes to the law on nationality in June 1984 and
September 1991.
Canada – Statistics Canada.
Denmark – Danmarks Statistik.
Finland Includes naturalisations of those of Finnish origin. Central Statistical Office.
France Excludes minors who were automatically naturalised on reaching Ministère de l’Emploi et de la Solidarité.
adulthood under legislation existing prior to 1 January 1994
and those under new legislation (July 1993) requiring minors
to state their intention to become French citizens.
Germany Includes naturalisations of those of German origin. Statistisches Bundesamt.
Hungary Including ethnic Hungarians mainly from former Yugoslavia Ministry of the Interior.
and Ukraine.
Italy – Ministry of the Interior.
Japan – Ministry of Justice, Civil Affairs Bureau.
Korea – Ministry of Justice
Luxembourg Excludes children acquiring nationality as a consequence Ministry of Justice.
of the naturalisation of their parents.
Netherlands – Central Bureau of Statistics.
Norway – Statistics Norway.
Spain Excludes individuals recovering their former (Spanish) nationality. Ministry of Justice and Ministry of the Interior.
Sweden – Statistics Sweden.
Switzerland – Office fédéral des étrangers.
United Kingdom – Home Office.
United States Data refer to fiscal years (October to September of the year US Department of Justice.
indicated).
277
Notes related to Tables A.2.1. Inflows of foreign workers
Types of workers recorded in the data Source
Australia A. Permanent settlers

Skilled workers including the following categories of visas: Department of Immigration,
Employer nominations, Business skills, Occupational Shares System, special talents, Local Government
Independent. Including accompanying dependents. and Ethnic Affairs.
Period of reference: fiscal years (July to June of the given year).
B. Temporary workers
Skilled temporary resident programme (including accompanying dependents). Department of Immigration,
Including Long Stay Temporary Business Programme from 1995/1996. Including Local Government
accompanying dependents. and Ethnic Affairs.
Period of reference: fiscal years (July to June of the given year).
Austria Data for all years cover initial work permits for both direct inflows from abroad Ministry of Labour,
and for first participation in the Austrian labour market of foreigners already present Health and Social Affairs.
in the country. Seasonal workers are included.
Belgium Work permits issued to first-time immigrants in wage and salary employment. Citizens Ministère de l’Emploi
of European Union (EU) member states are not included, except for those of Greece et du Travail.
until 1987, and of Spain and Portugal until 1992.
Canada Grants of work permits. Citizenship and Immigration

Canada.
Denmark Residence permits issued for employment. Nordic and EU citizens are not included. Danmarks Statistik.
France A. Permanent workers

‘‘Permanents’’ are foreign workers subject to control by the Office des migrations Office des migrations
internationales (OMI). Certain citizens of EU member states employed for short internationales.
durations may not be included.
Resident family members of workers who enter the labour market for the first time
are not included.
B. Provisional work permits (APT)
Provisional work permits (APT) cannot exceed six months, are renewable and apply Office des migrations
to trainees, students and other holders of non-permanent jobs. internationales.
Germany New work permits issued. Data include essentially newly entered foreign workers, Bundesanstalt für Arbeit.
contract workers and seasonal workers.
Citizens of EU member states are not included, except those of Greece until 1987,
and of Spain and Portugal until 1992.
Data refer to western Germany up to 1990, to Germany as a whole from 1991 on.
Hungary Grants of work permits (including renewals). Ministry of Labour.
Ireland Work permits issued (including renewals). EU citizens do not need a work permit. Ministry of Labour.
Italy New work permits issued to non-EU foreigners. Ministry of Labour and ISTAT.
Luxembourg Data cover both arrivals of foreign workers and residents admitted for the first time Inspection générale
to the labour market. de la Sécurité sociale.
Spain Data include both initial ‘‘B’’ work permits, delivered for 1 year maximum (renewable) Ministry of Labour
for a specific salaried activity and ‘‘D’’ work permits (same type of permit for self and Social Security.
employed – including renewals).
Since 1992, EU citizens do not need a work permit.
Switzerland Data cover foreigners who enter Switzerland to work and who obtain an annual Office fédéral des étrangers.
residence permit, whether the permit is renewable or not (e.g. trainees).
The data also include holders of a settlement permit returning to Switzerland after
a short stay abroad. Issues of an annual permit to persons holding a seasonal one
are not included.
United Kingdom Grants of work permits. Most long-term permits are delivered to highly qualified workers. Department of Employment.
Short duration permits are for students doing temporary or part-time jobs, or taking
training with a firm.
Citizens of EU member states are excluded. ‘‘First permissions’’ (issued to foreigners
already residents and now entering the labour market) are included.
278
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Notes related to Tables A.2.1. Inflows of foreign workers (cont.)
Types of workers recorded in the data Source
United States A. Permanent settlers

Prior to fiscal year 1992, data include members of the professions or persons US Department of Justice.
of exceptional ability in the sciences and arts, skilled and unskilled workers in short
supply, and special immigrant visas.
Data include immigrants issued employment-based preference visas from fiscal year
1992 on.
Period of reference: fiscal years (October to September of the given year).
B. Temporary residence permits
Including trainees, excluding intra-company transferees and treaty traders/investors. US Department of Justice.
Period of reference: fiscal years (October to September of the given year). Figures
may be overestimated because of multiple entries by the same person.
Notes related to Tables A.2.2. Inflows of seasonal workers
Comments Source
Australia WHM programme (Working Holiday Makers) for young persons Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs.
aged 18 to 25. The duration of stay is restricted to 1 year (not renewable).
Period of reference: fiscal year (July to June of the given year).
Austria Initial work permits issued for less than 6 months. Ministry of Labour, Health and Social Affairs.
Canada Caribbean and Mexican Seasonal Agricultural Workers Programme. Citizenship and Immigration Canada
France Number of contracts with the Office des migrations internationales (OMI). Office des migrations internationales.
European Union nationals are not subject to OMI control.
Germany Workers recruted under bilateral agreements. From 1991 on, data cover Bundesanstalt für Arbeit.
Germany as a whole.
Italy Agricultural seasonal workers entered in Italy with a work authorisation. Ministry of Labour.
Netherlands – CBS.
Norway Not renewable work permits granted. Issued for 3 months mostly Statistics Norway.
to Polish nationals.
Switzerland – Office fédéral des étrangers.
United Kingdom Seasonal workers under the special Agricultural Workers Scheme. Department of Employment.
Including readmissions.
United States Agricultural workers with a H-2A visa (non-immigrants). US Department of Justice.
279
Notes related to Tables A.2.3., B.2.1. and B.2.2. Foreign and foreign-born labour
Comments Source
Foreign labour
Austria Annual average. The unemployed are included and the self-employed are excluded. Ministry of Labour,
Data on employment by nationality are from valid work permits. Figures may be Health and Social Affairs.
overestimated as a result of persons holding more than one permit. In Table A.2.3., data
for 1990 and 1991 have been adjusted to correct for a temporary over-issue of work permits
relative to the number of jobs held by foreigners, between August 1990 and June 1991.
From 1994 on, data on employment are from Social Security records and include EEA
nationals.
Belgium Number of work permits. Ministère de l’Emploi
Excluding unemployed and self employed. et du Travail.
Denmark Data are from population registers Danmarks Statistik.
Reference date: 30 November until 1991; 31 December from 1992 on.
France Labour Force Survey. Institut national de la statistique
Reference date: March of each year. et des études économiques.
Germany Number of work permits. Including cross-border workers but not self-employed. Bundesanstalt für Arbeit.
Figures cover western Germany for all years.
Reference date: 30 September.
Hungary Number of valid work permits Ministry of Labour.
Ireland Estimates are from the Labour Force Survey. Central Statistical Office.
Italy Figures refer to number of foreigners with a valid work permit (including self-employed). ISTAT.
Data exclude unemployed. EU citizens do not need a work permit.
Japan Foreigners whose activity is restricted according to the Immigration Act (revised in 1990). Ministry of Justice,
Permanent resident, spouse or child of Japanese national, spouse or child of permanent Service of Immigration.
resident and long-term resident have no restriction imposed to the kind of activities
they can engage in Japan and are excluded from these data.
Luxembourg Number of work permits. Data cover foreigners in employment, including apprentices, Inspection générale
trainees and cross-border workers. The unemployed are not included. de la Sécurité sociale.
Reference date: 1 October.
Netherlands Estimates include cross-border workers, but exclude the self-employed, family workers Central Bureau of Statistics.
and the unemployed. From 1990 onwards, foreigners legally residing in the Netherlands
but working abroad are excluded.
Reference date: 31 March.
Norway Data are from population registers. Excluding unemployed and self-employed. Statistics Norway.
Reference date: second quarter of each year (except in 1995 and 1996: 4th quarter).
Portugal Workers who hold a valid residence permit (including the unemployed). Including foreign Ministry of the Interior.
workers who benefited from the 1992-1993 and 1996 regularisation programmes.
Spain Number of valid work permits. From 1992 on, EU workers are not included. Ministry of Labour
From 1991 to 1993, the data include work permits delivered following the 1991 and Social Security.
regularisation programme. The data for 1996 are provisional (including grants of permits
following the regularisation programme).
Sweden Annual average from the Labour Force Survey. Statistics Sweden.
Switzerland Data are counts of the number of foreigners with an annual residence permit Office fédéral des étrangers.
or a settlement permit (permanent permit), who engage in gainful activity.
Reference date: 31 December (resident workers); 31 August (seasonal workers).
United Kingdom Estimates are from the Labour Force Survey. The unemployed are not included. Employment Department.
Foreign-born labour
Australia Labour force aged 15 and over. Labour Force Survey (ABS).
Reference date: August 1986; June 1993; June 1994; August 1995; August 1996.
Canada Labour force aged 15 and over. 1991 Census.
United States Labour force aged 15 and over. Foreign-born citizens with American parents are not 1990 Census
included in the immigrant population (foreign-born). (US Department of Commerce).
280
LIST OF SOPEMI CORRESPONDENTS
Mr. A. RIZVI Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, Canberra, Australia

Mrs G. BIFFL Austrian Economic Institute, Vienna, Austria
Mr. M. POULAIN Centre d’études de gestion démographique pour les administrations
publiques, Université catholique de Louvain, Belgium
Mrs D. BOBEVA Black Sea Trade and Development Bank, Thessalonika, Greece
(Bulgarian Correspondent)
Mrs E. RUDDICK Citizenship and Immigration Canada, Ottawa
Mr. C. LANGLOIS Citizenship and Immigration Canada, Ottawa
Mr. Soo-Bong UH Korea Labour Institute, Seoul
Mrs J. MARESOVA University of Prague, Czech Republic
Ms K. STEEN Directorate General for Employment, Placement and Vocational
Training, Copenhagen, Denmark
Mr. S. LARMO Ministry of Labour, Helsinki, Finland
Mr. A. LEBON Ministère de l’Emploi et de la Solidarité, Paris, France
Mrs B. FRÖHLICH Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, Berlin, Germany
Mr. N. PETROPOULOS Pedagogical Institute of Greece, Athens, Greece
Mrs J. JUHASZ Hungarian Central Statistical Office, Budapest, Hungary
Mr. J.J. SEXTON The Economic and Social Research Institute, Dublin, Ireland
Mrs C. COLLICELLI CENSIS, Rome, Italy
Mr. F. AROSIO CENSIS, Rome, Italy
Ms. N. YAMAMOTO Ministry of Labour, Tokyo, Japan
Mr. T. SHIOGUSHI Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, Japan
Mr. P. JAEGER Commissaire du gouvernement aux étrangers, Luxembourg
Mr. J.A. BUSTAMANTE El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, Tijuana, Mexico
Mr. P. MUUS ERCOMER, University of Utrecht, Netherlands
Mr. M. HOLTER Royal Ministry of Local Government and Labour, Department
of Immigrant and Refugee Affairs, Oslo, Norway
Mr. M. OKOLSKI University of Warsaw, Institute for Social Studies, Poland
Mr. J. ROSARIO Ministère des Affaires étrangères, Secrétariat d’État aux Communautés
portugaises, Lisbon, Portugal
Mr. D. GEORGHIU National Commission for Statistics, Bucarest, Romania
Mrs M. LUBYOVA Slovak Academy of Sciences, Institute of Forecasting, Bratislava,
Slovak Republic
Mr. A. IZQUIERDO ESCRIBANO Faculté des Sciences politiques et de sociologie, La Coruna, Spain
Mrs B. ORNBRANT Ministry of the Interior, Stockholm, Sweden 281
Mr. B. CLERC Office fédéral de l’industrie, des arts et métiers et du travail, Berne,
Switzerland
Mr. A. GOKDERE University of Ankara, Turkey
Mr. J. SALT University College London, Department of Geography, London,
United Kingdom
Mr. R. KRAMER US Department of Labor, Bureau for International Labor Affairs,
Washington, United States
282
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OECD SOPEMI

Continuous Reporting System on Migration

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

OECD CENTRE FOR CO-OPERATION WITH NON-MEMBERS

Publié en français sous le titre :

A. MIGRATION, POPULATION AND THE LABOUR MARKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

A. SOURCES AND COMPARABILITY OF MIGRATION STATISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

LIST OF SOPEMI CORRESPONDENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

LIST OF CHARTS AND TABLES

II.3. Work permits and foreign employment, 1980-1996, Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

A. Cross national tables

A.1. Foreign and/or foreign-born population: stocks and flows

B. Tables by country of origin

B.1. Foreign and/or foreign-born population: stocks and flows

B.1.5. Stock of foreign-born population by country of birth

B.2. Foreign or foreign-born labour force: stocks and flows

Notes related to the tables of the Statistical Annex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

b) Predominance of family immigration centage of total inflows at respectively 45 per cent

Workers Family reunification

Family members Refugees

0 20 40 60 80 100 Note: Countries are ranked by decreasing order of the percentage of

Australia Belgium Canada

New Zeal. (13.1) Netherlands (7.8) H K (China) (29.9)

UK (9.6) France (6.6) India (21.2)

China (7.8) Morocco (4.0) China (17.5)

Former Yug. (5.3) Germany (3.2) Chin. Taipei (13.2)

H K (China) (3.9) United States (3.0) Philippines (12.9)

South Africa (3.2) UK (2.8) Pakistan (7.7)

Vietnam (3.0) Italy (2.7) Sri Lanka (6.1)

Philippines (2.8) Turkey (2.5) United States (5.8)

India (2.7) Former Yug. (2.5) Iran (5.8)

Chin. Taipei (2.2) Portugal (1.8) UK (5.6)

Denmark3 Finland France

Somalia (1.5) Estonia (0.7) Morocco (6.6)

Iceland (1.2) Sweden (0.6) Turkey (3.4)

Germany (1.0) Iraq (0.5) United States (2.7)

Iraq (1.0) Bos. Herz. (0.4) Tunisia (2.2)

Norway (0.9) Somalia (0.3) Former Yug. (1.3)

UK (0.9) United States (0.2) Japan (1.1)

Turkey (0.8) UK (0.2) Zaire (0.9)

Sweden (0.8) Iran (0.2) Sri Lanka (0.9)

United States (0.6) Germany (0.2) Haiti (0.8)

Germany Japan Luxembourg

Poland (77.4) China (45.6) Portugal (2.4) 25.1

Turkey (73.2) Philippines (30.3)

Portugal (32.0) Korea (17.1) Germany (0.6)

Russian Fed. (31.9) Thailand (6.6) Italy (0.5)

United States (16.3) Germany (4.1) Spain (0.1)

Netherlands Norway Sweden

Turkey (6.4) Sweden (2.9) Finland (2.6)

Germany (5.7) Denmark (1.6) Iraq (2.1)

UK (4.3) Bos. Herz. (1.0) Norway (1.5)

Morocco (4.3) UK (0.9) Denmark (1.4)

Former Yug. (3.4) United States (0.9) Bos. Herz. (1.2)

United States (3.1) Germany (0.6) United States (1.1)

Surinam (2.8) Pakistan (0.5) Turkey (1.1)

Belgium (1.9) Somalia (0.4) UK (0.9)

France (1.7) Sri Lanka (0.4) Former Yug. (0.8)

Poland (1.4) Turkey (0.3) Iran (0.8)

Switzerland United Kingdom4 United States

Former Yug. (14.1) United States (43.2) Mexico (163.6)

Germany (8.7) Australia (25.1) Former URSS (62.8)