BASIC ELECTRONICS

Lecture Notes

Introduction

Recently, electronics has undergone rapid development where from the simple radio, it brought
as television, computers and lately, the most complicated micro digital components and gadgets. It covers
almost all of the material things related to human existence, that one cannot practically live in these
modern times without his electronic-based environment.

The field of electronics is so diverse; hence, career opportunities abound in many areas. It is
currently found in different applications so much so that technology is being developed at a very fast
phase, thus, its future is limitless.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONICS

Basically, a beginner or a hobbyist, in order to be successful in his endeavor in the field of

electronics has to understand the difference between electricity and electronics. While both depend on
basic things like voltage, current, resistance, power and magnetism, electronics deals more particularly
with the behavior of electrons in semi-conductor materials. As there are materials that acts as conductor
of electricity which allows current to flow freely and insulator materials which does not allow current to
flow, semi-conductors are materials which serves as insulator or conductor at certain instances. Silicon,
gallium and germanium are the most common materials used to produced semi-conductor electronic
components by adding or doping impurities such as indium or antimony.

When most of the charge carriers are electrons, the semi-conductor is called N-Type, because
electrons are negatively charged. When most of the charge carriers are holes, the semi-conductor
material is known as P-Type because holes have a positive charge.

Most household appliances nowadays are composed of both electrical and electronic
components either from a simple switching or the most complicated remote controls and other digital
functions. It is therefore important to understand what a circuit is and the characteristics of the various
components which are commonly found in these appliances.

COMMON ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Passive components or device – are components that do not generate voltage but controls the current
in a circuit. Examples: resistors, capacitors, inductors and etc.

Active components or device – are components that can generate, amplify and even control voltage
and current in a circuit. Examples: diode, transistor, integrated circuits (IC) and etc.

WHAT IS AN ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT?

A circuit is a structure that directs and controls electric currents, presumably to perform some
useful function. The very name circuit implies that the structure is closed, something like a loop. A circuit
has a voltage source, a load and a path for the current to flow between the source and the load. A switch
is also installed to open or close the flow of current.

Source – it may be an alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) source.

Load – any electrical/electronic appliances or component connected to the circuit that consumes
power.

Path – a pair of conductor materials such as copper that serves as the passage of current in the
circuit.

Switch – a control device connected along the path of current to turn ON and OFF the circuit.

Whenever a circuit operates, whether it is an electrical or electronic circuit, it always involves

three important properties known as Current, Voltage and Resistance.
WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC CURRENT?

An electric current refers to some type of flow, and in this case we mean a flow of electric charge.
It may be considered as a flow of electrons which will generate electric charge. A charge is a certain
electrical condition where electrons exert force to one another. It could be measured in units called
Coulombs abbreviated as C. It comes in two styles; Positive charge (+) and negative charge (-).

Current is the movement of free electrons. It comes about when a voltage is applied to a closed
circuit. Electron current flows or moves from negative toward the positive. The electrical symbol for
current is I. The basic unit of current is the ampere. It is defined as the charge Q (number of coulombs)
that moves past any point in one second of time. I=Q/t. Current is measured by an instrument called an
ammeter. An ammeter is connected so that the measured current must flow through the meter.

WHAT IS VOLTAGE?

Voltage is the potential difference that causes charge to flow from one point to another point. The
unit of voltage is the volt and the symbol is either V or E. Some other names for voltage are electromotive
force (emf) and potential difference. A battery is a source of voltage. It uses a chemical action to produce
potential difference.

The electronic power supply uses commercial electric utility power to supply voltage. The solar
cell operates as a direct conversion unit between sunlight and voltage. A generator takes mechanical
energy, usually rotating, and produces a voltage. Voltage is measured by a voltmeter. The voltmeter is
connected across (parallel) the component for which the voltage measurement is required.

WHAT IS RESISTANCE?

Resistance is the opposition to the movement of current. The electrical symbol for resistance is R
or Ω. The basic unit is the ohm. Resistors are components that are designed to have a resistance or
opposition of various amounts. Fixed resistors are devices that have a fixed amount of resistance, such
as 47 ohms or 1.2 megaohms. The resistor color code is a system used to mark a small fixed resistor with
its resistance value coded into three, four or five color bands. Variable resistors are commonly called
potentiometers or pots. These resistors are built so that the value of resistance can be varied. Resistance
is measured with an ohmmeter. An ohmmeter is connected across the resistor after the resistor is
disconnected from the circuit.

THE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

A circuit physically contains elements or components that work interactively to produce the
desired result. No matter how complex the circuit is, basic components like resistors, capacitors,
transistors and other semi-conductor materials are used. As a beginner, one has to understand the
important features and characteristics and functions of these components as well as the processes on
how to determine whether such component is defective or is in good condition in order to appraise or
diagnose defects or abnormalities in certain electronic appliances.

RESISTORS

Resistors are electronic components that resist the flow of current or flow of charge in a circuit.
They are said to be poor conductors. The value of a resistor is measured in ohms and represented by the
Greek letter capital omega (Ω). Common resistors in use in electronics today come in power rating of 0.25
W, 0.5W, 1W and 5W. It is made up of either carbon, cement, wire-wound and metal film.

Resistor Color Coding

Resistance values of resistors are often determined through color bands (either 4-bands
or 5-bands) where each color is represented by equivalent numbers except for some types where
values are numerically specified in the body of the resistor. It is important to get acquainted or be
familiar of the process of identifying the value of a resistor through its color bands.
CAPACITORS

Capacitor is an electrical device consisting of two plates separated by an insulator called

dielectric and has the capability to charge and discharge voltage. It is formerly called condenser which
has the ability to hold a charge of electrons. The number of electrons it can hold under a given electrical
pressure (voltage) is called its capacitance or capacity. The unit uF stands for micro-farad (one millionth)
and pF stands for pico-farad (one million, millionth).

DIODES

A diode is a semi-conductor electronic device or component that permits current to flow in only
one direction. It consists of two terminals known as Annode and Cathode.

Anode (positive electrode, the point of exit of electrons from a device to the external circuit) – it is
the terminal connected to the negative point of the circuit.

Cathode (negative electrode, the point of entry of electrons into a device from the external circuit)
– is the terminal connected to the positive point of the circuit.

TRANSISTOR

The word transistor is a combination or contraction of CURRENT-TRANSFERRING RESISTOR.

 The transistor was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1948.

 Generally, transistor fall into the category of bipolar transistor, either the NPN transistor or the
PNP transistor types.
 It is a device consisting of semiconductor materials like germanium and silicon which is used as
detector, amplifier, oscillator or switch.
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT or IC or sometimes called CHIPS

It is an electronic device or component that is composed of two or more components integrated in

one package. It may be composed of individual transistors, diodes, capacitors and resistors.

Advantages of IC Technology

1. Compactness – it is designed to economize space.

2. High Speed – the interconnections among the components within an IC are physically
tiny, making high switching speeds possible.
3. Low Power Consumption – they use less power than equivalent discrete-component
circuits. It produces less heat which therefore translate into better efficiency.
4. Reliability – IC circuits fail less often, per component hour of use than systems that use
discrete components.
5. Ease of Maintenance – repair procedures are simplified when failure occurs. Many
appliances use sockets for ICs, and replacement is simply a matter of finding the faulty
IC, unplugging it, and plugging a new one.
6. Modular Construction – in this scheme, individual ICs perform defined functions within
a circuit board or card, in turn fits into a socket and has specific purpose.

MAGNETISM

Anything that attracts steel or iron is a magnet and this attraction ability is called magnetism. The
operation of practically all appliances like transformer, radios, television, loudspeakers, disc players and
many others depends much on magnetism.

Principles of Magnetism

1. Opposite magnetic poles attract each other (Law of Attraction).

2. Like magnetic poles repel each other (Law of Repulsion).
3. Magnetic lines of force do not cross each other but tend to be closely in parallel outline
with the other.
4. The attracting power of the magnet is generally greatest at its two ends.
5. There is no known insulator for magnetic lines; they penetrate or pass through all
substances.
6. Magnetic lines tend to select the shortest magnetic path.
7. Magnetic lines pass easily through magnetizable substances.
8. Two magnetic lines that extend in the same direction tend to exert a sidewise thrust
against each other.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

It is the production of the magnetic field by current in a conductor. Any piece of iron or steel can
be made as electromagnet by winding an insulated copper wire around it and allow current to pass
through the wire. It is dependent on the source of current. When the power line is turned OFF, the
electromagnet is also cut OFF.

TRANSFORMER

It is a device for converting a varying current from one voltage to another.

 Step-down transformer – a transformer with low output voltage derived from a high
input voltage.

 Step-up transformer – a transformer with high output voltage derived from a low input
voltage.

 Induction type transformer – the primary windings and the secondary windings are not
electrically connected with one another.
  Auto type transformer – the primary and secondary windings are electrically connected.

POWER SUPPLIES

A power supply is the source of power for an electronic circuit which may be AC, battery, solar
cell or other sources.
A power supply is an energy source used to operate electrical and electronic devices.
A battery is one type of power supply that converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
An electronic power supply converts commercial energy (AC from the power company) to
regulated DC at various voltage levels.
It is consists of transformers (either step-up or step-down), rectifier diodes, capacitors, resistors,
inductors and other related components and devices.

BASIC ELECTRONIC TOOLS

 Screwdrivers – used to drive or fasten screws.

 Hexagonal Allen Keys – it is used to drive screws with hexagonal slots.
 Precision Screw Driver Set – a set of small screwdrivers used for various screw head slots.
 Soldering Tools – used to solder or attached electronic components to a circuit board.
 Pliers
o Long Nose – used for holding, bending and stretching the lead of electronic component
or connecting wires.
o Side Cutter – used to cut wires and component leads.
o Wire Stripper – used to strip wire insulators.
 Boring Tools
o Volt Mini Drill – used to bore or drill holes in the printed circuit board (PCB).
o Portable Electric Drill – used for boring holes in the plastic or metal chassis.

MEASURING/TESTING INSTRUMENT

 Analog Multimeters or volt-ohm-meter (VOM) – an electronic measuring instrument that

combines several functions in one unit.
 Digital Multimeters – abbreviated as DMM. Display the units in clear numerals.
BASIC ELECTRONICS SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS
SELF CHECK

Answer the following questions and counter check your answers in the given rationalized answer
key.

1. A schematic diagram shows the components of an electronic circuit by means of _________.

A. Symbol C. Physical appearance
B. Construction D. Linear appearance

2. If there are only two resistors with different values in a parallel circuit, which formula may be used to
find its total resistance?
A. Rt=R/n
B. Rt=(R1XR2) / (R1+R2)
C. 1/Rt=1/R1 + 1/R2 + …1/Rn
D. Rt=(R1+R2) / (R1XR2)

3. Imagine three resistors in parallel, with values of 22Ω, 27Ω and 33Ω. If a 12V battery is connected
across this combination, what is the current drawn from the battery.
A. 1.4 A C. 150 Ma
B. 15 mA D. 1.5 A

4. One of the following is a non-polarized electronic component.

A. Transistor C. Diode
B. Resistor D. Electrolytic Capacitor

5. The voltage rating found in a capacitor is called ____________.

A. Peak-reverse voltage C. Blow-up voltage
B. Working voltage D. Breakdown voltage

6. A diode is an electronic part that at all times is expected to do one of the following functions. Which
one is it?
A. Allow current to flow in both directions
B. Multiply voltage
C. Allow current to flow in one direction only
D. Not allow any current flow

7. There are various types of diodes. The diode that acts as a regulator is the ____________.
A. Silicon diode C. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
B. Crystal diode D. Zener diode

8. You will find an electrode nearest the white band on a rectifier. What is it?
A. Anode C. Gate
B. Cathode D. Main terminal

9. When a diode is tested and the reading is zero. It means the diode is __________.
A. Shorted C. Leaky
B. Open D. Good

10. If the transistor is an NPN type the base is ______________.

A. Negative and Positive C. Positive
B. Negative D. Common

11. If the arrow of the transistor symbol is pointing inward, it tells us that the resistor is:
A. NPN C. Bipolar
B. PNP D. Injunction

12. In the electronic symbol of a transistor, the electrode with an arrow is the __________.
A. Emitter C. Collector
B. Base D. Cathode

13. The production of magnetic field by current in a conductor.

A. Electromagnetism C. Magnetism
B. Ferromagnetism D. Diamagnetism
14. The type of current whose amplitude drops to zero periodically and is produced in rectifier is known
as:
A. Pulsating Direct Current C. Varying Direct Current
B. Damped Alternating Current D. Saw tooth wave

15. Printed on the dial of an AM radio is an RF band covering ____________.

A. kHz 76-90 MHz C. 16 Hz – 20 kHz
B. 88 – 108 MHz D. 535 – 1,605 kHz

16. An ordinary radio can be tuned to different stations. The electronic component responsible for this
function is the ______________.
A. Tuning Capacitor C. IF transformer
B. Oscillator coil D. Detector diode

17. The condition of the loud speaker is tested more accurately using one of the ranges listed below.
A. R x 1K C. R x 1
B. R x 10 D. R x 10K

18. Working efficiently is a good work habit. Tinning the tip of a soldering iron refers to:
A. Cleaning the tip with a sand paper
B. Making the tip pointed
C. Cutting the tip
D. Applying flux to the tip

19. The common cause of an erratic or distorted sound of a transistor radio is a defective.
A. Amplifier C. Antenna
B. Volume control D. Tuner

20. The appliance with 110 volts AC supply is accidentally plugged to a 220 volts AC outlet. What
component is usually destroyed?
A. Switch C. Line fuse
B. AC plug D. Power transformer
Key to Correction

1. A 6. C 11. B 16. A
2. B 7. D 12. A 17. C
3. A 8. B 13. A 18. D
4. B 9. A 14. A 19. B
5. B 10.C 15. D 20. C

Rationalized Answer Key

1. Electronic diagrams may be drawn in schematic (using electronic symbols and lines); pictorial (using
pictures, drawings or illustrations of actual parts and components); and block form (using shapes
such as squares, rectangles, triangles and circles) to represent parts of the circuit.
2. The formula Rt=R/n may be used in parallel circuit with multiple resistors with the same value; the
formula 1/Rt=1/R1 + 1/R2 + …1/Rn may be used for parallel circuits with multiple value resistors.
3. Apply the ohm’s law formula for a parallel circuit.
4. Resistors are components that are deliberately designed to oppose the flow of current in a circuit.
Unlike other components they don’t have polarity thus; it can be connected in the circuit in any
position. Transistors have the base, emitter and collector; diodes have the anode and cathode and
electrolytic capacitors have a positive and negative terminal.
5. There are three most important specifications to watch for in choosing a capacitor; (1) capacitance or
capacitive value; (2) working voltage – which specifies to which kind of circuit the particular capacitor
is applicable; and (3) tolerance – means how nearly their values can be expected to match the rated
capacitance.
6. Diode is a semiconductor electronic device or component that permits current to flow in only one
direction.
7. Diodes have various uses such as: voltage regulation – where a zener diode is used for this purpose.
Detection – for picking up radio signals which uses a diode called crystal diode; energy emission – a
semiconductor diode that emits radiant energy when a current pass through the P-N junction in the
forward direction. Examples are: LEDs and IREDs (light emitting diode and infrared emitting diode).
8. Anode is the positive electrode, the point of exit of electrons from a device to the external circuit.
Cathode is the negative electrode, which is the point of entry of electrons into a device from the
external circuit.
9. Shorted diode – when the VOM pointer deflects to zero ohms at any setting of the test prods to the
diode terminals; open diode – when the VOM pointer stays at infinity or does not deflect to the right
side at any setting of the test prods to the diode terminals; leaky diode – when the VOM pointer
deflects to a certain point at both forward and reverse bias or when the pointer are at any setting in
the diode terminals; and good diode – when the VOM pointer deflects to a certain point when positive
test prod is connected to the cathode and the negative test prod is connected to the anode, however
it will not deflect when the connection of the test prods is reversed.
10. Transistors are actually made up of two diodes back to back. It is either a PNP or an NPN
combination. The first section is called emitter (E), the middle section is called base (B), and the last
section is called collector (C).
11. PNP
12. Emitter
13. Electromagnetism is the production of magnetic field by current in a conductor. Any piece of iron or
steel can be made as electromagnet by winding an insulated copper wire around it and allow current
to pass through the wire. It is dependent on the source of current. When the power line is turned OFF,
the electromagnet is also cut OFF.
14. A rectifier is a component such as selenium diode that converts alternating current to pulsating direct
current.
15. For FM radio, the band width is 88 -108 MHz.
16. The oscillator coil or local oscillator is the part of the radio that produces a high frequency signal that
is to be combined to produce an intermediate frequency. Intermediate frequency section that contains
the IF transformer maintains the selectivity of the radio receiver and prevents the other signal to enter
when tuned to a selected station; and the detector diode converts the intermediate frequency to audio
frequency signal.
17. A VOM set at resistance measurement range of R x 1 can determine the condition of the speaker. A
speaker in good condition produces a crackling sound when the test prods are rubbed with the
terminals of the speaker.
18. Tinning is the process of cleaning and applying a thin coat of solder on the tip of a pre-heat soldering
iron to enhance its heat conductivity and thus, produce good quality of solder joint.
19. Trouble in the antenna results to station drift; the tuner gives poor selectivity and erratic signal; and
trouble in the amplifier may result to weak or total loss of sound or audio.
20. Fuses are installed in the circuit to protect it from damage in case there is an over surge of current.