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Nickel Cadmium cells have a nominal voltage of 12 volts, therefore a typical 24 volt
aircraft battery would comprise 20 cells connected in series. The active material in
the positive plates is Nickel and in the negative plates Cadmium. The electrolyte is a
solution of potassium hydroxide and distilled water, with a specific gravity of
between 1240 and 1300.
In a typical Ni-Cad battery, individual cells are mounted in a metal case that
incorporates 2 venting outlets, carrying handles, a quick release connector and a
lid. Each cell is separated from its neighbour by its moulded plastic case and
electrically connected by nickel plated steel links between the terminals.
i.e. A 40Ah @ the 1hr rate battery, should be able to provide 40 amps continuously
for 1 hour. Whereas a 40Ah @ the 10hr rate battery will be able to supply 4 amps
continuously for 10 hours.
If either battery is discharged at a higher current it will not provide the full capacity of
40Ah.
As the capacity of a battery varies with age, capacity tests need to be carried out at
regular intervals, normally every three months, however a capacity check should
also be carried out:
After initial charging
Whenever the battery capacity is in doubt
To measure capacity, the battery is fully charged and connected to a suitable
discharge control panel. The panel should incorporate a variable load resistor, an
ammeter and an ampere-hour meter. A digital voltmeter is also necessary for
measuring cell or terminal voltages.
The battery is discharged at the hourly rate until fully discharged. Aircraft batteries
are considered discharged when the cell voltage drops to 1 volt for Ni-Cad cells, or
18 volts for Lead Acid cells.
Ex. A 40 A-h at 1hr rate battery would be discharged at 40 amps until fully
discharged, with the time taken to discharge being recorded.
If the time taken to discharge was 48 minutes, the capacity would be
calculated as follows:
40 x 48 = 80%
40 x 60
On arrival at the workshop, the battery must first be visually inspected for condition.
3.1.2.1 Charging
The charging of lead acid batteries may be related to the condition in which they
arrive at the workshop:
dry uncharged
filled, uncharged and requiring an initial charge
in service. Requiring workshop service or recharge
3. Charge.
3. Allow to cool.
Inspect
NO
NO
Charge at the 1 hour rate
YES
3.1.3.3 Charging
After inspection, the battery should be discharged at the 1 hour rate until the cell
voltages drop to 1 volt.
Once a battery is discharged, or after a battery has been rebuilt, it must be charged.
Constant current charging is used in the workshop, with the current being applied at
one rate for a fixed period of time, or at a number of different rates, each for its own
time period. The total charge given to the battery will be equal to 140% of the
battery capacity.
Before charging the battery, the vent caps must be loosened, but left in place in the
cell tops. During the final stages of the charge period, gassing will occur and the
electrolyte level will fall. Excessive gassing should be avoided, however, a certain
amount is necessary to ensure the battery reaches the fully charged state.
The charge state of a Ni-Cad battery cannot be determined by the terminal voltage,
nor by the specific gravity of the electrolyte. The only way to ascertain the charge
state is to carry out a measured discharge.
At periods during the charge cycle, cell voltages should be measured using a digital
voltmeter. The voltages of individual cells should all be within approximately 01
volts of each other. If individual cell voltages differ by more than the manufacturers
recommended amount, cell balancing must be carried out.
Differences in cell voltages can develop over a period of time, especially on
constant voltage charging systems and is referred to as unbalanced cells.
Variations in cell voltage reduce battery capacity and can result in the reverse
charging of a cell when the battery is fitted to an aircraft.
3.2.1.1.1 Mountings
The batteries are normally mounted on special trays located in special
compartments, these provide protection for the aircraft structure, ventilation and
heat dissipation.
3.2.1.1.2 Ventilation
Ventilation systems are used to remove battery gasses that escape from the cells
via the vent caps and to assist battery cooling. The ventilation system is connected
directly to the battery case, or to the battery stowage compartment.
The charger senses the terminal voltage of the battery, if below 23V it switches to
constant current mode. The battery voltage will then rise to the temperature
compensated inflection point. Under normal ambient conditions this will be when
the battery voltage has reached 31V, under low temperature conditions it may be as
high as 36V.
The period from switch-on to the inflection point is called the base charge and is
memorised by the charger.
Having reached the inflection point the battery is given a proportional overcharge,
this being based on a percentage of the base charge time. The charger then
switches to constant voltage mode.
Battery charging commences independent of battery voltage:
When ever power is initially applied.
if the charger power is interrupted for longer than 0.5 seconds in any mode.
if the sensed voltage drops below 23 volts.
if the charger has operated for longer than 0.5 seconds in transformer
rectifier mode and is then switched to charger mode.
The charger will shut down:
if the input voltage is greater than 134 volts or less than 94 volts. The
charger will return to normal operation as soon as the undervoltage clears
and 10 to 25 seconds after an overvoltage condition.
As the battery discharges, the terminal voltage gradually decreases. At 28 volts the
charger switches on again, the current rising to 35 amps, the voltage to 30 volts.
The battery voltage increases and the current decreases, at 33 volts 26 amps the
charger switches off again.
This cycle is repeated seven times. The charger then switches to a constant 28 volt
output.
The timing of each pulse is determined by the time taken for the charge current to
fall to 26 amps, generally only a few seconds.
The time between pulses is governed by how long it takes for the battery voltage to
fall from 33 volts to 28 volts, this will be somewhere between 30 seconds and 30
minutes.
With the charger at 28 volts and the battery also at 28 volts, the charge current will
be less than 0.5 amps.
3.3.1 DC GENERATION
D.C. generation is covered more fully in Modules 3 (Electrical Fundamentals) and 4
(Electronic Fundamentals). The following notes are therefore for revision purposes
only.
Fig 35
E = Blv
As the loop rotates, an emf is induced in the conductors on either side. Using
Fleming‟s right hand rule, it can be seen that the currents flow in opposite directions
on each side of the loop, but are in the same direction around the loop.
The instantaneous value of the emf (e) induced in the loop is given by:
where Emax = Blv and is the angle of the conductor with respect to the field.
As the loop passes the point of zero induced emf, the direction of movement of the
conductor in the field reverses. The conductor that was moving upwards through
the field, is now moving downwards through the field. Reversal of the direction of
movement causes a reversal in the direction of the induced emf, and a reversal of
the resultant current flow.
3.3.1.3 Frequency
As the loop rotates, the emf rises to a maximum in one direction, then falls to zero
and then rises to a maximum in the opposite direction, before once again falling to
zero. One complete revolution is one cycle.
The number of cycles completed per second is called the „frequency‟. The faster
the loop is rotated, the more cycles per second and the higher the frequency. In
this simple generator, the frequency only depends on the number of loop
revolutions per second.
The metal of the rotor has a very low reluctance. The flux of the main field flux
therefore flows through it, rather than through the airgap in the centre. The parts of
the coils on the inside of the rotor therefore, do not cut any flux and have no emf
induced in them.
The low reluctance of the rotor also creates a radial field in the airgap, as opposed
to the linear field in previous diagrams.
Pole pitch is a term used to describe the angle between one main pole and the next
main pole of the opposite polarity. The pole pitch of a two pole machine will be
180, the pole pitch of a four pole machine, 90
This form of construction is used on large, heavy current machines and not normally
found on aircraft. The number of parallel paths always equals the number of
brushes and the number of field poles. So the example shown has four brushes,
four parallel paths between those brushes and four field poles (not shown).
It should be noted that wave wound generators require an odd number of coils and
commutator segments in order to interconnect all of the coils.
Due to internal resistance, the generators terminal voltage varies with load current.
As load current is increased the voltage dropped across the internal resistance
increases and the terminal voltage decreases.
When supplying a load current, the terminal voltage (V) equals the generated emf
minus the voltage dropped across the internal resistance.
V = emf + Ir
The armature field is at 90 degrees to the main field of the machine and therefore
distorts it as shown. This distortion is called armature reaction.
Distortion of the field also means the magnetic neutral axis (MNA) or electric
neutral axis (ENA) is moved around in the direction of rotation, away from the
machines geometric neutral axis (GNA). The GNA is the axis that physically
divides the machine into two halves.
Movement of the ENA away from the GNA means commutation no longer occurs
when zero emf is induced in the windings. A simple way of overcoming the problem
is to move the brushes around to align with the new ENA. Unfortunately, the
position of the ENA depends on the amount of distortion, which in turn depends on
the size of the armature current. The greater the armature or load current, the
greater the distortion of the field and the further around the brushes need to be
moved. Therefore, this form of correction is only suitable for fixed load generators.
The best way of reducing or even eliminating armature reaction is to fit
compensating windings. Compensating windings are small windings, wound in
series with the armature and fitted into slots cut in the pole faces of the main fields.
In the lower left diagram, coil 1 is shown just prior to being shorted by the brush, the
current flowing at maximum value from left to right. Coil 2 is shown just having
been shorted by the brush, current flowing at maximum value in the opposite
direction from right to left.
When coil 1 is shorted by the brush (centre diagram), the current must drop to zero,
ready for it to go to maximum value in the opposite direction when it comes of the
brush (right diagram).
Unfortunately the coil has inductance and when shorted produces a back emf called
reactance voltage. The reactance voltage tries to maintain current flow in the coil,
preventing it dropping to zero whilst shorted by the brush. This results in an excess
of current in the coil when it leaves the brush, which produces a spark from the
trailing edge of the commutator to the brush. The sparking is called reactive
sparking.
The field assembly consists of a cylindrical frame, or yoke, onto which the pole
pieces are bolted. Wound around each pole piece is a field coil. The yoke has a
low reluctance and provides a path for the main field of the machine. To reduce
circulating currents the pole pieces and sometimes the yoke of the machine are
laminated.
The armature core also provides a path for the main field and is also of low
reluctance and laminated. The armature windings are located in slots cut in the
core, being wedged in with insulation to prevent them being thrown out by
centrifugal forces.
The armature windings are connected to risers attached to the commutator
segments. The commutator consisting of copper segments separated by mica
insulation.
The brush gear assembly consists of a holder and rocker. The holder allows the
brushes to slide up a down without allowing them to move laterally, the rocker
allows the brushes to be rotated around the commutator so they can be positioned
on the magnetic neutral axis.
On 'No-load', there is no armature current and therefore no field current. The only
voltage generated is due to residual magnetism within the fields.
As the load current increases, the field current increases and the terminal voltage
rises. The increase in voltage more than compensates for the losses due to
armature reactance and internal resistance. As the load current increases, the
voltage continues to rise until saturation of the field occurs.
A series generator therefore has a rising characteristic and is generally only used as
a line booster.
The shunt generator has a falling characteristic and is used for the production of
d.c. power on aircraft.
For a shunt generator to self excite additional conditions to those already mentioned
must exist:
The field resistance must be below a critical value.
The load resistance must not be too low or it will short the field.
3.3.1.15 Ventilation
The maximum output from a d.c. generator is determined primarily by its ability to
dissipate heat. Methods of cooling vary. Large, low powered generators are
normally cooled naturally by convection and radiation. Smaller, high power
generators will need some form of cooling system that blows or sucks air through
the generator. This may be achieved using ram air from a propeller slipstream, or
directly from movement of the aircraft through the air, or by a fan attached to the
rotor shaft of the generator.
The generator output voltage is sensed at terminal G, current flowing through the
current limiter and then through the voltage coils of the voltage regulator and
RCCO. Until the RCCO closes, the generator is disconnected from the aircraft
battery and loads.
As the generator output voltage increases, the current flowing in the current and
voltage coils of the RCCO increases. At a pre-determined value, sufficient field is
produced to close the contacts of the RCCO connecting the generator to the aircraft
battery and loads. When the contacts close, load current flowing in the current coil
of the RCCO assists the voltage coil in holding the contacts closed.
The current flowing in the shunt (voltage) coil of the voltage regulator is determined
by the generator output voltage. At the regulated voltage, the pull of this coil will be
sufficient to open the contacts, inserting a resistor in series with the field and open
circuiting the accelerator winding. Operation of the voltage regulator is as
previously described.
If the load current reaches a pre-determined maximum value, the contacts of the
current limiter will open. This inserts the resistor into the field circuit, reducing the
generator output voltage and subsequently the output current (Ohms Law V/R=I).
All the time an excessive load is present, the current limiter contacts will vibrate in a
similar manner to the voltage regulator contacts.
When the engine is shut down, or if the generator output voltage falls for any
reason, current will flow from the battery to the generator. This reversed flow of
current through the RCCO current coil, causes its field to oppose the field produced
by the voltage coil. The fields cancel and the contacts of the RCCO open,
disconnecting the generator from the battery.
The resistance of the carbon pile depends on the compression applied to it.
Increasing the compression decreases the pile resistance and decreasing the
compression increases the pile resistance. Increasing the pile resistance
decreases the field current and vice versa.
Under static conditions, the carbon pile is compressed by a plate control spring,
attached to which is a soft iron armature. Under the armature is a solenoid, the coil
being connected across the generator output.
As the generator output voltage increases, the current flowing in the solenoid coil
increases, as does the pull on the soft iron armature.
At the regulated voltage, the force of the spring and the pull of the solenoid are
balanced.
Any further increase in the output voltage causes the solenoid to overcome the
spring force, decreasing the compression on the pile, increasing its resistance and
decreasing the generator output voltage.
As the output voltage falls, the pull of the solenoid reduces and the compression on
the pile increases, causing its resistance to decrease. The decrease in resistance
causes an increase in field current and an increase in the generated voltage and the
process repeats. Eventually the regulator settles down at the value of compression
required to provide the correct output voltage.
Adjustment of the regulated voltage can be achieved by adjusting a trim resistor
located in series with the voltage coil of the solenoid. Increasing the resistance
causes an increase in the generator output voltage and vice versa.
Changes in the temperature of the solenoid coil will affect its resistance and
subsequently the generators output voltage. A ballast resistor located in series with
the trim resistor provides compensation.
Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems (CE) Page 3-45
Part 3 - Electrical systems 1 ATA 24
By COBC – Issue 1 - 11 February, 2014
Changes in temperature also effect the physical size of the pile housing, varying the
amount of compression on the pile. Supporting the pile on a bi-metallic washer
provides compensation.
3.3.2.4 Adjustment
Three adjustments are provided on the voltage regulator, however, the engineer on
the line may use only one of them, the trim resistor value.
The trim resistor consists of a small variable potentiometer and provides the
engineer with a means of adjusting the regulated output voltage. Trim resistors
allow approximately 1.5 volts of adjustment.
The voltage coil circuit resistance can also be adjusted by varying the ballast
resistance. The ballast resistor is fixed and set by the manufacturer. When
selecting the ballast resistor, the manufacturer will set the trim resistor to its central
position.
The magnet core airgap is set by the manufacturer or workshop and provides for
optimum regulation at the nominal controlled voltage.
The initial compression on the carbon pile is also set by the manufacturer or
workshop and determines the degree of regulation and stability factor of the
regulator. This adjustment is regarded as the characteristic setting of the regulator
and ensures that over the working range of the pile, the spring force and magnetic
force balance irrespective of the armature position.
The carbon pile voltage regulator eliminates the electrical noise of the vibrating
contact type voltage regulator, and has no contacts to wear or burn. However, the
carbon pile regulator provided fairly poor regulation due to mechanical stiction and
poor temperature compensation, even with a ballast resistor.
The output from the alternator is rectified within the machine to produce d.c. power
which is used to supply the aircraft electrical system. As the output voltage
increases, the voltage applied to potential divider R1, R2 and RV1 also increases.
At the regulated voltage the zener diode conducts, switching on TR1. TR1 turning
on causes TR2 and TR3 to switch off, open circuiting the alternator field and
reducing the alternator output voltage.
As soon as the output voltage starts to fall, the zener diode will again stop
conducting. TR3 will switch off, TR1 and TR2 will both switch on and the field
current will be restored, increasing the alternator output. Rapid switching of the
transistors will maintain the alternator output voltage at the regulated value.
Under these conditions field current is flowing and the generator is producing a
terminal voltage that is below the regulated voltage. Applied to the cathode (left) of
the zener D1 is the generator output voltage and on the anode (right) is a proportion
of the generated voltage as determined by the potential divider R1, R2 and R3.
As the generators output voltage increases, the voltage on the cathode (left)
increases at a faster rate than the voltage on the anode, developing a potential
difference across the zener. At the regulated voltage, the potential across the zener
will be sufficient to cause breakdown and conduction.
When the zener conducts a voltage drop is produced across R4 making the base of
transistor T1 negative with respect to the emitter, turning it on. Due to the voltage
drop across diode D2 the base of transistor T2 goes positive with respect to the
emitter and T2 turns off. Open circuiting the field.
The zener now has a decreasing voltage on its cathode (left) but the voltage on the
anode is held high by capacitor C1, thus zener D1 quickly ceases to conduct,
returning the circuit to its original condition ready for the sequence to repeat.
Adjustment of the output voltage can be achieved by varying the position of the
wiper on variable resistor R2. This increases or decreases the value of the
generated voltage required on the cathode (left) of the zener in order to cause
conduction, thereby varying the regulated voltage.
Although the generator switch provides ultimate control of the generator contactor,
the switch is normally left in the 'on' or 'auto' position. Operation of the contactor
being controlled automatically by the d.c. system. This will be examined later.
To reset the generator, the reset switch must be operated, this removes the latching
supply and allows the relay to de-energise. If the fault condition is still present, the
overvoltage relay will trip again. A reset should only be attempted once, if the unit
trips again, further investigation must be carried out before attempting additional
resets.
The generator field supply passes through the normally closed contacts to the
voltage regulator. As the field voltage rises due to an overvoltage fault, the potential
across the two relay coils increases, increasing the current flow through them.
At a predetermined level, both relays will energise. The left pair of contacts open,
removing the generators field supply and decreasing the generator output voltage.
The right pair of contacts close, providing a hold on supply for the two relay coils.
To reset the system the generator switch must be selected to off and then to on
again. If the fault is still present the unit will trip the field supply again.
If one generator output voltage goes slightly high, that generator will take more load.
When the loads on the generators are equal or „balanced‟, the voltage drop across
the compensating windings of each generator is the same, and the potential at the
top of each winding is the same. When the potentials at the top of the
compensating windings are the same, no current flows in the equalising loop.
Whenever load current is flowing from the generators, the potentials at the top of
the compensating windings will be negative with respect to earth. If the generators
are not supplying load current, the potentials will be zero.
When the loads on the generators are not the same, the loads are said to be
„unbalanced‟. When the loads are unbalanced, the voltage drops across the
compensating windings are different, creating a potential difference across the
equalising coils that results in a current flow..
Assuming No 1 generator starts to take more than its share of the load, the voltage
at the top of its compensating winding will go more negative with respect to earth.
Because the total aircraft load is fixed, the other generator will have to take less
load. The reduction in load on No 2 generator will cause the potential at the top of
its compensating windings to go less negative with respect to earth (it will still be
negative with respect to earth).
The potential difference between the tops of the compensating windings causes a
current to flow around the load-sharing loop and through the equalising coils as
shown below.
The equalising loop is connected to the star point via contacts of the pilot or
undervoltage relay. This prevents operation of the load sharing loop until the
generator output voltage has built up to at least 21 volts.
When operating as a generator, the shunt, compensating and interpole windings are
used. The series field is used only for starting purpose. The shunt field is
connected in the conventional voltage control circuit for the generator.
Compensating and interpole windings provide almost sparkless commutation from
no load to full load.
because the heavy current drain of the starter motor would damage the battery.
This is not the general case, the majority of aircraft are designed to be started using
the battery, this enables the aircraft to be independent of ground resources. The
battery will however be disconnected from the bus when the ground power is
connected and care must be taken to ensure the ground power unit is capable of
supplying the current required by the starter motor.
Closing the motor relay allows a very high current to flow to the motor. Since this
current flows through the coil of the undercurrent relay, it closes. Closing the
undercurrent relay completes a circuit from the positive bus to the motor relay coil,
ignition relay coil, and the battery cut-out relay coil. The start switch is allowed to
return to its normal "off" position and all units continue to operate.
The engine selector switch shown has five positions ('1, 2, 3, 4, and off'), and is
turned to the position corresponding to the engine to be started. The power selector
switch is used to select the electrical, circuit applicable to the power source (ground
power unit or battery) being used. The air-start switch, when placed in the "normal"
position, arms the ground starting circuit. When placed in the "air-start" position,
the igniters can be energised independently of the throttle ignition switch. The start
switch, when in the "start" position, completes the circuit to the starter-generator of
the engine selected to be started, and causes the engine to rotate. The engine start
panel shown above also includes a battery switch.
3.5.1 AC GENERATION
The generation of an alternating current has already been examined in the section
on d.c. generation. The rules concerning the size of the generated emf and the
direction of current flow are as previously described.
Instead of using a commutator to ensure the current flows in one direction through
the load, the load is connected via slip rings and the current flow is alternating, as
shown below.
Another factor which determines the output frequency of the ac generator is its
physical construction. A generator with 4 field poles will produce two complete
cycles of output for each revolution of the shaft.
Similarly, a generator with six field poles will produce three complete cycles for each
revolution and so on. A cycle is complete whenever a conductor has passed under
the influence of two dissimilar magnetic poles.
From the foregoing it will be seen that the output frequency of an ac generator is
given by:
F = Revs per second × No of pairs of poles
The speed of rotation is normally given in revolutions per minute (rpm), therefore
the output frequency of is calculated from the following formula:
NP
Frequency =
60
A resistive load also tends to slow the generator down, this results in both the
output frequency and voltage decreasing. The output can be restored by providing
more drive torque to overcome the extra load.
The voltage can be restored by increasing the field current, however this will
generate additional heat in the machine.
If a capacitive load is placed on a generator, the stator field is advanced by 90 and
now assists the main field, this increases the overall field strength, increasing the
generator output voltage.
A single phase a.c. generator consists of a single output winding wound on a pair of
poles and a rotor fitted with either a permanent or an electromagnet. The
electromagnet is energised from a d.c. supply via brushes and slip rings.
The two output windings are located at 90 to each other, so that when maximum
emf is induced in one winding, zero emf is induced in the other winding.
The output from the generator will be two voltages of equal amplitude and
frequency, but, phase displaced from each other by 90.
A delta connected system has no neutral line and is generally used on small
generators supplying virtually fixed, balanced loads.
If the system is balanced and symmetrical then the total power is three times the
above value.
If the output voltage falls, the GCU increases the field strength by increasing the
mark : space ratio of the signal applied to the field. This increases the average
current applied to the field, increasing the field strength, thereby increasing the
generator output voltage. If the generator output increases, the mark: space ratio is
reduced, decreasing the average current applied to the field and decreasing the
generator output voltage.
The CSD is mounted on and driven by the engine accessory gearbox. The
generator may be mounted on the forward face of the gearbox but it is still driven by
The CSD is normally attached to the gearbox by a quick attach/detach ring, this
reduces the time taken to replace a CSD.
3.5.5.4 Construction
The CSD consists essentially of two positive displacement, axial slipper piston type
hydraulic units and a mechanical axial geared differential which performs the speed
summing function.
It is important that the CSD is only disconnected with the engine running and
only reconnected with the engine stationary.
If the APU was then started, the BTB of the good system would open before
allowing the APB to connect the generator to the unserviceable bus.
During ground maintenance, either the APU or ground power can be used to power
the complete electrical system via both BTB's and either the APB or EPC.
Non essential loads generally consist of hot food containers and galley electrical
loads. An Electrical Load Control Unit (ELCU) is used on some aircraft to control
the shedding of galley loads.
The galley relay is relaxed for an automatic reset load shed, whilst the ELCU supply
contactor is locked out for latched fault. The ELCU supply contactor is reset by a
discrete signal from the reset switch, or by removing and reapplying power to the
ELCU.
If any of the above conditions are not met, there will be an a.c. voltage across the
contacts. The frequency of the voltage is known as the beat frequency and will
depend on how far out of synchronisation the two generators are.
If two lamps are connected across the contacts they will flash on and off at the
same rate as the beat frequency. If all of the above conditions are met there will be
no voltage across the contacts and the lamps will be off.
Two synchronising lights are used, one connected between the generator phase A
output and the phase A synchronising bus, the other between the phase B output
and the phase B synchronising bus.
The generator connected to the lights is determined by the position of a rotary
switch, this switch also determining which generator is connected to the frequency
meter and voltmeter.
Prior to starting an engine all the GCB's will be open and all the field relays and
BTB's will be closed.
On starting No1 engine the rotary switch is selected to position 1, this connects
phase C of No1 generator to the synchronising lights and phase B to the voltage
and frequency meters. The synchronising lights, flashing at 400 Hz, will appear ON.
No1 generator frequency control knob is then adjusted until the required frequency
is obtained on the frequency meter.
Having set No1 generator, the rotary switch is selected to position 2, this connects
phase C of No2 generator to the synchronising lights and phase B to the frequency
and voltage meters. The output frequency of No2 generator is then adjusted to the
same value as No1 generator using the frequency control knob.
The output from the transformer secondary is half wave rectified by diode D1 and
applied to C1 and R1. C1 will charge with the modulated wave and discharge
through R1 as the waveform dies away.
The RC time constant of this circuit allows C1 to fully discharge if the beat
frequency is less than 4 Hz, but not is it is above 4 Hz. Above 4 Hz there is
sufficient base - emitter voltage to cause Q1 to conduct, its collector is almost at
earth potential and the zener is not conducting.
The size of the current flow in the Burden resistors depends on the size of the load
imbalance and the direction is determined by whether the generator is taking more
or less load. Therefore, the current flowing in the Burden resistors can be used as
an error signal to indicate when the generator loads are unbalanced.
Both of these voltages are rectified and applied either side of R1, creating a biasing
voltage that is used to change the regulator setting, increasing the excitation if the
generator is providing too little load, decreasing the excitation if it is taking too much
reactive load.
If there is no load imbalance, the Burden voltage will be zero and the two rectifier
outputs will be the same. Under these conditions no biasing signal is developed
across R1 and the regulator setting is not altered.
Any real load imbalances produce voltages in the Burden resistors that are 90
degrees out of phase with line voltage BC. When these voltages are combined by
the transformers, the magnitudes of the two resultant signals are the same,
therefore no bias signal is produced across R1.
The second system uses a mutual reactor, this device produces a 90 degree phase
shift between the primary current and the secondary voltage.
The primary winding of the mutual reactor is connected in the sensing loop in place
of the Burden resistor. Any load imbalances cause a current to flow in the primary
winding, producing an emf in the secondary that lags the current by 90 degrees.
When no fault is present, the emf induced in each current transformer is the same
and the resultant current flowing in the resistor is zero. With no current flowing in
the resistor, no voltage is dropped across it and no trip signal is produced.
Under fault conditions, the emf's induced in the CT's are different, producing a
resultant current flow in the resistor. Current flowing in the resistor causes a voltage
drop across it, producing a trip signal. The trip signal is passed to the GCU, which
will trip the breakers necessary to isolate the fault.
Connections for a single phase are as shown above, connection of the CT's on the
other phases being identical. The two CT's are connected in series opposition, in
series with two relay coils.
Under no fault conditions the emf's induced in each CT are equal and opposite and
no current flows in the relay coils.
3.6.1 INVERTERS
There are two main reasons for converting d.c. to a.c;
To produce a source of frequency controlled a.c. for use on either d.c. or
frequency wild a.c. powered aircraft.
To produce an emergency a.c. power supply. This may be for use on a
frequency wild or a constant frequency a.c. powered aircraft.
There are two basic types of inverter, rotary and static.
At start-up the motors rotor is stationary and therefore producing no back emf.
The potential across the relay coil is therefore almost zero and no current flows
through it.
With no current in the relay coil the relay remains un-energised putting the resistor
in series with the armature.
As the motor speed increases, the back emf and the potential across the relay coil
increase. Eventually the potential across the coil will be sufficient to cause a current
flow through it that will energise the relay. When energised, the relay contacts short
the field resistor, removing it from the armature circuit.
The output voltage can be varied by adjusting the variable resistor RV1.
A rotating field is produced by connecting the three phase inverter output to three
star connected windings.
The rotating field induces emf's in the drag cup, producing eddy currents. The fields
produced by the eddy currents react with the main field and rotate the cup. A cam
attached to the cup also rotates, the movement being restrained by a spring.
If the phase rotation, output voltage and output frequency are correct the cam will
hold open the pair of contacts that operate the inverter failure warning.
If a phase is lost, the phase rotation is incorrect, or the frequency or output voltage
decrease, the eddy currents and resultant drag cup field strength will decrease.
The control spring torque will then be greater than the torque produced by
interaction of the fields and the cup will not rotate as far, allowing the switch to close
and operate the inverter failure warning.
Alternately switching SCR1 and SCR2 'on' and 'off' produces an alternating current
in the secondary winding.
Control of the SCR's is maintained by a square wave oscillator, this will alternately
turn on the SCR's at 1.25mS intervals, keeping the frequency constant at 400 Hz.
When SCR1 is turned 'on it conducts, the current rising at a rate dependent on the
circuit time constant. Whilst the current is rising an emf is induced in the secondary
winding, producing a current flow. Once conducting, capacitors C1 and C2 start to
charge, right plates positive.
1.25mS after SCR1 was turned on, the oscillator turns SCR2 on. When SCR2 is
turned 'on', its anode (top) drops to almost earth potential, the voltage drop across it
being negligible. In order for the capacitors to maintain their charge the left plates
go negative, switching 'off' SCR1.
The current through SCR2 now rises at a rate dependent on the circuit time
constant, this induces an emf of opposite sense in the secondary winding,
producing a current flow in the opposite direction.
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1.25mS later SCR1 will be turned 'on' and the process repeats.
Voltage control is maintained by switching the SCR's 'off' before peak voltage is
reached. This is achieved by switching 'on' SCR3, the control signal coming from
the voltage regulator.
When SCR3 is switched 'on', its anode drops to almost earth potential, making the
inside plates of both capacitors drop to earth potential.
Assuming SCR1 was conducting and the capacitors were charging right plates
positive, the potentials being 0v / 5V / 10V. When SCR3 is switched 'on' the
potentials would change to -5V / 0V / 5V, switching 'off' SCR1.
When SCR2 is switched 'on' (1.25mS after SCR1 was switched 'on'), the potentials
across the capacitors would be -10V / -5V / 0V, switching 'off' SCR3, making it
ready to be triggered again for switching off SCR2.
3.7.1 FUSES
A fuse is a thermal device designed primarily to protect the cables of a circuit
against the flow of short-circuit and overload currents. In its basic form, a fuse
consists of a low melting point fusible element or link, enclosed in a glass or
ceramic casing which not only protects the element, but also localizes any flash
which may occur when “fusing”. The element is joined to end caps on the casing,
the caps in turn, providing the connection of the element with the circuit it is
designed to protect. Under short-circuit or overload current conditions, heating
occurs, but before this can affect the circuit cables or other elements, the fusible
element, which has a much lower current-carrying capacity, melts and interrupts the
circuit. The materials most commonly used for the elements are tin, lead, alloy of tin
and bismuth, silver or copper in either the pure or alloyed state.
The construction and current ratings of fuses vary, to permit a suitable choice for
specific electrical installations and proper protection of individual circuits. Fuses are,
in general, selected on the basis of the lowest rating consistent with reliable system
operation. For emergency circuits, i.e., circuits the failure of which may result in the
inability of an aircraft to maintain controlled flight and effect a safe landing, fuses are
of the highest rating possible consistent with cable protection. For these circuits it is
also necessary that the cable and fuse combination supplying the power be
carefully engineered taking into account short-term transients in order to ensure
maximum utilization of the vital equipment without circuit interruption.
Being thermal devices, fuses are also influenced by ambient temperature variations.
These can affect to some extent the minimum “blowing” current, as well as
“blowing” time at higher currents, and so must also be taken in account. Typical
examples of fuses currently in use in light and heavy-duty circuits, are shown in Fig.
7.l(a)-(b) respectively. The light-duty fuse is screwed into its holder (in some types a
bayonet cap fitting is used) which is secured to the fuse panel by a fixing nut. The
circuit cable is connected to terminals located in the holder, the terminals making
contact with corresponding connections on the element cartridge. A small hole is
drilled through the centre of the cap to permit the insertion of a fuse test probe.
In some transport aircraft, the fuse holders are of the self-indicating type
incorporating a lamp and a resistor, connected in such a way that the lamp lights
when the fusible element ruptures.
The factors governing the selection of circuit breaker ratings and locations, are
similar to those already described for fuses.
The design and construction of circuit breakers varies, but in general they consist of
three main assemblies; a bi-metal thermal element, a contact type switch unit and a
mechanical latching mechanism. A push-pull button is also provided for manual
resetting after thermal tripping has occurred, and for manual tripping when it is
required to switch off the supply to the circuit of a system. The construction and
operation is illustrated schematically above. At (a) the circuit breaker is shown in its
normal operating position; current passes through the switch unit contacts and the
thermal element, which thus carries the full current supplied to the load being
protected. At normal current values heat is produced in the thermal element, but is
radiated away fairly quickly, and after an initial rise the temperature remains
constant. If the current should exceed the normal operating value due to a short
circuit, the temperature of the element begins to build up, and since metals
comprising the thermal element have different coefficients of expansion, the
element becomes distorted as indicated in (b). The distortion eventually becomes
sufficient to release the latch mechanism and allows the control spring to open the
switch unit contacts, thus isolating the load from the supply. At the same time, the
push-pull button extends and in many types of circuit breaker a white band on the
button is exposed to provide a visual indication of the tripped condition. The
temperature rise and degree of distortion produced in the thermal element are
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proportional to the value of the current and the time for which it is applied. The
ambient temperature under which the circuit breaker operates also has an influence
on circuit breaker operation and this, together with operation current values and
tripping times, is derived from characteristic curves supplied by the manufacturer.
After a circuit breaker has tripped, the distorted element begins to cool down and
reverts itself and the latch mechanism back to normal, and once the fault which
caused tripping has been cleared, the circuit can again be completed by pushing in
the circuit breaker button. This “resetting” action closes the main contacts and re-
engages the push-button with the latch mechanism. If it is required to isolate the
power supply to a circuit due to a suspected fault, or during testing, a circuit breaker
may be used as a switch simply by pulling out the button. In some designs a
separate button is provided for this purpose.
Some circuit breakers incorporate a separate manual trip push button. A cover may
sometimes be fitted to prevent inadvertent operation of the button.
In three-phase a.c. circuits, triple-pole circuit breakers are used, and their
mechanisms are so arranged that in the event of a fault current in any one or all
three of the phases, all three poles will trip simultaneously. Similar tripping will take
place should an unbalanced phase condition develop as a result of a phase
becoming “open-circuited”.
The three trip mechanisms actuate a common push-pull button.
It incorporates a fusible element which is, in effect, a single strip of tinned copper,
drilled and shaped at each end to form lug type connections, with the central portion
“waisted” to the required width to form the fusing area. The central portion is
enclosed by a rectangular ceramic housing, one side of which is furnished with an
inspection window which, depending on the type, may be of glass or mica.
The central portion is enclosed by a rectangular ceramic housing, one side of which
is furnished with an inspection window which may be glass or ceramic.
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3.7.4 LIMITING RESISTORS
Limiting Resistors provide another form of protection particularly in d.c. circuits in
which the initial current surge is very high, e.g. starter motor and inverter circuits,
circuits containing highly-capacitive loads. When such circuits are switched on they
impose current surges of such a magnitude as to lower the voltage of the complete
system for a time period, the length of which is a function of the time response of
the generating and voltage regulating system. In order therefore to keep the current
surges within limits, the starting sections of the appropriate circuits incorporate a
resistance element which is automatically connected in series and then shorted out
when the current has fallen to a safe value.
The diagram above shows the application of a limiting resistor to a turbine engine
starter motor circuit incorporating a time switch; the initial current flow may be as
high as 1500 A. The resistor is shunted across the contacts of a shorting relay
which is controlled by the time switch. When the starter push switch is operated,
current from the busbar flows through the coil of the main starting relay, thus
energizing it. Closing of the relay contacts completes a circuit to the time switch
motor, and also to the starter motor via the limiting resistor which thus reduces the
peak current and initial starting torque of the motor. After a pre-determined time
interval, which allows for a build-up of engine motoring speed, the torque load on
the starter motor decreases and the time switch operates a set of contacts which
complete a circuit to the shorting relay. From the diagram, with the relay energized
the current from the busbar passes direct to the starter motor, and the limiting
resistor is shorted out. When ignition takes place and the engine reaches what is
termed “self-sustaining speed”, the power supply to the starter motor circuit is then
switched off.
3.8.1.2 Starting
The engine is started using an electric starter motor and a High Energy Ignition
system, both being controlled by the master control switch via a centrifugal switch.
Power for starting is taken from the main battery or the APU battery.
3.8.1.3 Cooling
Cooling and ventilation of the APU compartment is normally by an accessory
gearbox driven fan. Air may also be ducted from the fan to be used for cooling of
the a.c. generator and engine oil.
3.8.1.6 Operation
All the switches, warning lights and instruments for starting, stopping and normal
operation are located on control panels on the flight deck and in compartments
accessible from outside the aircraft.
The APU can normally only be started from inside the aircraft but for safety reasons
can be shut down from either control panel.
Operation of APU is monitored by an Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) indicating
system and either an hour meter or an elapsed running time indicator.
Other items monitored depend on the installation but will include one or more of the
following:
starting current
engine rpm
generator output voltage and frequency
generator bearing temp
3.8.2.6 Indications
In addition to 'power available', 'not in use' and "power on" indications, the
frequency and voltage can be monitored using the main voltmeter and frequency
meters. This may entail selection of ground power on a meter switch. On some
systems it is also possible to monitor the current supplied by the GPU. the indication
being provided by a dedicated ammeter located on the ground power control panel.