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International Journal of Project Management xxx (2009) xxx–xxx

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Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural

construction project teams: The case of Kenya and UK
E.G. Ochieng a,*, A.D.F. Price b
a
Aberdeen Business School, The Robert Gordon University, Garthdee Road, Aberdeen AB10 7QE, UK
b
Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK

Received 4 August 2008; received in revised form 13 July 2009; accepted 4 August 2009

Abstract

The increasing global nature of construction projects has highlighted the importance of multiculturalism and the new challenges it
brings to project execution. However, there has, as yet, been no empirical work that quantifies explicitly the extent to which communi-
cation determines the success of multicultural projects. This paper explores the ability of project managers in Kenya and the UK in com-
municating effectively on multicultural projects. The study examines the cultural factors that influence communication and explores how
communication can be made effective in multicultural project environments. Using data from 20 interviews in Kenya (10) and UK (10),
the results show that communications within multicultural project environments can be effective when project managers demonstrate an
awareness of cultural variation. Participants further highlighted that, one of the critical components of building multicultural project
teams is the creation and development of effective cross cultural collectivism, trust, communication and empathy in leadership. The study
underscores an urgent need for future research to investigate effective guidelines or strategies for effective collectivism and communica-
tion in multicultural project teams.
Ó 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd and IPMA.

Keywords: Multiculturalism; Intercultural; Communication; Kenya; UK; Project success

1. Introduction tions and are often unable to respond to cultural factors

Multicultural project teams have become more common
in recent years, and contemporary international manage-
ment literature has identified that the management of mul-
ticultural teams is an important aspect of human resource
management. Recent studies have focussed on the positive
effects of using multicultural teams, for example, Earley
and Mosakowski (2000) stated that multicultural teams
are used because they are perceived to out-perform mono-
culture teams, especially when performance requires multi-
ple skills and judgement. However, there has been little
research into construction-specific multicultural teams,
and many construction organisations, although expanding
into global operations do not fully appreciate the implica-
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1224 263005
E-mail address: E.G.Ochieng@rgu.ac.uk (E.G. Ochieng).
affecting their project teams.
In the last twenty years project management has devel-
oped considerably with a much greater understanding of
the key variables that lead to project success. Project per-
formance has been widely researched by a number of
researchers (Baiden, 2006; Cheng et al., 2006; Chervier,
2003; Kumaraswamy et al., 2004; Ochieng, 2008), and the
findings have clearly illustrated that best project perfor-
mance is achieved when the whole project team is fully inte-
grated and aligned with project objectives. During this
period, there has been a change in the way that many major
heavy construction engineering projects are delivered. This
is especially noticeable in Western Europe where local lev-
els of investment have dropped and many project manage-
ment contractors are now working on projects in other
parts of the world (Weatherley, 2006). The increased appli-
cation and development of rapid worldwide electronic

0263-7863/$36.00 Ó 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd and IPMA.

doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001

Please cite this article in press as: Ochieng, E.G., Price, A.D.F., Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural construction project teams: The case of Kenya
and UK. Int J Project Manage (2009), doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

2 E.G. Ochieng, A.D.F. Price / International Journal of Project Management xxx (2009) xxx–xxx

communications has led to a number of heavy construction
engineering projects being designed and developed in dis-
persed locations many thousands of miles away from the
actual construction sites. In addition, there has been an
inclination by clients to develop and undertake such pro-
jects in partnership with other companies as joint ventures,
often collaborating with local companies based in the terri-
tory where the assets will be built. This has resulted in more
multicultural project teams with team members from differ-
ent cultures and backgrounds working together.
A number of authors including Weatherley (2006) agree
that project success is difficult enough to accomplish where
the project team is located close to the construction project
environment, and the situation is made considerably com-
plex for multicultural project teams, that are widely sepa-
rated geographically and that have dissimilar
organisational and regional cultures. The geographical
division of multicultural project teams poses its own com-
munication challenges. Emmitt and Gorse (2007) have
shown that, for factual data transfer, a number of commu-
nication problems have been addressed due to the develop-
ment of rapid global information systems and
telecommunications, however, when it comes to multicul-
tural project teams many issues remain unresolved. For
example, the loss of face-to-face communication can lead
to misunderstanding and the loss of non-verbal signals –
such as eye contact and body language. This can subse-
quently lead to difficulty in achieving mutual trust and con-
fidence within multicultural project teams. It is also difficult
to manage or supervise multicultural project teams without
face-to-face contact or to confer or develop relationships
(Weatherley, 2006).
There is a need for increased research efforts in under-
standing influential factors that affect multicultural project
teams. There is mounting evidence and opinion indicating
that integrated team work is a primary key in efforts
towards improving product delivery within the construc-
tion industry (Egan, 2002). Given the uniqueness of culture
to particular project teams, and its persistent influence in
societies and organisations this study presents a balance
between the experiences of project managers from a Euro-
pean (UK) and African perspectives (Kenya). The study
aimed to explore how project managers with different cul-
tural background have managed communications on mul-
ticultural project teams. Specifically, the study was
designed to explore the efficacy of cross-cultural communi-
cations strategies in heavy construction engineering pro-
ject. For the purposes of this study, heavy engineering
encompasses industrial projects which include power
plants, pharmaceutical plants, refinery plants, highways
and pipelines. Heavy engineering, projects can range from
small to very large, and they are usually carried out for the
client by contractors and sub contractors. The nature of
these projects means the wealth of heavy engineering
design and construction industry is inextricably bound up
with the health of the world’s economies. Clients can
include oil, chemical, pharmaceutical, food manufacturing
and water companies all over the world (on and offshore).
For this reason, contractors and sub contractors work with
a cross-section of clients in a variety of economic sectors.
To ensure that the findings encapsulated the key contextual
issues in multicultural teamwork, cultural differences per-
taining to communication, between participants from
Kenya and the UK were also investigated. A brief exami-

Table 1
Cultural complexity projects managed by participants.
Year managed Participant Project Country of Impacts of cultural Project outcome Participant country
Implementation complexity of origin
2004 A Refinery plant Dubai Impacts were seen Successful England
2005 B Power plant Kenya Impacts were seen Successful Kenya
2002 C Pharmaceutical plants UK Impacts were seen Successful England
2005 D Refinery plant Azerbaijan Impacts were seen Unsuccessful England
2005 E Refinery plant Azerbaijan Impacts were seen Successful England
2005 F Refinery plant Azerbaijan Impacts were seen Successful England
2004 G Power plant Kenya No impact in project Successful Kenya
2004 H Dam Kenya Impacts were seen Successful Kenya
2003 I Food plant UK No impact in project Successful better England
than expected
2001 J Refinery plant Saudi Arabia Impacts were seen Successful England
2003 K Refinery plant Azerbaijan Impacts were seen Successful England
2003 L Power plant Kenya Impacts were seen Successful Kenya
2003 M Power plant Kenya Impacts were seen Successful Kenya
2004 N Dam Kenya Impacts were seen Successful Kenya
2004 O Dam Ethiopia Impacts were seen Successful Kenya
2004 P Dam Ethiopia Impacts were seen Successful Kenya
2005 Q Power plant Kenya Impacts were seen Successful Kenya
2003 R Manufacturing plant Hong Kong Impacts were seen Successful England
2004 S Refinery plant Azerbaijan Impacts were seen Successful England
2002 T Dam Kenya Impacts were seen Successful Kenya

Please cite this article in press as: Ochieng, E.G., Price, A.D.F., Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural construction project teams: The case of Kenya
and UK. Int J Project Manage (2009), doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
E.G. Ochieng, A.D.F. Price / International Journal of Project Management xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
nation of communication, multicultural project teams and
construction industry is undertaken before presenting the
methodology, key findings and conclusion.
2. Defining communication in a multicultural environment
Axley (1984) considered communication as metaphori-
cal pipeline along which information is transformed from
one individual to another. Thomason (1988), defined ‘‘com-
munication as the lifeblood of any system of human interac-
tion as without it, no meaningful or coherent activity can take
place”. Nevertheless, defining communication is obscure as
it is such a multi-dimensional and imprecise concept.
Despite, the difficulties inherent in defining communica-
tion, it is essential that a working definition of the concept
is developed to fortify the analysis of communication prac-
tice contained in this paper. In this study, communication
is viewed as a professional practice where suitable tools
and regulations can be applied in order to improve the util-
ity of the data communicated, and is a social process of
interaction between individuals.
The problematic context of communicating in multicul-
tural project teams raises questions as to how project man-
agers and clients can go about overcoming the structural
and cultural conditions and constraints which define its
operation, in order that it can develop an infrastructure
that facilitates more effective communication in the future
of heavy construction engineering sector. Moreover, it
highlights that the construction research community and
the industry need to find solutions of effecting change
within the sector in such a way as to overcome the present
and future cultural constraints on the sectors development.
In a theoretical sense, it could be argued that using effective
communication tools should be fairly straightforward,
however, the translation of theoretical perspectives actually
into practice depends upon their interpretation by the indi-
viduals. Arguably, many of those with experience of work-
ing with multicultural project teams have yet to develop
skills to cope with such a challenging communication envi-
ronment. Given that, multicultural project teams involve
people from a wide variety of cultures, there is no guaran-
tee that the use of espoused good practices will result in
successful project outcomes. In this paper, the phenome-
non of communication as it appears in multicultural con-
struction project teams is explored.
3. Background on multicultural construction project teams
The management and development of construction pro-
ject teams within a global context unavoidably leads to a
consideration of diversity and related challenges. Within
overseas construction projects, it is essential for organisa-
tions to help their project managers to appreciate the inter-
national context and develop the ability to understand
everyday issues from different cultural perspectives. Bart-
lett and Goshal (1989) identified the main challenge facing
organisations intending to work overseas as the introduc-
Please cite this article in press as: Ochieng, E.G., Price, A.D.F., Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural construction project teams: The case of Kenya
and UK. Int J Project Manage (2009), doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001
3
tion of practices, which balance global competitiveness,
multinational flexibility and the building of global learning
capability. The authors further argued that organisations
must develop the cultural sensitivity and ability to manage
and build future capabilities if they are to achieve this
balance.
Ely and Thomas (2001) and Jehn et al. (1999) demon-
strated that diversity increases the number of different per-
spectives, styles, knowledge and insights that the team
bring to complex problems. The world’s most innovative
firms, such as Microsoft, took advantage of this by intro-
ducing multicultural teamwork. Unfortunately, in contrast
to sectors such as IT, manufacturing and aerospace, the
construction industry has not sufficiently taken into
account the issue of cultural complexity and its influence
upon team dynamics. There is indication to an assimila-
tionist attitude, which largely ignores the needs of different
project teams, expecting them to become accustomed to the
dominant industry, national or organisational culture
(Loosemore and Al Muslmani, 1999; Loosemore and
Chau, 2002). However, current thinking on team integra-
tion requires organisations to value explicitly multicultural
teamwork, to adapt to it and use it to generate improve-
ments in project work performance and team effectiveness.
However, it should also be noted that linking different indi-
vidual cultures to project outcomes is controversial. The
understanding of the behavioural dynamics of multicul-
tural project teams in construction is still in its infancy.
Although project teams from different cultures may well
bring different perspectives and styles, the necessary condi-
tions, likely consequences and overall performance impli-
cations are yet to be universally accepted.
Existing literature on cultural diversity examines team
members’ demographical backgrounds and other factors
relevant to their cultural characteristics, values and discern-
ments (Ansari and Jackson, 1996; Jackson et al., 1992;
Kandola and Fullerton, 1998; Watson et al., 1993). The
cultural diversity of a project team has a number of bene-
fits, including the variety of perspectives, skills and per-
sonal attributes that multicultural team individuals can
contribute (Maznevski, 1994). As confirmed by McLeod
and Lobel (1992) diverse groups generate more ideas of
high quality in brainstorming tasks. Culturally diverse
teams perform better than homogenous teams when it
comes to identifying problems and generating answers
Jackson et al. (1992). According to Townsend et al.
(1998), organisations that utilise multicultural teams make
significant gains in productivity. For example, Ng and
Tung (1998) established that culturally diverse teams of a
multi-branch financial services firm reported higher levels
of financial profitability compared to their culturally
homogenous counterparts. More recently, Marquardt and
Hovarth (2001) established that by assembling the energy
and synergy of individuals from different backgrounds,
organisations could generate creative approaches to prob-
lems and challenges that are faced by corporate teams in
project-based operations.
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4 E.G. Ochieng, A.D.F. Price / International Journal of Project Management xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
It has also been ascertained that communication in mul-
ticultural teams stimulates the formation of an emergent
team culture. Unlike homogenous or monoculture teams,
multicultural teams cannot refer to a pre-existing identity
because of their short lived individual project-based life
cycle Earley and Mosakowski (2000). They develop and
depend on a team culture of straightforward rules, perfor-
mance expectations and individual perceptions. Earley and
Mosakowski (2000) further confirmed that an effective
multicultural team has a strong emergent culture as shared
individual prospects facilitate communication and team
performance. This suggests that the positive effect and trust
generated by the perceived shared understanding can fuel
performance improvement and boost team effectiveness.
Most importantly, effective interaction among project team
members can facilitate the formation of a strong emergent
team culture Pearson and Nelson (2003). Nonetheless, mul-
ticultural teams are particularly susceptible to communica-
tions problems that can affect team cohesion. Individuals in
multicultural project teams have different perceptions of
the environment, motives and behaviour intentions. Shaw
(1981) argued that the effects of such differences could be
visible in lower team performance due to impeded social
cohesion. Further research by Evans and Dion (1991), on
team cohesion and team performance showed a positive
correlation between these two variables. Elron (1997)
asserted that cohesive teams respond faster to changes
and challenges and are more efficient.
Managing cultural differences and cross-cultural con-
flicts is generally the most common challenge to multicul-
tural teams (Elron, 1997), however, there has been limited
research on ‘‘people issues” within multicultural teams in
construction management literature. Richardson (1996)
noted that the recognition of techniques such as lean pro-
duction and business process re-engineering are indicative
of this point of view, as they mirror fashions in mainstream
management, which are themselves based on a traditional
culture of prescription and control. People management
in construction has become an important topic within the
construction industry (Dainty et al., 2007; Egan, 1998).
The industry needs to address its poor performance in peo-
ple management by focusing on cultural issues (Dainty
et al., 2007). Cultural issues among team individuals can
cause conflict, misunderstanding and poor performance
(Shenkar and Zeira, 1992). Five of the most distinctive chal-
lenges managers face are: developing team cohesiveness;
maintaining communication richness; dealing with coordi-
nation and control issues; handling geographic distances
and dispersion of teams; and managing cultural diversity,
differences and conflicts (Pearson and Nelson, 2003). Con-
struction project managers from different countries are
likely to translate and respond differently to the same stra-
tegic issues or team tasks because they have distinct percep-
tions of environmental opportunities and threats.
While many researchers have investigated culture in
construction (Kandola and Fullerton, 1998; Meek, 1998;
Barthorpe et al., 2000, 1999), understanding of cross cul-
Please cite this article in press as: Ochieng, E.G., Price, A.D.F., Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural construction project teams: The case of Kenya
and UK. Int J Project Manage (2009), doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001
tural communication on multicultural project teams is
insufficiently developed. Furthermore, the industry has
not sufficiently responded to cultural issues facing its work-
force within the construction industry. Heavy international
engineering construction projects can involve multinational
project teams from different political, legal, economic and
cultural backgrounds. As the environment is becoming
more complex and changes occur at a rapid rate, multicul-
tural construction project teams must improve their ability
to address such external challenges. There is plenty of data
on how to lead an international organisation, but these
data are often not pertinent to construction project man-
agement. The sense of belonging to a group gives a feeling
of safety and comfort to a team member (Schein, 1985).
This feeling gives the team better options for responding
to project challenges. It also breaks the comfort zones
and can help foster innovative solutions to project issues
that might arise.
4. Aspiration of the construction industry
According to Clark and Ip (1999), trans-global eco-
nomic developments offer an opportunity to introduce
products utilising up-to-date knowledge in a cost-effective
manner. In any construction multicultural project team,
it is essential for the senior managers to be cross-culturally
competent.
Being familiar with cultural issues empowers project
leaders with the requisite knowledge for improving the effi-
ciency of managing multicultural project teams. In the last
10 years, there has been growing research interest in soft
issues including many social and cultural factors, which
affect people management on projects (Egan, 1998; Shen-
kar and Zeira, 1992). Addressing the poor performance
of multicultural project teams remains an aspiration within
the construction industry (Baiden, 2006). There is a need
for increased research efforts in understanding influential
factors that affect managing cultural complexity and com-
munication in multicultural project teams. There is mount-
ing evidence and opinion indicating that integrated
teamwork is a primary key in efforts towards improving
product delivery within the construction industry (Egan,
2002).
Due to the demand of international construction pro-
jects involving multicultural project teams, there is a grow-
ing trend towards discussing cross-cultural complexity
more openly within the construction industry. This has
been influenced by clients in both the developing and devel-
oped countries demanding for improved people manage-
ment and communication strategies. Before exploring the
effective management of multicultural project teams, there
is a need to examine if cross-cultural complexity and cross-
cultural communication can be effectively managed. Given
the uniqueness of culture to particular project teams, and
its persistent influence in societies and organisations, this
paper presents a balance between the experiences of project
managers from a developed and developing country. The
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E.G. Ochieng, A.D.F. Price / International Journal of Project Management xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
outcome is a universal approach that should be of benefit
to a broad range of professionals and non-professionals
working with multicultural project teams within the con-
struction industry.
5. Methodology
The main form of data collection comprised semi-struc-
tured interviews with senior project managers in Kenya
and the UK. The results were particularly important in this
study as the participants were selected from a cross-section
of project teams, organisations and project environments.
The sample was designed to achieve both Kenyan and
UK participants with experience of cultural complexity
on projects. The second requirement was to select project
leaders with multicultural heavy engineering project experi-
ence. It was critical to find participants who had managed
multicultural project teams successfully and experienced
impacts of cultural complexity as illustrated in Table 1
because the management of cultural complexity was of spe-
cific to this research.
In order to investigate the factors that influenced multi-
cultural project teams it was necessary to have a range of
organisations in terms of status, size, and projects man-
aged. The eight organisations that were selected, where
20 of the participants interviewed, operated in the energy,
pharmaceutical and petrochemical sector. The selected
organisations were well balanced in terms of projects man-
aged. In general terms there was a link between the
existence of project work and the type of projects under-
taken. The 20 participants were selected on the basis of
their project management experience, with each having
long-standing familiarity in managing large and complex
projects over a period of many years. Each participant pro-
vided information regarding the heavy engineering projects
they had managed outside UK and Kenya. The nature of
these projects ranged from medium size pharmaceutical
plants to major oil plants. This allowed a variety of multi-
cultural issues to be explored within the broad context of
international project management activities. The concern
of the research was to gather multiple sources of evidence
that would validate general findings and omit any subjec-
tive bias that might arise.
Interviewee variety is essential to the quality of data
obtained in qualitative research. In this study, the aim of
interviewee variety was to explore a diverse proportion of
expert views from successful senior project managers on
cross-cultural communication within the Kenyan and UK
heavy construction industry. The main advantage of this
sample was that each participant had worked on projects
in developing countries. This allowed the authors to focus
in-depth on the experiences of each participant. This was
particularly important because the research subject is in a
research area of which there is little available data in Kenya
and the UK. The participants worked in various types of
organisation formations and project arrangements. All
participants had a practical understanding of managing
Please cite this article in press as: Ochieng, E.G., Price, A.D.F., Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural construction project teams: The case of Kenya
and UK. Int J Project Manage (2009), doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001
5
multicultural project teams and their views were considered
those of knowledgeable practitioners. Adopting a semi-
structured questionnaire provided a high degree of flexibil-
ity during the interviews. The questionnaire was initially
piloted to ensure that it met the objectives of identifying
the participants who had experienced cultural issues on
projects in developing countries. Face-to-face interviews
enabled a probing of responses to explore what the partic-
ipants were saying so as to ensure that each senior project
manager gave as full an answer as possible. The use of
interviews also allowed the authors to elaborate points that
were unclear to participants. Cross-cultural communica-
tion practices were explored across a variety of project
teams, organisations, project environments, behavioural,
culture and socio-cultural environments. Adopting a
semi-structured questionnaire with rather than questions
provided a high degree of flexibility during the interviews.
Participants from Kenya and UK were asked the following
questions which were based on multicultural construction
project teams:
 Could you identify the ways in which your organisation
has created an environment in which communication
may be more effectively used in managing multicultural
construction project teams?
 Could you identify issues which still need to be
addressed in your organisation in general respect to mul-
ticultural project teams?
 What are the key problems you face in managing multi-
cultural project teams?
 How do you think a good multicultural project team can
help the success of a project? Can you give some
examples?
Twenty interviews were conducted with participants in
Kenya (10) and UK (10). All interviews were recorded
and transcribed verbatim and they were then analysed
through the use of qualitative analysis software package
NUDIST NVivo . During the analysis, broad themes
TM
and patterns were looked for, rather than narrow, precisely
variables of qualitative research. The data analysis phase
was an ongoing process of fieldwork itself, rather than as
a final stage in a linear model. This allowed data to be
coded under conceptual headings that could then be
retrieved in order to produce cross-cultural comparisons.
One of the primary functions of the NVivo software that
emerged was the ability to add memos to sections of the
data, as thoughts and connections were made during all
phases of the data analysis. It enabled the authors to sort
through the data and at the same time allowed exploration
for patterns and recurring phenomena. This enabled the
authors to compare, contrast and synthesise. It was essen-
tial that the codes were not seen as ends in themselves, as
the answers are not in the codes but in the data. The cod-
ification system was drawn from the initial interview ques-
tions that had been based on appraisal of key issues arising
from the literature.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
6 E.G. Ochieng, A.D.F. Price / International Journal of Project Management xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
Initial and subsequent impressions and thoughts were
recorded in detail, thus emphasising the organic nature of
this method for data analysis. As the data analysis pro-
gressed, further details were obtained and sections of the
data intensively analysed. At this stage, the authors had
already generated some categories through the ongoing
theoretical reflections and applied these for initial coding
purposes, refining and extending the categories as they
went along. In some cases, a particular section would fall
into more than one category, but this seemed to indicate
the interlinking of themes rather than a fault in coding,
for example trust, communication and teamwork. Working
categories were developed that explained cross-cultural
communication complexity on project teams. Following
the construction of a category, the next component of the
process was the presentation of the data in a narrative form
supported by evidence from the statements recorded during
the interview phase and making theoretical references as
necessary.
Case studies were employed to validate the findings.
This yielded a better consistency of the findings since it
allowed a systematic comparison of different organisations
by exploring different management features and examining
different levels of behavioural variables involved. Employ-
ing various data collection methods provided a complete
picture of the issue under investigation. There was a logical
progression to the order of the parent codes. This was an
attempt to ensure that the main objectives of the study
were met. Once this phase was complete, the authors took
each topic in turn and inserted the relevant interview
extracts. The analysis continued until data had been
reduced amply to enable conclusions to be drawn from
the coded data. The findings are presented below, where
appropriate illustrative quotations drawn from the inter-
view transcripts have been used to convey participants
view.
6. Findings
Key dimensions of cultural differences on communica-
tion behaviours drawn from participants in Kenya and
UK were used to collate the main attributes deemed to
be the most important for multicultural construction pro-
ject teams. The reported results present generalised findings
based on the 20 interviews. The results are presented below
under headings drawn from the analysis.
6.1. How heavy engineering projects differ from other
industries
As established from the participants, this is an industry
which has an enormous impact on the way we live our lives.
The plants which contractors in this industry design and
construct contribute to so many of the products we take
for granted. The contractors in this sector design, supply,
construct and put into operation industrial plants which
process all manner of substances – any kind of construction
Please cite this article in press as: Ochieng, E.G., Price, A.D.F., Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural construction project teams: The case of Kenya
and UK. Int J Project Manage (2009), doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001
in fact in which a chemical or physical change takes place.
This industry comprises establishments, not classified to
any other industry, primarily engaged in constructing
heavy and civil engineering works. The work performed
may include new work, reconstruction, rehabilitation,
and repairs. For this reason contractors work with a
cross-section of clients in a variety of economic sectors.
All of the participants in this study could identify with at
least some of the projects types listed in Table 1. Eighteen
participants suggested that complexity differed from firm to
firm. Criteria included: team size, project size, culture, risk,
processes and culture. Participants confirmed that the con-
tinuous need for speed, in heavy construction engineering
projects, cost and quality control, safety in the working
environment and avoidance of disputes, together with tech-
nological advances, environmental issues and fragmenta-
tion of the construction industry have resulted in a
spiralling and hasty increase in the complexity of projects.
As a result, all 20 participants indicated that new tech-
nology is important. Participants highlighted that engineer-
ing design and construction is a competitive industry and
technology is its lifeblood. It emerged that organisations
need to be innovative and continually introduce new tech-
nology to maintain their competitive advantage and meet
the challenge of new competition from overseas, particu-
larly in respect to manpower costs. Participants further
asserted that, it also enables them to solve new and more
difficult problems more effectively and efficiently than ever
before, which allows a greater variety of projects to be
tempted. For example, participant A affirmed that infor-
mation technology has led to great improvements in pro-
cess design throughout the introduction of intelligent
database. A team of engineers from different countries
work together at the same time to meet a number of differ-
ent designs, objectives, based on cost, the environment,
safety and performance, to produce a basic engineering
design. Participant D, E, J, K, Q and T further noted that
new technology in heavy engineering projects is not just
confined to variations of computer technology. After all
this industry is all about processes and new process tech-
nologies are being developed continuously to improve
safety and efficiency, such as chlorine-free pulp processing
plants which will have greatly reduced emissions. Partici-
pant D and E acknowledged that organisations have devel-
oped new technologies in the last 10 years which can reduce
carbon dioxide emissions from oil platforms. As we
expected from this theme, two major classifications
emerged: complexity and new technology.
6.2. Managing communication at all levels
All 20 participants believed that communication is
important.
For example, Participant A:
‘‘It should not be about criticising people, it should be
about being clearer. If an individual had a problem then
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E.G. Ochieng, A.D.F. Price / International Journal of Project Management xxx (2009) xxx–xxx 7

he could come forward and solve it collectively as a team
rather than sit back. As a project manager if contractors
come to me with a problem, I would try and solve it col-
lectively. This minimises recurrence of the problem. My
aim is to always have a collective intent”.
‘‘Participant A stated that conflict on projects can be
divided into positive and negative. With positive con-
flict, you can get somebody to do something in a partic-
ular way, which they might of considered doing it
differently. This leads to the generation of a better solu-
tion. As a project manager, you can encourage that type
of conflict within a project environment because it does
lead to good results. Negative conflict is the opposite;
people hold different views on how issues can be
resolved. The most important thing is to find out why
a conflict has occurred. The best way is to highlight to
the team why you have decided to resolve an issue in a
certain way”.
Participant B:
‘‘Resolve conflict in a group by establishing whether you
can work in a team by using evaluation forms. We also
look at your previous work experience. We have also
tried to ensure that resources are available to everyone
within the team. In the environment we work in there
is a lot of conflict. You always get people who disagree”.
Participant B went on to further suggest the way he han-
dles conflict is to get people to sit down and talk about it –
finding out why the conflict happened is important.
‘‘You can then try to achieve compromise. Most of the
issues are project related”.
Of the 20 participants, 12 agreed that when faced with
conflict it is essential to highlight the objectives of the pro-
ject and demonstrate what the objectives of the project are.
If not, the project goals will not be achieved. All the partic-
ipants acknowledged that effective communication is about
not only sending data or information; it includes ensuring
that any message is received and understood by those team
members to whom it is addressed. This is made easier by
team members knowing each other perhaps through rela-
tionships developed on previous projects.
Participants in Kenya and the UK acknowledged that
effective communication on projects is aided by the early
establishment of clear lines of responsibility and clear
robust issue resolution process within the integrated team.
Participants highlighted that in order to achieve effective
cross-cultural communication, adequate internal and exter-
nal communication needs to be in place. It was established
that effective communication is the key to managing expec-
tations, misconceptions, and misgivings on multicultural
project teams. The study also found that communication
patterns varied between the two countries. In Kenya, we
established that data is contained in unequivocal codes,
such as spoken or written words, whereas in the UK send-
ing and receiving data is highly dependent upon the phys-
ical context and non-verbal communication.
6.3. Achieving project team performance
Participants D, E, F claimed that:
‘‘One has to be clear about the value management
approach; the focus has to be on what are your needs”.
Participants agreed that value management techniques
are important because they help one in highlighting the val-
ues of the project straight away. Value management also
helps to identify the purpose of the project and helps the
team to understand why they are doing the project. Several
participants noted that as a project leader it is essential to
ensure that everyone has the right attitude by communicat-
ing to the team clearly.
As observed in the UK, participants used team work-
shops and meetings rather than newsletters and emails
because face-to-face communication is more effective. The
way in which project leaders communicated on projects
has more influence than the actual words we use. For
example, results of work by Mehrabian (1981) showed that
the relative influence of verbal and non-verbal communica-
tion on feelings and attitudes are 7% verbal, 38% vocal and
55% facial. As a result, project team members need to pay
careful attention to the vocal and facial aspects of their
delivery, which may comprise 93% of the communication
in some circumstances. For example, participant D stated
that when it comes to questioning team assumptions, again
value management techniques have to be in place. He fur-
ther stated the need to get people to sit down, discuss the
project structure and explain why they should perform
the project in a certain way. This can be achieved by hold-
ing workshops where people discuss various issues, which
emerge from the project. As a project leader, one needs
to be disciplined and to respect the lines of communication
that are in place.
6.4. Ensuring high quality standards
Participant D stated that:
‘‘What we do is to hold meetings on a weekly basis. I
chair the meeting. We sit round a table and talk about
the project. I do update the project program as we go
along. In the meeting I also let people know about the
changes that have been made. It is all about making sure
that everything is discussed. In this meeting, you can end
up having 20 issues popping up that you may have to
deal with. We go through each issue and it is important
that I do give everyone the opportunity to talk”.
To develop as a project team, it is essential that learning
occurs. It is good practice not only to review the project
objectives and deliverables as a team at regular meetings
but also to conduct a process review. It was found that

Please cite this article in press as: Ochieng, E.G., Price, A.D.F., Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural construction project teams: The case of Kenya
and UK. Int J Project Manage (2009), doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
8 E.G. Ochieng, A.D.F. Price / International Journal of Project Management xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
there is a need to communicate lessons learnt from previ-
ous company projects. The participants also expressed
the view that where suitable, such learning should be
included or taken account of in the present project. In some
instances, the participants highlighted that communicating
learning can occur as the project proceeds and it is essential
that opportunity is given to review what is being done to
pinpoint learning points and if possible, to refine the way
the team is working. Clients have for some time inter-
viewed people who have been selected to run projects.
The main reason behind this is for them to assess an indi-
vidual’s technical ability and to see if they can be part of a
team. The participants agreed that when it comes to com-
municating project procedures it is hard to get the message
through to team members. There was an expressed view
that you need to motivate team members or else they
may take a week to do something, which should only take
them a day. For example, participant C suggested:
‘‘One former project manager, who is now a director one
time said that he used to spend 70% of his time talking
to people and the other 30% at his desk. The surprising
thing is that the director was one of the most successful
project managers within the organisation. It is interest-
ing to note that, he rated communication as the most
important tool when it came to managing projects.”
Participant (C) went on to claim,
‘‘The former project manager used to talk to people to
enable them understand issues and problems”.
Participant C acknowledged that his failure has been
lack of communication with his junior colleagues. From
the above, effective communication on construction pro-
jects is not just about informing. As stated above, a key
aspect of communication is the ability of the client and pro-
ject leader to listen, to give feedback and to respond to any
project issues, which might arise. On the other hand, good
communication with a high level of trust, honesty, and
respect for others is significant in building and maintaining
high team performance. Furthermore, communication
must be maintained with members as individuals and as a
team. Participants suggested that adequate internal and
external communication systems must be in place. The par-
ticipants agreed that senior managers must take an active
role in keeping team members informed. Communication
from the project leader to team members must be consis-
tent regardless of their project location, and all project
team members must be aware that this communication is
equal. There was a general perception that expectations,
misconceptions and misgivings from those outside the pro-
ject team may increase with lack of information. Effective
communication is the key to managing expectations and
minimising misconceptions and misgivings.
The issues raised have been summarised below as seven
key dimensions of cultural differences on communication
behaviours.
Please cite this article in press as: Ochieng, E.G., Price, A.D.F., Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural construction project teams: The case of Kenya
and UK. Int J Project Manage (2009), doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001
 Establish clear lines of responsibility.
 Institute team effectiveness (collectiveness).
 Establish trust.
 Implement honesty.
 Encourage respect for others.
 Introduce cultural empathy.
 Implement value management techniques.
The two groups differed in a number ways, for instance
participants in Kenya highly rated cultural empathy when
compared to the UK participants. Whilst reflecting on their
personal experiences, it was observed that the national cul-
ture from the two countries differed when it came to emo-
tional dependence on the team. Participants in Kenya were
more conforming, orderly and traditional when it came to
tackling personal issues with project workers whilst a few
of the participants in the UK believed that project leaders
had to be particularistic when dealing with personal issues.
Even though the participants differed in a number of ways,
there was equal recognition that project leaders need to
establish clear project goals, team effectiveness and trust;
and encourage respect between team members. Both sets
of participants acknowledged the importance of the four
variables when it comes to achieving effective team perfor-
mance on projects. The only slight difference between the
two sets of participants was the use of value management
techniques.
6.5. Adding value within the team
The success of managing a multicultural project team
does not lie in the simple delivery of the outcome anymore.
In a continually changing global context, senior project
managers are required to deliver a project which will grat-
ify or exceed the client’s needs and expectations at the time
of delivery. In the context of this study, value management
focuses on the definition and iterative appraisal of team
needs and expectations. Because of its broad focus, Partic-
ipant D, E, F, K and S highlighted that value management
techniques can be used to identify key communication
issues and processes necessary to address them. In order
to obtain successful results, Participant D, E, F, K and S,
further asserted that the processes need to be reviewed
throughout the time scale of the project.
The consensus in the UK was that a project manager
could do well without value management techniques as
long as the four variables mentioned above are in place.
In Kenya, participants felt that since most of the projects
are financed by the government and international aid agen-
cies, it was essential to have value management techniques
since expatriates who work on projects in Kenya have dif-
ferent social values about personal achievements as they do
on decision making and communication processes. Partici-
pants in the UK considered that language is a major vehicle
for communication but can be a big issue since words have
different meanings and values to people. In order to man-
age potential language barriers on projects, a high majority
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E.G. Ochieng, A.D.F. Price / International Journal of Project Management xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
of participants in the UK suggested that project managers
should have the ability to understand and clearly commu-
nicate team goals, roles and norms to other members of a
multicultural team. Participants asserted that it is vital
for a project manager to be cross-culturally and communi-
catively competent.
6.6. Building trust within multicultural project teams
Participant (C) highlighted that multicultural project
teams can be sub-divided into three:
‘‘A construction project team with individuals from cul-
tural backgrounds working in the same country. These
are project teams which have project team members that
come from ethnic minorities that are culturally distinct”;
‘‘Contractors that are partially or totally dispersed in a
number of countries but meet face-to-face”; and
‘‘Construction project teams that have individuals in a
number of countries, working together only through
electronic medias and have never met each other”.
Participant T, S, R, Q, P and O, asserted that one of the
important components of building multicultural project
teams is the creation and development of trust. In this
study, it was found that trust provides the invisible glue
which can hold a dislocated team together. Participants
appeared to agree that it is more natural to trust people
in whom we can identify a level of positive inevitability
in their actions and words. Working with other cultures
in a construction project environment can lead to a stress-
ful level of impulsiveness in our interactions. Participant T,
S, R, Q, P and O, recommended that trust could be devel-
oped where there are good interpersonal relationships and
mutual respect between project leaders and team members.
Participant P recognised that trust can be promoted within
projects by the behaviour of individual team members and
it can become apparent at different levels. For example,
trust can be at a social and professional level. However,
participants suggested that as trust increases within the
project team, the team members will become more open
and honest with each other and this openness will enable
them to jointly identify, assess, plan and manage cultural
complexity more effectively.
Despite the above, Participant K, H, I and G high-
lighted that trust can be built as the project teams start
to work on a project. For a multicultural project team to
be fully integrated, all the team members need to trust
and understand each other. Participants noted that this
could be achieved by team building and team effectiveness
training events. They also appeared to believe that in order
to instigate, build, and maintain trust within the integrated
project team the nucleus should monitor behaviour and
project leaders should flag up and address any project issue
that risks breaking the trust. All 20 participants agreed that
trust reduces complexity and helps in building up a team.
Please cite this article in press as: Ochieng, E.G., Price, A.D.F., Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural construction project teams: The case of Kenya
and UK. Int J Project Manage (2009), doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001
9
Participant E emphasised that,
‘‘Trust is extremely important. If you don’t have trust,
it’s hard to have an integrated multicultural project
team. Trust also means that if I do something wrong
then I will be accountable. So if I do something good
you say so and if I do something wrong you say so as
well. This makes it easier because if an individual does
something wrong rather than keeping quite, they will
ask for help”.
Most participants agreed that trust is a fragile, intangible,
and generally difficult to quantify but it is essential to the suc-
cess of multicultural team integration. It emerged trust can
be cultivated where there are good interpersonal relation-
ships and mutual respect between project leaders and team
members. From the above, it does show that trust depends
on the interaction of individuals and interpersonal relation-
ships. In this study, it has been shown that, in order for a
multicultural project team to be fully integrated, all team
members need to trust and understand each other. In both
countries trust is considered to be very important, but is nev-
ertheless treated differently. One notable difference that
emerged was that in Kenya participants had difficulty in
achieving trust due to tribalism, whilst in the UK, it was sug-
gested at times, that it is difficult to achieve trust because of
the adversarial nature of the construction industry.
6.7. Creating collectivism
All the 20 participants described the relevance of collec-
tivism to projects. Hofstede (1980) noted that individual-
ism or collectivism describes whether the culture values
either individual (individualism) or group goals (collectiv-
ism). According to Javidan and House (2001), this point
reflects the degree to which individuals of a certain culture
are encouraged to integrate into teams within organisations
and society. When the discussion centred on the nature of
collectivism, participants suggested that collective cultures
demonstrate a more emotional dependence on the project
team. They are more conforming, organised, traditional,
and team oriented. In Kenya, participants highlighted that
in most projects, multicultural teams differed in orientation
between individualism and collectivism because of chal-
lenges to developing team roles in the projects. In this
study, the authors noted that when it came to defining roles
on projects all the participants acknowledged that culture
does vary. It was found that in a collective project environ-
ment the interest of the project group succeeded over the
interest of the individual member. Interestingly, Participant
S, A, H, D and B argued that in an individualistic project
environment the interest of an individual could prevail over
the interest of a project group. This is perhaps surprising
since Participant A suggested that in a project:
‘‘There has to be encouragement of teamwork within the
project process. The mechanisms of integration depend
 ARTICLE IN PRESS

10 E.G. Ochieng, A.D.F. Price / International Journal of Project Management xxx (2009) xxx–xxx

on collectivism within the project process. It is impor-
tant as well for the client/project manager to know
how to engage with different type of people and also
have the right attitude. This allows you to end up with
a happy team”.
In their analysis Hofstede (1991), Schwartz (1990) and
Triandis (1993) argued that collectivism and individualism
are two ends of the same continuum. The authors high-
lighted that collectivists perceive themselves as independent
individuals of an ‘‘in-group” who share the same responsi-
bility of team success whilst in an individualistic organisa-
tion it is common for an individual to bear the total
responsibility for either success or failure of the business.
Recent research by Abraham (1997), Dickson et al.
(2003), Singelis et al. (1995) showed that there are two
types of collectivism and individualism i.e. vertical and hor-
izontal. Horizontal collectivism is associated with subordi-
nation to the goal and good of the immediate cluster to
which they belong; vertical collectivists are more likely to
have a sturdy commitment to the organisation as a sepa-
rate unity. Vertical individualists tend to believe in a desire
for the enjoyment of competition at work and strong
importance on superior performance and winning. On the
other hand, horizontal individualism is linked to the need
for independence rooted in freedom that does coexist with
the longing for conformity.
In discussions, the participants expressed satisfaction
with collectivism on projects and dissatisfaction with indi-
vidualism. All participants identified the counter productive
effects of individualism within their organisations. They
were able to highlight that this is largely caused by contrac-
tors who want to do things their way rather than conform to
an imposed standard. During the discussions, some project
leaders admitted of their unwillingness, at times, to conform
to an imposed standard and usually led to direct conflict
within the project team. Participant T suggested:
‘‘There are number of ways in which individualism can
be managed and its effect harnessed. This can be done
through encouragement of team participation and rede-
fining team boundaries”.
However, participants recognised that the development
of multicultural project teams does require a commitment
from all the team members (client, project manager, and
contractors). All participants identified that the project lea-
der must have empathy. Participants cited that effective
project leaders should understand the leadership style pre-
ferred by the project team so that the project leader’s
authority is respected. From the findings it emerged that
most of the participants were able to achieve project and
organisational goals. This finding suggests that in a project
environment the project team must institute a supportive
and positive culture. It is the responsibility of the project
leader to ensure that this supportive culture is introduced
and sustained. In order to maximise team effectiveness par-
ticipant T pointed out that
‘‘It helps to understand personal problems. For example
we had a guy who spilt up with his wife and all of a sud-
den wanted to do extra hours. He felt that working more
hours took his mind away from what he was going
through. So I gave him more work within the project
and that really helped him. Another guy wanted to do
less hours for different reasons. So, understanding peo-
ple’s personal issues is important and to know as well
that everybody is different”.
In the above extract participant T demonstrated to the
project team member by example the attitudes and behav-
iours he expected within the team. Participants in this study
argued that an effective leader should be fair and consistent
when dealing with team members. This can be achieved by
not showing favour or partnership on the way they relate
to one another. In general, participants described the value
and need for a supportive culture through the personal
encouragement of team members. They suggested that it
can be achieved with an effective management style that
‘‘listens to team members” concerns and complaints. In
addition it should have a positive ‘can do’ management
style to address the issues described by participant T. In
addition, participants felt that this approach has to be bal-
anced by certifying that there is an expectation that the
project team will perform and meet their project objectives.
A growing stream of cross-cultural research has
described how basic assumptions, beliefs, values and
behavioural norms vary across the individualism–collectiv-
ism dichotomy (Hofstede, 1991; Schwartz, 1990; Triandis,
1993) and how this cultural disparity may be central to
understanding work behaviour in project settings. In this
study, we established that individualist’s place more
emphasis on self-sufficiency and are more familiarised
toward project task achievement, sometimes at the expense
of relationships, whereas collectivists give emphasis to har-
monious relationships with the ‘‘in-group”, sometimes at
the expense of project task accomplishment. From the
two sets of data (Kenya and UK), it became apparent that
individualist’s are more likely to be driven by their own
beliefs, values and attitudes whilst collectivists are more
likely to be driven by social norms, duties and responsibil-
ities. Drawing together the above issues, and translating
them into the construction industry, it can be asserted that
in a collectivist culture, the interest of the project team
tends to prevail over the interest of the individual. In an
individualistic culture, the interest of the individual prevails
over the interest of the group. It is worth noting that collec-
tivism and individualism are two ends of the same contin-
uum (Hofstede, 1991; Schwartz, 1990; Triandis, 1993).
According to Hofstede (2001) and Triandis (1993), collec-
tivists identify themselves as independent members of an
‘‘in-group”, who share the same fate and responsibility
for achievement of the work, and they tend to act cooper-
atively in their groups interest. Participants noted that in a
collectivist culture, failure is often ascribed to the lack of
effort of the entire project team. Participants further

Please cite this article in press as: Ochieng, E.G., Price, A.D.F., Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural construction project teams: The case of Kenya
and UK. Int J Project Manage (2009), doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
E.G. Ochieng, A.D.F. Price / International Journal of Project Management xxx (2009) xxx–xxx
acknowledged that in a multicultural project team, individ-
ual achievement is not valued in a collectivist culture;
whereas in an individualistic project team it is one of the
most important values. Thus, in a collectivist project team,
even though the project leader might play the most impor-
tant role in successful realisation of a project task, reward
is often given to all team members. The consensus that
emerges in this study is that a collectivist culture in heavy
engineering projects emphasizes the importance of team
effort to success, and is not likely to attach failure to an
individual person even though this person is the project
leader.
From the above, the authors identified four key factors
that influence multicultural project teams at team levels.
These were cross cultural communication, cross cultural
collectivism, cross cultural empathy in project leadership
and cross cultural trust. What needs to be well understood
is that the effective structure of a multicultural project team
depends on a well structured integration system, between
the client, project manager and the project team. As illus-
trated by the two groups in this study, the culture of a pro-
ject manager plays a major role in how the project team
will perceive cross-cultural communication on projects.
7. Conclusion
This study has explored the practices of 20 senior project
managers with regards to dealing with cross cultural issues
in multicultural project teams. The research has highlighted
a number of principles that need to be realised before a fully
integrated multicultural project team can be fully realised.
This study reveals that participants in Kenya and the UK
acknowledged that effective communication on projects is
aided by the early establishment of clear lines of responsibil-
ity and clear robust issue resolution process within the inte-
grated team. As noted in this study, both internal and
external cross-cultural communication provides the invisi-
ble glue which can hold a dislocated multicultural project
team together. It was established that effective communica-
tion is the key to managing expectations, misconceptions,
and misgivings on multicultural project teams. As con-
firmed, good communication strategies are primary in
establishing, cultivating, and maintaining strong working
relationships on heavy construction engineering projects.
Most participants agreed that trust is a fragile, intangi-
ble, and generally difficult to quantify but it is essential
to the success of multicultural teamwork. It emerged trust
can be cultivated where there are good interpersonal skills
and mutual respect between project leaders and team mem-
bers. It has been shown, in order for a multicultural project
team to be fully integrated, all team members need to trust
and understand each other. It is evident from the findings
that all participants favoured collectivism rather than indi-
vidualism when it comes to carrying out project tasks. Par-
ticipants in this study highlighted the counter productive
effects of individualism within their projects. Although
vastly experienced in terms of managing project teams, par-
Please cite this article in press as: Ochieng, E.G., Price, A.D.F., Managing cross-cultural communication in multicultural construction project teams: The case of Kenya
and UK. Int J Project Manage (2009), doi:10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.08.001
11
ticipants agreed that the project manager’s role is to bal-
ance their decisions in such a way to merge the
requirements of all multicultural project teams involved.
The research has established that communication in
multicultural teams is a significant factor in the successful
completion of heavy construction engineering projects. It
is essential for project leaders to ensure that the nature of
the interactions do not affect the strength of the relation-
ships between project teams and their ability to transfer
knowledge and information required to complete project
tasks successfully. As substantiated from the findings, pro-
ject leaders need to implement a clear and robust procedure
of resolving conflicts that might arise. What needs to be
well understood is that the effective structure of multicul-
tural teamwork depends on a well inter-connected commu-
nication system, between the client, project manager, and
the project team.
While, the participants in this study were chosen to pro-
vide a representative sample of multicultural project teams,
they do reflect the experiences of senior managers who have
experienced impacts of cultural complexity on heavy con-
struction engineering projects. In particular, the 20 partici-
pants have managed large industrial projects. Nevertheless,
addressing cross-cultural communication in heavy con-
struction engineering projects can be viewed as principal
enabler for improving the sector in the future. Since it has
been confirmed that cross-cultural communication com-
plexity exists within the construction industry, it will be
valuable to have further research work focusing on cross
cultural collectivism and communication. What this study
does highlight is the need for considerably more research
into multicultural project teams in construction manage-
ment. What it did uncover suggests that we need a better
understanding of multicultural project teams in construc-
tion project management. With the growth in globalisation,
construction project managers will need to work on cultural
diverse project teams. The good news is that multicultural
project teams will bring fresh ideas and new approaches
to problem solving. The challenge is that they will also bring
understanding and expectations regarding team dynamics.
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