Urban Flood Mapping and Analysis of Low-Lying

URBAN FLOOD MAPPING AND ANALYSIS OF LOW-LYING
MUNICIPAL AREA OF AJMER CITY

MASTER OF SCIENCE THESIS
Submitted by
YOGESH KUMAR REGAR
2018/510
Submitted to
Prof. SUBROTO DUTTA

PROFESSOR AND HEAD
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
M.SC. REMOTE SENSING AND GEOINFORMATICS
DEPARTMENT OF REMOTE SENSING AND GEOINFORMATICS
MAHARSHI DAYANAND SARASWATI UNIVERSITY, AJMER
AJMER-305009, INDIA
FOR THE ACADEMIC YEAR 2019-2020
Page | I
ABSTRACT
Flooding and water saturation are a major problem facing several neighborhoods in the Ajmer
Municipal Corporation area during the rainy season. GIS tools supplemented by extensive field
surveys and personal verification were used to attempt to understand the underlying causes and
spatial configuration of the flooding problem in the Ajmer Municipal Corporation area. In a GIS,
the information of geographic feature objects is organized into layers such as drainage, slope,
buildings, roads, railways, etc. Flood risk data layers help model appropriate land use and
management practices, allowing administrators and planners to identify areas of risk and
prioritize their mitigation /response efforts. The study was based on primary data collected from
neighborhoods through a set of purpose-built questionnaires and secondary data collected from
various government agencies, research centers and individuals in conversation with the issue.
finally integrated into the GIS environment using version Arc Map 10.4 and ERDAS IMAGINE
2015 to prepare a map of flood zones that characterizes the city's terrain in terms of intrinsic
vulnerability to flooding so that corrective measures to Both structural and non-structural can be
taken for its mastery.
Page | II
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is my pleasure to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. Subroto Dutta HOD Department of

Remote Sensing and Geoinformatics Maharshi Dayanand Saraswati University for providing an
excellent research environment, motivation, support to carry out this research work to give
valuable suggestions and evaluate our research to plan from time to time and encourage our
minds to work in the right direction successfully. I take this opportunity to express my deep and
deep sense of respect and sincere thanks to my supervisor, Mr. Ashwini Vaishnav Sir, for his
impeccable advice in resolving the issue, inspiration and support throughout. length of project
work. His constant and timely supervision and encouragement has helped me a lot to complete
my project work on time. I would like to thank MDS University for allowing me to continue this
course. I would like to especially thank Bank Colony People for their immense cooperation and
establishing a friendly and welcoming environment for me to live at AJMER. I want to sincerely
thank all my friends. I would like to dedicate this M.Sc. thesis to my incredibly loving and
supportive parents and great writers who have always motivated me and who open the way for
me in a difficult situation. Finally, I express my deep love to everyone who has asked me various
questions that have improved my mind and my explanatory skills.
Page | III
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................II
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................................................................................III
Chapter 1.....................................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background............................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Floods................................................................................................................................................1
1.3 Floodplains........................................................................................................................................1
1.4 Types of Floods..................................................................................................................................2
1.4.1 River floods and Coastal/sea/tidal floods.......................................................................................2
1.4.2 Mud Floods:....................................................................................................................................2
1.4.3 Dam Floods:....................................................................................................................................2
1.4.4 Sewer/urban drain flood:...............................................................................................................2
1.4.5 Flash Floods:...................................................................................................................................2
1.4.6 Urban Floods:.................................................................................................................................2
1.5 Causes of urban flooding:......................................................................................................................3
1.6 Natural Causes:......................................................................................................................................3
1.6.1 Heavy Rainfall / Flash floods:..........................................................................................................3
1.6.2 Lack of Lakes:..................................................................................................................................3
1.6.3 Silting:.............................................................................................................................................3
1.7 Human Causes:......................................................................................................................................3
1.7.1 Population pressure:.......................................................................................................................3
1.7.2 Deforestation:.................................................................................................................................3
1.7.3 Encroachment of the storm water drains:......................................................................................3
1.7.4 Poor Water and Sewerage Management:......................................................................................3
1.8 Effects of Urban Floods:.........................................................................................................................4
1.8.1 Economic effects:............................................................................................................................4
1.8.2 Environmental effects:........................................................................................................................4
1.8.3 Effect on Traffic:..............................................................................................................................4
1.8.4 Effect on Human Beings:.................................................................................................................4
1.8.5 Livestock:........................................................................................................................................4
1.8.6 Disease:..........................................................................................................................................4
Page | IV
1.8.7 Publiclnconveniences:....................................................................................................................4
Chapter 2.....................................................................................................................................................5
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK........................................................................................................................5
2.1 Study Area.............................................................................................................................................5
2.1.1 Ajmer..................................................................................................................................................5
Fig.1-Index map municipal area of Ajmer city.....................................................................................5
2.1.3 History............................................................................................................................................6
Fig.2-Jahangir receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on his return from the Mewar campaign...............6
The more recent Prabandha-Kosha text states that it was 8th century King Ajayaraja I who
commanded Fort Ajayameru, which later became known as Fort Taragarh of Ajmer. According to
historian R. B. Singh, this claim appears to be true, as inscriptions dated to the 8th century CE have
been found at Ajmer. Singh theorizes that Ajayaraja II later expanded the city area, built palaces,
and moved the capital Chahamana from Shakambhari to Ajmer. Mughal prince Dara Shikoh was
born here in 1615. Jahanara Begum, the powerful Mughal princess was also born here...................6
2.1.4 Geography......................................................................................................................................6
2.1.5 Weather..........................................................................................................................................6
2.1.6 Transportation................................................................................................................................7
Fig.3-Pushkar Valley that connects Pushkar and Ajmer in the Aravalli Mountains..............................7
2.1.7 Air...................................................................................................................................................7
2.1.8 Rail..................................................................................................................................................7
2.2 Landmarks and Monuments..................................................................................................................7
2.2.1 Pushkar...........................................................................................................................................7
2.2.2 Taragarh Fort..................................................................................................................................7
Fig.4-City of Gold in Ajmer Jain temple................................................................................................8
2.2.3 Ajmer Sharif Dargah........................................................................................................................8
2.2.4 Ajmer Jain temple...........................................................................................................................8
2.2.5 Mayo College..................................................................................................................................8
2.2.6 Akbari Fort & Museum...................................................................................................................8
2.6.7 Nareli Jain Temple..........................................................................................................................9
Fig.5-Nareli Jain Temple is a recent addition to Ajmer Nareli Jain Temple..........................................9
Chapter 3...................................................................................................................................................10
LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................................................................10
Kulkarani A.K., Mandal B.N. and Sangam R.B., Pune (1994): The paper studies of heavy rainfall 22-23
August, 1990 over Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. Present information is useful to the hydrologists for
planning and design of water resources projects in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra........................10
Page | V
Lloyd, Barrette, Chaudhary P., Chenji S. (2013..........................................................................................10
Joshi, Ganpatrao S. (2012).........................................................................................................................11
National State Disaster Management Authority, (2010)...........................................................................11
Pore A.V. and Lokhande T.N., (2011).........................................................................................................12
Maharashtra shasan Jalsampada vibhag Tapi patbandare vikas mahamandal Jalgaon (2011)..................12
Chapter 4...................................................................................................................................................13
REMOTE SENSING GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS)...............................................................13
4.1 Remote Sensing...................................................................................................................................13
Fig.6-Remote Sensing process...........................................................................................................13
4.2 Categories of Remote Sensing.............................................................................................................13
a) Passive Remote Sensing....................................................................................................................13
b) Active Remote Sensing......................................................................................................................14
Fig.7-Active and passive sensor.........................................................................................................14
4.4 Global Positioning System...................................................................................................................14
4.4.1 Basic Concept of GPS....................................................................................................................14
a) Space (Satellites)...............................................................................................................................14
b) Ground control..................................................................................................................................14
c) User equipment.................................................................................................................................15
Fig.8-GPS System...............................................................................................................................15
4.5 Geographic Information Systems........................................................................................................15
4.5.1 History of GIS................................................................................................................................15
Fig.9-John Snow’s 1854 Cholera Map................................................................................................16
4.5.2 Components of GIS.......................................................................................................................16
a) Hardware...........................................................................................................................................16
b) Software............................................................................................................................................16
Fig.10-Geographic Information Systems............................................................................................17
b) Data...................................................................................................................................................17
c) People................................................................................................................................................17
d) Methods............................................................................................................................................17
4.6 GIS Data...............................................................................................................................................17
4.6.1 Raster............................................................................................................................................17
Fig.11-Data stored in a raster format represents real-world phenomena.........................................18
4.6.2 Vector...........................................................................................................................................18
Page | VI
Fig.12-Points, Lines, and Polygons.....................................................................................................19
4.7 GIS Tasks..............................................................................................................................................19
a) Input..................................................................................................................................................19
b) Manipulation.....................................................................................................................................19
c) Management.....................................................................................................................................20
d) Query and Analysis............................................................................................................................20
e) Overlay analysis.................................................................................................................................20
f) Visualization.......................................................................................................................................21
4.8 GIS Uses and Applications....................................................................................................................21
a) Environment......................................................................................................................................21
Fig.13-Geographic Information Systems............................................................................................21
b) Military and Defense.........................................................................................................................21
c) Agriculture.........................................................................................................................................22
d)Forestry..............................................................................................................................................22
e) Business.............................................................................................................................................22
f) Real Estate..........................................................................................................................................22
g) Public Safety......................................................................................................................................22
Chapter 5...................................................................................................................................................23
MATERIAL AND DATASET..........................................................................................................................23
5.1 Software Package................................................................................................................................23
5.1.1 Erdas Imagine...................................................................................................................................23
Fig.14- Erdas Imagine 2015................................................................................................................23
5.1.2 Arc GIS 10.4..................................................................................................................................24
Fig.15-Arc GIS 10.4.............................................................................................................................24
5.1.3 Microsoft word.............................................................................................................................24
5.1.4 Microsoft Excel.............................................................................................................................24
Fig.16-Microsoft word.......................................................................................................................25
Fig.16-Microsoft Excel.......................................................................................................................25
Chapter 6...................................................................................................................................................26
METHODOLOGY.........................................................................................................................................26
6.1 Digital Image Processing......................................................................................................................26
6.1.1 Pre-Processing..............................................................................................................................26
6.1.2 Co-Ordinate Transformation.........................................................................................................26
Page | VII
6.1.3 Rectification..................................................................................................................................26
6.2 Miscellaneous Pre-Processing.............................................................................................................27
6.2.1 Subsetting.....................................................................................................................................27
6.2.2 Image Classification......................................................................................................................27
6.3 Integration with GIS.............................................................................................................................27
6.4 Preparation of Data.............................................................................................................................28
6.5 Conceptual Methodology....................................................................................................................28
Fig.17-Conceptual Methodology.......................................................................................................28
6.6 Satellite Imagery..................................................................................................................................29
6.6.1 Sentinal-2......................................................................................................................................29
Fig. 18: - Sentinal-2 Image.................................................................................................................29
Table:1 -Sentinel-2 Data Band Composition......................................................................................30
6.6.2 Land use and land cover (LULC)........................................................................................................30
Fig.19- By comparing land cover data and maps over a period of time, coastal managers can
document land use trends and changes............................................................................................31
Fig.20- Land Use Land Cover Municipal Area of Ajmer city...............................................................32
Table:2- Area of Lulc Ajmer City........................................................................................................33
6.7 ASTER DEM..........................................................................................................................................33
Fig.21: - Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer.................................33
6.7.1 DEM..............................................................................................................................................34
Fig.22: - Visualization of a Raster DEM Surface..................................................................................34
Fig.23: -Elevation Model of Municipal Area of Ajmer City.................................................................35
6.8 Base Map.............................................................................................................................................36
Fig.24: - Base Map Municipal Area of Ajmer City...............................................................................36
6.9 Aspect..................................................................................................................................................37
Fig.25: - Aspect..................................................................................................................................37
Table: -3 Aspect Range of Ajmer urban area.....................................................................................38
identifies the direction of the downward slope of the maximum rate of change in value from each
cell towards its neighbors. This can be seen as the direction of the slope. The values in each cell in
the output raster indicate the direction of the compass the surface faces at that location. It is
measured clockwise in degrees from 0 (due north) to 360 (again due north), making a full circle. Flat
areas with no downslope direction are assigned a value of -1..........................................................38
Fig.26: -Aspect directions..................................................................................................................38
Fig.27: - Elevation and Aspect Raster.................................................................................................38
Page | VIII
6.10 Slope..................................................................................................................................................39
6.10.1 Calculation methods and side effect...........................................................................................40
6.10.2 Planar method............................................................................................................................40
...........................................................................................................................................................41
Fig.28: - Slope of Municipal area of Ajmer City..................................................................................41
6.11 Contour..............................................................................................................................................42
Why creates Contours?.........................................................................................................................42
Fig.29: - Contour Line municipal area of Ajmer City..........................................................................43
6.12 Drainage System................................................................................................................................44
Fig.30: - Components of drainage basin............................................................................................44
6.13 Drainage System................................................................................................................................45
Fig.31: -Drainage System...................................................................................................................45
Chapter 7...................................................................................................................................................46
RESULT AND CONCLUSION........................................................................................................................46
7.1 Low-Lying.............................................................................................................................................46
Fig.32: - Low-Lying Area Municipal of Ajmer City..............................................................................46
7.2 Low-Lying Area................................................................................................................................47
Table:5- Low-Lying Location Municipal Area of Ajmer City................................................................47
7.3 Factors of Urban Flooding Cases..........................................................................................................47
7.3.1 Natural causes..............................................................................................................................47
7.3.2 Man-made Causes........................................................................................................................47
7.3.3 Way forward.................................................................................................................................48
7.4 Ward Wise Area of Lulc Feature..........................................................................................................48
7.4.1 Feature.............................................................................................................................................48
7.5 MUNICIPAL AREA OF AJMER CITY WARD.............................................................................................49
7.6 Ajmer Annual Rainfall in Millimeter.....................................................................................................52
Table:7- Annual Average Rainfall data...............................................................................................52
7.6.1 Ajmer Rainfall Data...........................................................................................................................52
Graph:2-Annual Rainfall.....................................................................................................................52
Table:9 – AJMER RAINFALL DATA 2011.....................................................54
Table:10 – AJMER RAINFALL DATA 2012...............................................55
Table:13 – AJMER RAINFALL DATA 2015...............................................58
Table:14 – AJMER RAINFALL DATA 2016...........................................................................................59
Page | IX
...........................................................................................................................................................60
7.7 Solid Waste Management...........................................................................................................63
The city badly requires effective Solid Waste Management which is not the part of Swach Bharat
Abhiyan but is one of the key elements for Smart city development programme. According to the
JNNURM ―The total waste generation for the ULB is estimated for base year (2006) and future up
to 2021on a waste generation rate of approximately 250 gms/capita/day (based on CPEEHO
norms). The waste generation rate can be expected to grow higher than 250 gms/capita/day as the
city population increases and there are enhanced levels of consumption. The city is spotted with
dustbins and garbage all around it....................................................................................................63
Fig.36-Ajmer city: opposite of JLN medical collage............................................................................63
7.8 Proper Drainage Facility...................................................................................................................63
Fig.38.................................................................................................................................................64
Fig.39-Source: Rajasthan Patrika, July 2015.......................................................................................64
Fig.41- Ajmer Fig.42-Ajmer.....................................................65
7.9 AJMER HAVIY RAIN AUGUST 2019.......................................................................................................65
Fig.-43 Ajmer 2019............................................................................................................................65
7.10 Field Work..................................................................................................................................66
Fig.44- low- lying area condition........................................................................................................66
Fig.45-field work................................................................................................................................67
Chapter 8...................................................................................................................................................68
CONCLUSIONS...........................................................................................................................................68
8.1REDUCING FLOOD HAZARDS IN URBAN AREAS................................................................................68
CONCLUSIONS...........................................................................................................................................69
Chapter 9...................................................................................................................................................70
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................70
9.1 Research and article........................................................................................................................70
Page | X
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The first day of civilizations is probably the day of the conflict between nature and the human
race. Since modernization was thought, this conflict started to rise, causing many problems, a
being the increase in the frequency of natural hazards. Development projects such as the
construction of buildings, flyovers, industries or any other urban entity serious negative
consequences. Loss of life and property is a common observation natural disaster. Rapid
urbanization has been a sign of development in the history of civilization in abeyance while it
only made the situation worse in the event of all-natural danger.
A mild earthquake may have only a nominal effect in a forest region or land, it can be considered
serious in a village resulting in loss of human life and property, but the same intensity of the
earthquake is devastating and destructive in an urban setting environment. “Earthquakes don't
kill people, buildings do” is a meaningful word. Needless to say, there will be a huge loss of life
and property in an urban scenario. Floods are one of those risks, the effect of which is directly
proportional to the Urban development. The term Flood is very relative. A particular amount of
precipitation can be a common occurrence in forest areas; the same could be a normal rain in
villages and this could be considered as flooding in an urban scenario. Flooding can be defined
in different ways, depending on location, time and cause for that to happen. "A flood is a body of
water overflowing with the earth, not normally submerged” Green et al (2000).
1.2 Floods
Floods are a recurring event for a channel or a river. Leopold says statistically, rivers or canals
equal or exceed the average annual flood once per 2.33 years (Leopold et al., 1964). Floods
occur as a result of heavy or continuous precipitation exceeding the absorption capacity of the
soil; channel flow or rivers. As a result, it overtook the water overflows on their shores and in
adjacent areas. Floods are always expressed according to their statistical frequency. 100 years
flood means that, in any given year, there is a one percent chance of a flood occurrence.
Likewise, “100-year floodplain” means that the area has a 1% probability of flood every year. It
should not be mistaken that the flooding occurs once in 100 years. Whether or not the flood
occurs in a given year, the next year again has the same probability. That's a 1% probability of
flooding.
1.3 Floodplains
Floodplains are areas adjacent to a river or stream that are inundated when the river or stream
overflows. Thus, floodplains are dry areas, subject to recurrent flooding each time the river
reaches the flood stage. As their nature is maintained changing with the seasons, how this may
affect development or how the development that could be affected should be carefully examined
before wearing all development activities on them. It is possible to map the flood plains.
Therefore, the extent of floodplains is used in flood mitigation programs to assess significant
flood zones and their extent. Floodplains are neither static nor stable. Floodplains are made up of
unconsolidated sediments. Therefore, whenever there is a high flow in the river or stream, and it
overflows these rapidly eroding sediments. In the same way, floodplains are the areas on which
fresh layers of mud, sand and silt are deposited. The width of the floodplain depends on the size
of the stream, the rate of descent, slope of the creek and the hardness of the creek wall. Flood
plains are rare in the upstream region because the size of the rivers is small. A relatively small
stream will generally have a flood plain only inside a bend (meander).
1.4 Types of Floods
Following are a few types of floods along with their cause.
1.4.1 River floods and Coastal/sea/tidal floods
When the water reaching the river, exceeds the capacity of the river channel River floods occur.
The reasons may be excessive rain, melting snow, melting ice, etc. Coastal / marine / tidal
flooding is a result of ocean water being pushed inland due to a tidal wave induced by a
geological process such as an earthquake or volcanic activity, for example. Tsunami
1.4.2 Mud Floods:
These are floods with a high sediment content resulting from volcanic activity.
1.4.3 Dam Floods:
These are overflows caused during the rupture of a dam, natural dams occur.
1.4.4 Sewer/urban drain flood:
Thunderstorm discharges into sewers and rain exceed capacity and overflow into surrounding
areas (e.g. industries, shopping centers and residential areas)
1.4.5 Flash Floods:
This happens when a large amount of water floods within a short period. This occurs locally and
suddenly with little warning (caused by immoderate rainfall, dam failure, or a sudden release of
water held by an ice jam). This has been demonstrated by the numerous riverine floods in the
world that resulted in loss of life and enormous material damage. To mention a few: the 1993
Mississippi flood (USA), the 1993 and 1995 Rhine and Meuse floods (the Netherlands and
Germany), the 1994 Po River flood (Italy), the 1997 Oder flood (Central Europe), the 1998
Yangtze flood (China), the 2001 Orissa flood (India), the 2002 Elbe flood (Germany) and the
devastating 2013 Kedarnath, Uttarakhand floods in India. These floods not only resulted in loss
of lives, directly and indirectly, but have disrupted entire societies and have caused billions of
Euros in damages. For instance, the estimated total losses of the 1993 and 1995 Rhine floods
reached 4 billion Euros, the 1994 Po flood 9 billion Euros and the1997 Oder flood 5 billion
Euros (Conway, 2000). These are direct damages due to flooding those results from rainfall
and/or snowmelt. It does not include flooding due to winds, such as coastal flooding.
1.4.6 Urban Floods:
Urban flooding is called urban flooding, but urban flooding is far more devastating than other
floods due to the higher population density and huge investment in an urban environment. The
frequency of urban floods is also higher because average rainfall can also cause urban flooding
due to stagnation of water. Floods in general and urban floods in particular are not an unknown
Page | 2
event the world and therefore in India. The uneven distribution of precipitation in an area where
the drainage, lakes are violated to carry out urban development as the land in the urban
environment is too precious to be left alone is a major reason for urban flooding.
1.5 Causes of urban flooding:

There are several reasons for urban flooding. They are natural or human induced. Compared to
flooding elsewhere, anthropogenic factors play a greater role important role in urban flooding
than natural factors. Man-induced factors itself influence natural factors.
1.6 Natural Causes:

1.6.1 Heavy Rainfall / Flash floods:
Runoff water after a heavy rain event drains quickly through impermeable layers in urban areas
and reaches low areas to increase their water level. The situation worsens if a river or stream,
which crosses this area, overflows.
1.6.2 Lack of Lakes:
Lakes are the natural storage points for excess water and therefore act like floods controllers. If
the size of the lakes is decreasing or the lake is completely flooded, storage capacity decreases.
This can lead to flooding.
1.6.3 Silting:
Storm sewers carry large amounts of sediment with them and deposits in downstream regions.
This results in shallow downstream drainages and reduced drainage capacity. In case of heavy
rain, the drains will not be capable of carrying surface runoff water and hence flooding occurs.
1.7 Human Causes:

1.7.1 Population pressure:
As the population in an urban area is high, the basic requirement the products are also high. This
results in senseless urbanization and thus creating an imbalance in the ecosystem. As a result, a
flood occurs.
1.7.2 Deforestation:
Large forest areas in and around cities are encroached to create urban features like buildings,
roads, parks, farmland, etc. sediment, due to which the drainage depth decreases and the runoff
exceeds the capacity of drains. As a result, urban flooding occurs.
1.7.3 Encroachment of the storm water drains:
As urbanization activities increase, storm water flows out, which acts like flooding regulators are
infringed. This creates blockages in the drains and reduces the capacity of drains. Therefore,
stormwater encroachment will result in flood.
1.7.4 Poor Water and Sewerage Management:
Urban drainages were designed decades ago considering the conditions then. Intense
urbanization has increased the speed and amount of runoff. Unrevised drainage systems and their
capacity modified, they cannot withstand the current runoff load. This induces the drainage
overflow and therefore urban flooding.
Page | 3
1.8 Effects of Urban Floods:
Few of the effects of urban floods are listed below.
1.8.1 Economic effects:
• Urban flooding causes damage to lives and property
• The functions of industries and trades being hampered, they suffer losses
• It will affect the livelihoods of daily paid workers and small traders.
• During heavy flooding, the entire transport system such as road, rail and air is
carried out, which leads to loss of income
• As daily activities are negatively affected, the prices of the products increase.
1.8.2 Environmental effects:

Floods affect the entire ecosystem. It damages many natural characteristics. Forests, wildlife, etc.
It also affects the natural drainage system and a large amount of sediment.
1.8.3 Effect on Traffic:
Floods damage infrastructure such as roads and bridges. This will result in traffic jams, affecting
the entire transport system.
1.8.4 Effect on Human Beings:
Flooding results in loss of life and property, which disruption of daily human life. Statistically
speaking, on average around 50 the lakh in India are affected every year due to flooding in terms
of loss of life or Properties.
1.8.5 Livestock:
Cattle are very strongly affected in the event of a flood because humans the beings themselves
are in difficulty. No proper care of the cattle can be taken, results in loss of livestock to a large
extent.
1.8.6 Disease:
Floods cause illnesses like fever, diarrhea, cold and dengue. As there are more the chances of
water saturation, mosquitoes will increase in the environment affecting human’s health.
1.8.7 Publiclnconveniences:
Overall, urban flooding completely disrupts daily human activities, affecting systems like,
transportation, communication and power supply. This too causes problems such as logging,
disease and traffic jams. If urban floods cause complete annoyance to the public.
Page | 4
Chapter 2
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Study Area
2.1.1 Ajmer
One of the main cities of the Indian state of Rajasthan and the center of the eponymous district of
Ajmer. According to the 2011 census, Ajmer had a population of 542,321 in the city, 551,101
including its suburbs. capital until the 12th century AD. Ajmer is surrounded by the Aravalli
mountains. It is the starting point to visit Pushkar (11 km), an ancient Hindu pilgrimage town,
famous for the temple of Lord Brahma, and also a pilgrimage center for the shrine of Saint Sufi
Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti. Ajmer has been selected as one of the heritage cities for the Indian
government's HRIDAY - Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana program.
Fig.1-Index map municipal area of Ajmer city
Page | 5
2.1.3 History
Ajmer was originally known as Ajayameru. The 12th century text Prithviraja Vijaya states that
King Shakambhari Chahamana (Chauhan) Ajayaraja II (ruled around 1110 - 1135 CE)
established the city of Ajayameru. Historian Dasharatha Sharma notes that the first mention of
the city's name occurs in Pattavali in Palha, which was copied in 1113 CE (1170 VS) in Dhara.
This suggests that Ajmer was founded sometime before 1113 CE. A prashasti (laudatory
inscription), published by Vigraharaja IV and found at Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra, states that
Ajayadeva (i.e. Ajayaraja II) moved his residence to Ajmer.
Fig.2-Jahangir receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on his return from the Mewar
campaign.
The more recent Prabandha-Kosha text states that it was 8th century King Ajayaraja I who
commanded Fort Ajayameru, which later became known as Fort Taragarh of Ajmer. According
to historian R. B. Singh, this claim appears to be true, as inscriptions dated to the 8th century CE
have been found at Ajmer. Singh theorizes that Ajayaraja II later expanded the city area, built
palaces, and moved the capital Chahamana from Shakambhari to Ajmer. Mughal prince Dara
Shikoh was born here in 1615. Jahanara Begum, the powerful Mughal princess was also born
here.
2.1.4 Geography
Ajmer is located in the northwestern part of India and is surrounded by the Aravalli Mountains.
It is located on the lower slopes of the Taragarh hill of this chain. The massive rocks of the
Nagpaharh Range protect Ajmer from the Thar Desert to the west. Ajmer is antipodal to the
Chilean island of Isla Salas y Gómez.
2.1.5 Weather
Ajmer has a hot, semi-arid climate with over 55 centimeters (22 inches) of rain each year, but
most of the rains occur during the monsoon months, between June and September. Temperatures
Page | 6
remain relatively warm throughout the year, with the summer months of April through early July
having an average daily temperature of around 30 ° C (86 ° F). During the monsoon, heavy rains
and thunderstorms are common, but flooding is not common. The winter months from November
to February are mild and temperate with average temperatures ranging from 15-18 ° C (59-64 °
F) with little to no humidity. There are, however, occasional cold weather fronts that drop
temperatures to near zero levels.
2.1.6 Transportation
Fig.3-Pushkar Valley that connects Pushkar and Ajmer in the Aravalli Mountains
2.1.7 Air
The works of Kishangarh Airport, near Ajmer, were inaugurated by former Prime Minister
Manmohan Singh in September 2013. The airport was inaugurated by the Union Minister of
State for Civil Aviation Jayant Sinha and Chief Minister Vasundhara Raje on October 11, 2017.
2.1.8 Rail
Ajmer is well connected by railways. The Ajmer Junction is the main railway station situated in
the city.
2.2 Landmarks and Monuments

2.2.1 Pushkar
Located a few kilometers from Ajmer, is an important tourist and pilgrimage destination. It is
famous for Pushkar Lake and the 14th century Brahma temple in Pushkar, dedicated to Brahma,
according to Padma purana Pushkar is an important pilgrimage site for Lord Brahma.
2.2.2 Taragarh Fort
The fort guarding Ajmer, was the seat of the Chauhan rulers. It is reputed to be one of the oldest
hill forts in India and the world. It was built by King Ajaypal Chauhan on top of Taragarh Hill
and overlooks Ajmer. The battlements run along the top of the hill. The walls have a
Page | 7
circumference of about 3 km and the fort can only be approached from a very steep slope. When
it fell to the British Raj, the fort was dismantled on the orders of Lord William Bentinck and was
converted into a sanatorium for British troops stationed at the garrison town of Nasirabad.
Fig.4-City of Gold in Ajmer Jain temple

2.2.3 Ajmer Sharif Dargah
It is a shrine of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti which is situated at the foot of the Taragarh hill, and
consists of several white marble buildings arranged around two courtyards, including a massive
gate donated by the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Akbari Mosque, built by the Mughal emperor
Shah Jahan and containing the domed tomb of the saint. Akbar and his queen used to come here
by foot every year on pilgrimage from Agra in observance of a vow when he prayed for a son.
The large pillars called "Kose ('Mile') Minars", erected at intervals of about two miles (3 km)
along the entire way between Agra and Ajmer mark the places where the royal pilgrims halted
every day. About 125,000 pilgrims visit the site every day. The urs for Moinuddin Chishti is
celebrated every year on the 6th and 7th of Rajab.
2.2.4 Ajmer Jain temple
also known as Soniji Ki Nasiyan, is an architecturally rich Jain temple built in the late nineteenth
century whose main chamber Swarna Nagari "City of Gold", has prominent depiction of
Ayodhya made from 1000 kg of gold.
2.2.5 Mayo College
The college was founded in 1875 by Lord Mayo, Viceroy of India. He was known as "Indian
Eton" because a number of Indian princes studied at this college. The main building, in white
marble, is a classic example of Indo-Saracen architecture. In front of the college is the memorial
statue of Lord Mayo.
2.2.6 Akbari Fort & Museum
The city museum was once the residence of Prince Salim, the son of Emperor Akbar, and today
houses a collection of Mughal and Rajput armor and sculpture. It is a magnificent example of
Page | 8
Mughal architecture, the construction of which was commissioned by Akbar in 1570. It was
there that Salim, as Emperor Jahangir, read the firman allowing the British East India Company
to trade with India.
2.6.7 Nareli Jain Temple
Fig.5-Nareli Jain Temple is a recent addition to Ajmer Nareli Jain Temple
is a Jain temple complex of fourteen recently built temples? It is known for its architecture and
intricate stone carvings which give it both a traditional and contemporary look.
Page | 9
Chapter 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
Kulkarani A.K., Mandal B.N. and Sangam R.B., Pune (1994): The paper studies of heavy
rainfall 22-23 August, 1990 over Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. Present information is useful
to the hydrologists for planning and design of water resources projects in the Vidarbha region of
Maharashtra.
Lloyd, Barrette, Chaudhary P., Chenji S. (2013). Leveraging Resources for Community
Resilience Building. A study of multi-hazard affected villages in Bihar documenting best
practices seek to better understand the processes of leveraging government resources for CBDRR
and to understand how such processes could be integrated into existing flagship schemes. In
order to carry out this study, 12 villages and 11 schools in Bihar were visited where CBDRR has
been implemented. An analysis of UNICEF inputs into the CBDRR programme compared to its
outputs was employed to understand programme effectiveness. Focus was given to particular
funds and resources that were leveraged so as to highlight programme outcomes in clear and
tangible terms. Along these lines, the methods used for leveraging resources were identified and
examined to better understand how outcomes were obtained. The purpose of this study was to
better understand the current processes of leveraging government resources for CBDRR and to
integrate CBDRR into the GOI ‘s flagship programmes. Therefore, the objectives of this study
were the resources leveraged from government schemes for risk reduction, the processes
followed to leverage resources for risk reduction and the existing scope in various government
schemes for leveraging DRR resources. This study identified multiple best practices for
leveraging government schemes and implementing risk-informed projects at the local level.
UNICEF investment in Bihar ‘s CBDRR programme had been minimal as the programme relied
strongly on existing government resources and development schemes. While initial mobilization
and training of the community were shown to be key factors in starting the CBDRR process,
minimal financial support was needed as community leaders and volunteers had been trained to
take on this work. Some of the findings from this study were that the Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA) was the most used government scheme within
villages and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan (SSA) was the most used government scheme with school
to address and reduce disaster risk. A Village Disaster Management Committee (VDMC) and
School Disaster Management Committee (SDMC) with membership that includes influential
people from the community were benefitted from leveraging and sustainability purposes.
Influential people include one or more of the following: Mukhiya, Ward member, Auxiliary
nurse midwife, Anganwadi worker, school headmaster or panchayat secretary. Systemisation of
VDMC and SDMC membership calling for involvement of both community volunteers and at
least one duty bearer is a strong means to ensure that the CBDRR process will be able to get off
61 the ground. Identification and training of volunteer DRR catalysts at the village level led to
sustainability of the CBDRR programme beyond the period of UNICEF intervention. Interface
meetings between government officials and community members were found to be a best
practice for raising awareness about community risks and for leveraging government funds for
Page | 10
proposed projects. Streamlining these practices within scheme guidelines could increase their
adaptability for DRR and ensured that all communities could utilize them for such purpose.
Joshi, Ganpatrao S. (2012). This study focused on to develop and assess the effectiveness of
Training Manual on Disaster Management in terms of Knowledge and Self-expressed Practices
of teachers in selected schools of Pune city. This study is mainly related to the ―Disaster
management (DM)‖. Its main focus was to highlight the Human Resource Development in
disaster management. Capacity building of the community is one of the important aspects of
human resource management. People need competencies like knowledge, attitude and practices
to perform tasks. Success of the disaster management mostly depends upon efficient capacity
building of the society through educational and awareness programme. This study was to
evaluate the effectiveness of training manual on disaster management in terms of knowledge and
self-expressed practices of secondary school teachers in Pune 62 city during 2009-11. The
purpose of the study was - Disasters are on rise, at global as well as in India. The loss of life and
property due to disasters had increased substantially during last two decades. People are now at
risk from disasters. Flood, Earthquake, Terrorist attack, fire and road accidents has created
concern across the country for preparedness. There was urgent need to adopt multidimensional,
multidisciplinary and multi sectoral approach to reduce the losses. School children and their
teachers were some of the most receptive group to disaster preparedness education and training.
These children, in turn share this valuable education with family and community. Recognizing
the value of school children as ―multipliers‖ of disaster information. School teachers were
valuable social group to educate children about disasters. This strategy was proving its long-term
effectiveness. Justification of the study was based on the facts that safety of the school children
was basic right of children. Teachers must be aware of disaster management in schools and gain
knowledge and implement safety practices within school campus. Identifying learning needs of
adult learner is very important aspect in disaster education. According to Cox 2001, adult will
learn when they feel a need to learn at their own pace. Disaster management booklet, training
manual, handouts were easy ways of learning at own pace and it was preferable means of
learning on the topic. Hence researcher had taken initiative to develop a training manual and
assess its effectiveness.
National State Disaster Management Authority, (2010). A case study on Flood Frequency and
Ethno-History of Flooding” Rohini and Rapti (Name of rivers): Gaighat is situated on the bank
of the Rapti River between the Rapti and the Bathuanala River. It has been affected by flooding
and land cutting for as long as the villagers can remember. In most years, flooding had occurred
for a brief period and hasn't had a major impact on life. During the period from 1952 to 1957,
however, parts of the village were cut down by the shifting course of the Rapti and villagers were
forced to settle elsewhere or to build new houses in agricultural fields. This history repeated
itself between 1960 and 1980, when the shifting course of the river destroyed more land and
houses. As a result, approximately half of the villagers had migrated to safe places. The
remaining villagers had moved their dwellings into agricultural fields. As a result of the regular
disruption and shifting, Gaighat had been sub-divided into three smaller villages-Gaighat,
Rampur and Sonbha Ehtemali. In the late 1980s, an embankment was constructed to check the
problem of flooding and 63 much of Gaighat was indeed protected from annual floods to some
Page | 11
extent. Many houses, however, were located beyond the embankment and most of these
collapsed one after another as the river encroached upon them. In 1998 the Gorakhpur Disaster
Management Risk Flood Risk Management Flood Disaster embankment breached and the village
experienced the worst flood in its history. The initial breach occurred in the adjacent village of
Malpurwa and after that dozens of more breaches occurred. The resultant flash flood destroyed
many structures and the water also remained in the area for a long period afterwards. There was
dangerous flooding again in 2001, 2007 and 2009 but not on the scale of 1998. The history of
Gaighat was typical of the history of many villages between the Rapti and Rohini. Finding were
collecting fodder also becomes very difficult and the responsibility rests with the women as the
men went to nearby towns to look for work. Everyone ‘s health had suffered. The findings of this
study were, during disaster situations, the productive role of women outside the home was totally
disrupted as they were neither able to work in their fields nor had the time to work as wage
labourers. They therefore neither had access to nor control over wages. During emergency and
disaster situations, and during the periods following them, household chores and activities
increased dramatically house repairs, cleaning, drying and fixing belongings, collecting fuel
wood and fodder, etc. regular household activities would be continued. Post-disaster periods
were the most difficult for women, with reclaiming fields for planting added to repair and
maintenance activities as well as regular household chores. In such situations, they had no option
but to sacrifice their sleep and time to rest. So, it could be concluded that women have to suffer a
lot at the time of disasters, which also relate to this study. In this study women were considering
one of the most vulnerable groups of society.
Pore A.V. and Lokhande T.N., (2011): The present paper intends to analyses spatial
distribution of rural settlements and to identify the direct and indirect factors affecting
distributional pattern of rural settlements. For this purpose, spatial pattern of size, spacing,
village density etc. has been analyzed and correlated with relief, forested area, rural density, net
sown area etc. Kolhapur district (MS) has been selected for the study.
Maharashtra shasan Jalsampada vibhag Tapi patbandare vikas mahamandal Jalgaon
(2011): In this report Maharashatra shasan Jalsampada. Vibhag gives the address and contact
number of officers and name of flood affected villages in dhule district.
Page | 12
Chapter 4
REMOTE SENSING GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS)

4.1 Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making
physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to on-site observation, especially the Earth.
Remote sensing is used in numerous fields, including geography, land surveying and most Earth
science disciplines (for example, hydrology, ecology, meteorology, oceanography, glaciology,
geology); it also has military, intelligence, commercial, economic, planning, and humanitarian
applications.
Remote sensing of earth’s environment comprises measuring and recording and recording of
electromagnetic energy reflects from or emitted by the planet’s surface and atmosphere from a
vantage point above the surface, and relating of such measurement to the nature and distribution
of surface materials and atmospheric condition.
Fig.6-Remote Sensing process
4.2 Categories of Remote Sensing

a) Passive Remote Sensing
The sun provides a very convenient source of energy for remote sensing. The sun's energy is
either reflected, as it is for visible wavelengths, or absorbed and then re-emitted, as it is for
thermal infrared wavelengths. Remote sensing systems which measure energy that is naturally
available are called passive sensors. Passive sensors can only be used to detect energy when the
naturally occurring energy is available. For all reflected energy, this can only take place during
the time when the sun is illuminating the Earth. There is no reflected energy available from the
sun at night. Energy that is naturally emitted (such as thermal infrared) can be detected day or
night, as long as the amount of energy is large enough to be recorded.
Page | 13
b) Active Remote Sensing
Active sensors, on the other hand, provide their own energy source for illumination. The sensor
emits radiation which is directed toward the target to be investigated. The radiation reflected
from that target is detected and measured by the sensor. Advantages for active sensors include
the ability to obtain measurements anytime, regardless of the time of day or season. Active
sensors can be used for examining wavelengths that are not sufficiently provided by the sun,
such as microwaves, or to better control the way a target is illuminated. However, active systems
require the generation of a fairly large amount of energy to adequately illuminate targets. Some
examples of active sensors are a laser fluorosensor and a synthetic aperture radar (SAR).
Fig.7-Active and passive sensor
4.4 Global Positioning System

The Global Positioning System (GPS) in a space-based satellite navigation system the provides
location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the earth where
there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellite. The system provides critical
capabilities to military, civil and commercial users around the word. It is maintained by the
united states government and is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
4.4.1 Basic Concept of GPS
A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by the GPS satellite
high above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages that include.
The three segments of GPS are:
a) Space (Satellites) - The satellites circling the Earth, transmitting signals to users on
geographical position and time of day.
b) Ground control - The Control Segment is made up of Earth-based monitor stations, master
control stations and ground antenna. Control activities include tracking and operating the
satellites in space and monitoring transmissions. There are monitoring stations on almost every
continent in the world, including North and South America, Africa, Europe, Asia and Australia.
Page | 14
c) User equipment - GPS receivers and transmitters including items like watches, smartphones
and telematic devices.
Fig.8-GPS System
4.5 Geographic Information Systems

Geographic information systems are used in multiple technologies, processes, techniques and
methods. It is attached to various operations and many applications, which relate to: engineering,
planning, management, transport / logistics, insurance, telecommunications and business. For
this reason, GIS and applications are the basis of location services, which are based on
geographic analysis and visualization.
4.5.1 History of GIS
One of the most famous early examples of spatial analysis dates back to London in 1854, when
Dr John Snow was able to predict the onset of a cholera outbreak (More: John Snow's Cholera
Map Using GIS data). Thanks to the study published by Snow, government officials were able to
determine the cause of the disease; which was contaminated water from one of the main pumps.
The map that Snow made was very interesting in that it had the ability to analyze phenomena
related to their geographic positions and it was the first time the world witnessed it.
Photozincography was developed in the early 1900s, which made it possible to divide maps into
different layers as needed. At first, the process of drawing these cards was long as it involved the
free hand, but that changed later with the introduction of the computer.
Page | 15
Fig.9-John Snow’s 1854 Cholera Map
The first GIS was created by Dr. Roger Tomlinson and then introduced in the early 1960s in
Canada. When it was created, this system was mainly intended to collect, store and analyze the
capacity and potential of land in rural areas. Previously, mapping using computers was used for
such cases, but it is a method with many limitations. By the end of the 1980s, the use of GIS had
already become popular in other related fields, which is why it led to stimulation of the growth of
the industrial sector. Recently, designers have come up with open source software for GIS so that
brilliant technology can be improved in a much simpler way while still being available to
everyone.
4.5.2 Components of GIS
The next step in understanding GIS is to look at each area and how they work together. These
components are A working GIS integrates five key components: hardware, software, data,
people, and methods.
a) Hardware
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS runs. Today, GIS software runs on a wide variety of
hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktops used in stand-alone or networked
configurations.
b) Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools necessary to store, analyze and display geographic
information. The key software components are:
Tools for entering and manipulating geographic information
A database management system (DBMS)
Tools that support geographic query, analysis and visualization
Page | 16
A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools.
Fig.10-Geographic Information Systems
b) Data
Data is probably the most important part of a GIS. Geographic data and associated tables
data may be collected internally or purchased from a commercial data provider. A GIS will
integrate spatial data with other data resources and can even use a DBMS, used by most
organizations to organize and maintain their data, to manage spatial data.
c) People
GIS technology is of limited value without the people who manage the system and plan to apply
it to real world problems. GIS users range from the technical specialists who design and maintain
the system to those who use it to help them in their daily work.
d) Methods
A successful GIS operates under a well-designed business plan and rules, which are each
organization's unique operating models and practices.
4.6 GIS Data

Data is the most important part of a GIS. Geographic data and associated tabular data can be
collected in-house, compiled to custom specifications and requirements, or sometimes purchased
from a commercial data provider. A GIS can integrate spatial data with other existing data
resources, often stored in an enterprise DBMS. The integration of spatial data (often proprietary
to GIS software) and tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key functionality offered by GIS.
Page | 17
4.6.1 Raster
In its simplest form, a raster consists of a matrix of cells (or pixels) organized into rows and
columns (or a grid) where each cell contains a value representing information, such as
temperature. Raster are digital aerial photographs, imagery from satellites, digital pictures, or
even scanned maps.
Fig.11-Data stored in a raster format represents real-world phenomena
 Thematic data (also known as discrete) represents features such as land-use or soils data.
 Continuous data represents phenomena such as temperature, elevation, or spectral data
such as satellite images and aerial photographs.
 Pictures include scanned maps or drawings and building photographs.
Thematic and continuous raster may be displayed as data layers along with other geographic data
on your map but are often used as the source data for spatial analysis with the ArcGIS Spatial
Analyst extension. Picture raster are often used as attributes in tables—they can be displayed
with your geographic data and are used to convey additional information about map features.
The resolution of the raster dataset is the width of its cell in ground units. Raster data is stored in
various formats; a standard file structure of TIFF, JPEG, etc. large object binaries (BLOBs)
stored directly in a relational database management system (RDBMS) similar to other vector
feature classes.
4.6.2 Vector
Three fundamental vector types exist in geographic information systems (GISs): points, lines,
and polygons. Points are zero-dimensional objects that contain only a single coordinate pair.
Points are typically used to model singular, discrete features such as buildings, wells, power
poles, sample locations, and so forth. Points have only the property of location. Other types of
point features include the node and the vertex. Specifically, a point is a stand-alone feature, while
a node is a topological junction representing a common X, Y coordinate pair between
Page | 18
intersecting lines and/or polygons. Vertices are defined as each bend along a line or polygon
feature that is not the intersection of lines or polygons.
Fig.12-Points, Lines, and Polygons
Points can be spatially related to form more complex features. Lines are one-dimensional entities
made up of several explicitly connected points. Lines are used to represent linear features such as
roads, streams, faults, boundaries, etc. Lines have the length property. Lines that directly connect
two nodes are sometimes called chains, edges, segments, or arcs.
Polygons are two-dimensional features created by multiple lines that wrap around to create a
“closed” feature. In the case of polygons, the first pair of coordinates (point) on the first line
segment is the same as the last pair of coordinates on the last line segment. Polygons are used to
represent features such as city limits, geological formations, lakes, soil associations, plant
communities, etc. Polygons have the properties of area and perimeter. Polygons are also called
areas.
4.7 GIS Tasks

GISs essentially perform five processes or tasks: ·
 Input
 Manipulation
 Management
 Query and Analysis
 Visualization
a) Input
Before geographic data can be used in a GIS, the data must be converted into a format. The
process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called scanning. Modern GIS
technology has the ability to completely automate this process for large projects using scanning
technology; small jobs may require manual scanning (using a scan table).
Today, many types of geographic data already exist in GIS compatible formats. This data can be
obtained from data providers and loaded directly into a GIS
Page | 19
b) Manipulation
It is likely that the types of data required for a particular GIS project will need to be transformed
or manipulated in one way or another to make them compatible with your system. For example,
geographic information is available at different scales (street axis files may be available at 1:
100,000; census boundaries at 1: 50,000; and postal codes at 1: 10,000). Before this information
can be integrated, it must be transformed on the same scale. It could be a transformation for
display purposes or permanent required for analysis. GIS technology offers many tools to
manipulate spatial data and eliminate unnecessary data.
c) Management
For small GIS projects, it may be sufficient to store geographic information in the form of simple
files. The However, there comes a time when the volumes of data become large and the number
of data users becomes more than a few, that it is better to use a database management system
(DBMS) to help store, organize and manage data. A DBMS is nothing more than computer
software for managing a database - an integrated collection of data.
There are many different designs of DBMS, but in GIS the relational design has been the most
useful. In relational design, data is conceptually stored as a set of tables. Common fields from
different tables are used to link them. This surprisingly simple design was so widely used mainly
due to its flexibility and very wide deployment in applications in and without GIS.
d) Query and Analysis
Once you have a working GIS containing your geographic information, you can start asking
simple questions like Who owns the plot of land on the corner?
 What is the distance between two places?
 Where is the land zoned for industrial use?
And analytical questions such as:
 Where can we build all the sites?
 What is the dominant soil type for the oak forest?
 If a new highway is built here, how will traffic be affected?
GIS provides both simple point-and-click query functionality and sophisticated analysis tools to
deliver timely information to managers and analysts. GIS technology comes into its own when
used to analyze geographic data for patterns and trends, and to undertake “what if” scenarios.
Modern GIS has many powerful analytical tools, but two are particularly important.
Proximity Analysis
 How many houses lie within 100 m of this water main?
 What is the total number of customers within 10 km of this store?
 What proportion of the alfalfa crop is within 500 m of the well?
To answer such questions, GIS technology uses a process called buffering to determine the
proximity relationship between features.
Page | 20
e) Overlay analysis
Integrating different layers of data involves a process called overlay. In its simplest form, this
can be a visual operation, but analytical operations require one or more layers of data be
physically attached. This superposition, or spatial join, can integrate data on soils, slope, and
vegetation, or land ownership with tax assessment.
f) Visualization
For many types of geographic operation, the end result is best visualized as a map or graph.
Maps are very efficient at storing and communicating geographic information. While
cartographers have created maps for millennia, GIS provides new and exciting tools to extend
the art and science of cartography. Map displays can be integrated with reports, three-
dimensional views, photographic images, and other output, such as multimedia.
4.8 GIS Uses and Applications

Geographic Information Systems is jam-packed with example use cases. For example, we’ve
found over 1000 GIS uses and applications. Here are some examples below.
a) Environment
By far, the heaviest users are for the environment. For example, conservationists use GIS for
climate change, groundwater studies and impact assessments.
Fig.13-Geographic Information Systems
b) Military and Defense

Military are heavy users for GIS. They use it for location intelligence, logistics management
and spy satellites.
Page | 21
c) Agriculture
Farmers use it for precision farming, soil mapping and crop productivity.
d)Forestry
Foresters manage timber, track deforestation and inventory forest stands with GIS.
e) Business
More on the business side of things, GIS is for site selection, consumer profiling and customer
prospecting.
f) Real Estate
Examples in real estate include market analysis, home valuations and zoning.
g) Public Safety
GIS shows the spread of disease, disaster response and public health.
Chapter 5
MATERIAL AND DATASET

5.1 Software Package
 Erdas Imagine 2015
 Arc GIS 10.4
 Microsoft office Processing (Word and Excel).
5.1.1 Erdas Imagine

Erdas Imagine is an image processing software package that allows users to process geospatial
and other imagery as well as vector data. Erdas can also handle hyper spectral imagery and
LIDAR from various sensors. Erdas also offers a 3D viewing module (virtual GIS) and a vector
Page | 22
module for modelling. Erdas is integrated within other GIS and remote sensing application and
the storage format for the imagery can be read in many other application (*.img files). You can
visualize your result in 2D,3D, movies and on cartographic map composition.
Erdas Imagine 2015 is a full released product that include all three tiers of ERDAS IMAGINE
(64-bit), IMAGINES Photogrammetry, ERDAS ER Mapper, and most associated add-ons.
Fig.14- Erdas Imagine 2015
5.1.2 Arc GIS 10.4

Arc GIS is geographical information system (GIS) for working with maps and geographic
information. It is used for creating and using maps, compiling geographic data, analysis mapped
information, sharing and discovering geographic information, using maps and geographic
information in a range of application, and managing geographic information database.
Enhancement in Arc GIS 10.4 include improve support for using maps in the field in an
enterprise, many new geo processing tools, support for new data formats and database, and better
search capabilities for raters and imagery.
Page | 23
Fig.15-Arc GIS 10.4
5.1.3 Microsoft word
Microsoft word or MS-Word (often called word) is a geographic word processing program that
users can type with. It is made by the computer company Microsoft. Its purpose is to aloe users
to type and save document.
5.1.4 Microsoft Excel
MS-Excel used in computation of various statistics, reparation of graph and excel sheet.
Page | 24
Fig.16-Microsoft word
Fig.16-Microsoft Excel
Page | 25
Chapter 6
METHODOLOGY
6.1 Digital Image Processing

Digital image processing (DIP) is the technology of applying several computer algorithms to
process digital images. The outcomes of this process can be either image of a set of
representative characteristic or properties of the original image.
Digital image processing deals with the manipulation and analysis of pictures by a computer it
can improve pictorial information for better clarity (human interpretation) automatic machine
processing of scene data (interpretation by machine/non-human eye. Storage, transmission)
6.1.1 Pre-Processing
In their raw form, as received from imagining sensors mounted on the satellite, remotely sensed
data generally contain flaws or deficiencies. The correction of deficiencies and the removal of
flaws present in the data are termed pre-processing
Preprocessing is an important and diverse set of image preparation programs which act to offset
problems with the band and recalculate DN values that minimize these problems.
6.1.2 Co-Ordinate Transformation
The techniques of coordinate transformation are useful for geometric correction with GCPs.
Image to ground and image to image both corrections involve a rearrangement of the input pixels
on to a new grid. Polynomial equations are used to convert the source coordinates to rectified
coordinate. Using a polynomial transformation, the relationship between the pixel coordinate
system can be defined.
6.1.3 Rectification
After calculating the transformation, the images were rectified in the map coordinates systems in
ERDAS 14 software. Re-sampling is the final step of geometric correction. Different re-sampling
methods can be used in rectification methods.
The three most common resampling methods are the nearest neighbor, bilinear interpolation and
cubic convolution. After the coordinate transformation, in this study, because that is simply
assigned to each pixel the value of its nearest neighbor in the new coordinate system. It is the
fastest re-sampling technique and is appropriate for the thematic data. Rectifying or registering
image data on ERDAS 14 software involves the following general steps, regardless of the
application:
 Locate GCPs
 Compute and test a transformation.
Create an output image file with the new coordinate information in the header. The pixels must
be re-sampled to conform to the new grid. Images can be rectified on the display.
Page | 26
6.2 Miscellaneous Pre-Processing
6.2.1 Subsetting
Subsetting or spatial subsetting refers to breaking out a portion of a large file into one or more
smaller files. Often, the image file contains areas much larger than a particular study area. In
these cases, it is helpful to reduce the size of the image file to include only the area of interest
(AOI).
6.2.2 Image Classification
Classification process intends to categorize all the pixels in digital into one of several land cover
class, or "themes" this categorized data may then be used to produce thematic maps of the land
cover present in an image. Normally, multispectral data are used to perform the classification
and, indeed the spectral pattern present within the data for each pixel is used as the numerical
basis for categorization (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1994). The objective of image classification is to
identify and portray, as a unique gray level (or color), the features occurring in an image in terms
of the object or type of land cover these features represent on the ground.
6.3 Integration with GIS

After the processing, combining data of the different type and from different sources is the
pinnacle of data integration and analysis. In a digital environment, where all the data sources are
geometrically registered to a common geographic base, the potential for information extraction is
extremely wide. The integration with the GIS allows synergistic processing of multi-source
spatial data.
The integration of the two technologies creates a synergy in which the GIS improves the ability
to extract information from remotely sensed data, and remote sensing, in turn, keeps the GIS up
to date with the actual environment information. As a result, a large amount of spatial data can
now be integrated and analyzed. This is allowing for a better understanding of the environmental
process and better insight into the effect of human activities.
Process of GIS starting from data capture to organizing data from the special analysis since data
analysis and presentation is a versatile process and require details discussion this following. steps
are using in GIS processing in this case study. Data capture from maps images for field survey
the data sources for GIS can be categorized as following conventional analog maps source SOI
Toposheet report and Publications satellite Remote Sensing Google Earth imagery field data
sources surveying existing digital map source.
Digitizing in early days of digital cartography The most common way of encoding vector data
from analogue maps images into a GIS was digitizing in this case study digitizing has done for
all data state layers used the ArcGIS 10.4 software vector to raster conversion Rasterization is
also useful to integrate all data set for overlay operations Organizing data for analysis most
ArcGIS software organized is spatial data in a thematic approach that categorized in data in
vertical layers the definition of layers is fully dependent on the organizations requirements in this
case study typical layers used in integration and modeling of spatial data spatial analysis with
ArcGIS and ERDAS Software.
Page | 27
6.4 Preparation of Data
Preparation of thematic maps was a necessity for the study region where digitization was used
with the help of Arc GIS software and address is used for image processing. referring to previous
studies different criteria were chosen for determination of suitable area.
6.5 Conceptual Methodology
Fig.17-Conceptual Methodology
Page | 28
6.6 Satellite Imagery
6.6.1 Sentinal-2
Sentinel-2 was launched on 23rd June 2015 as a part of European Space Commissions
Copernicus program. Its Orbital height is at an altitude of 785km and because of the presence of
two satellites Sentinel-2A and 2B it provides temporal resolution of 5 days at the equator and 2-3
days at middle latitudes, these two identical satellites are phased at an angle of 180o towards
each other in a sun-synchronous orbit, this satellite is designed in such a way to provide lifespan
of 7.25 years. It was specifically designed to provide a wealth of data and imagery in better
resolution with advance specifications.
Sentinel-2 is equipped with OEM (Opto-Electronic Multispectral) sensor with a resolution of 10-
60m in the visible, near-infrared (NIR), shortwave-infrared (SWIR), it includes 13 spectral bands
which help in capturing and detection of a difference in vegetation index. Out of 13 spectral
bands, 4 bands are of 10m resolution which ensures the user requirements, in particular, for basic
coverage of land-cover classification and 6 bands are of 20m resolution which provides
enhanced land-cover classification, for retrieval of geophysical parameters. The bands with 60m
resolution are especially dedicated to cirrus cloud screening and atmospheric correction. This
satellite is the first civil optical earth observation of its kind to include three bands in the ‘red
edge’ which provides key information on vegetation properties.
Fig. 18: - Sentinal-2 Image
Page | 29
Table:1 -Sentinel-2 Data Band Composition
Bands Band type Bandwidth (μ m) Resolution (m)
Band 1 Coastal aerosol 0.443 60
Band 2 Blue 0.490 10
Band 3 Green 0.560 10
Band 4 Red 0.665 10
Band 5 Vegetation red edge 0.705 20
Band 8 NIR 0.842 10
Band 8A Vegetation red edge 0.865 20
Band 9 Water vapor 0.945 60
Band 10 SWIR cirrus 1.375 60
Band 11 SWIR 1.610 20
Band 12 SWIR 2.190 20
Bands used in sentinel 2 are band 8 (near-infrared), band 4 (red), and band 2 (blue). These bands
are combined to form an FCC image (False-color composite.)
6.6.2 Land use and land cover (LULC)
Land use and land cover (lulc) data files describe the vegetation, water, natural surface and
cultural characteristics of the land surface. The United States Geological Survey (USGS)
provides these datasets and associated maps as part of its national mapping program.
Page | 30
Fig.19- By comparing land cover data and maps over a period of time, coastal
managers can document land use trends and changes.
Land cover data indicates the extent to which a region is covered with forests, wetlands,
impermeable surfaces, agriculture, and other types of land and water. Types of water include
wetlands or open water. Land use shows how people use the landscape - whether for
development, conservation or mixed uses. The different types of land cover can be managed or
used in very different ways.
Land cover can be determined by analyzing satellite and aerial images. Land use cannot be
determined from satellite images. Land cover maps provide information to help managers better
understand the current landscape. To see the change over time, land cover maps for several
different years are needed. With this information, managers can assess past management
decisions and gain insight into the possible effects of their current decisions before they are
implemented.
Coastal managers use land cover data and maps to better understand the impacts of natural
phenomena and human use of the landscape. Maps can help managers assess urban growth,
model water quality problems, predict and assess the impacts of floods and storm surges, track
wetland losses and potential impacts of sea level rise, prioritizing areas for conservation efforts
and comparing land cover changes with environmental effects. or links with socio-economic
changes such as population increase.
Page | 31
Fig.20- Land Use Land Cover Municipal Area of Ajmer city
Table:2- Area of Lulc Ajmer City

Lulc Area of Ajmer
DESCRIPTION AREA SQ. KM.
Page | 32
Hills 5.519663486
Others 2.415480943
Settlement 34.45412875
Urban Green space 22.76076558
Water Body 3.552269605
TOTAL AREA 68.70230836
6.7 ASTER DEM

The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) is an
imaging instrument onboard Terra. The satellite was launched in 1999 with an altimeter to map
the Earth terrain with a higher spatial resolution. The sensor provides Global Digital Elevation
Model (GDEM) of Earth’s surface between 83°N and 83°S and is composed of 22,600 1°-by-1°
tiles. The acquired data is available in GeoTiff format with geographic Lat/Long as coordinate
system, WGS84/EGM96 as geoid and grid size of 1 arc-second i.e. 30 m.
Fig.21: - Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer
6.7.1 DEM
The most common digital data of the shape of the earth's surface is cell-based Digital Elevation
Models (DEMs). This data is used as input to quantify the characteristics of the land surface.
Page | 33
A DEM is a raster representation of a continuous surface, usually referencing the surface of the
earth. The accuracy of this data is determined primarily by the resolution (the distance between
sample points). Other factors affecting accuracy are data type (integer or floating point) and the
actual sampling of the surface when creating the original Errors in DEMs are usually classified
as either sinks or peaks. A sink is an area surrounded by higher elevation values and is also
referred to as a depression or pit. This is an area of internal drainage. Some of these may be
natural, particularly in glacial or karst areas (Mark 1988), although many sinks are imperfections
in the DEM. Likewise, a spike, or peak, is an area surrounded by cells of lower value. These are
more commonly natural features and are less detrimental to the calculation of flow direction.
Errors such as these, especially sinks, should be removed before attempting to derive any surface
information. Sinks, being areas of internal drainage, prevent downslope flow routing of water.
Fig.22: - Visualization of a Raster DEM Surface.
Page | 34
Fig.23: -Elevation Model of Municipal Area of Ajmer City
6.8 Base Map

A base map is a layer with geographic information that serves as a background. A base
map provides context for additional layers that are overlaid on top of the base map. Base
Page | 35
maps usually provide location references for features that do not change often like boundaries,
rivers, lakes, roads, and highways.
Fig.24: - Base Map Municipal Area of Ajmer City
6.9 Aspect
Page | 36
Fig.25: - Aspect
Table: -3 Aspect Range of Ajmer urban area

ASPECT
Wight 1-40.05
Yellow 40.05-119.32 Page | 37
Green 119.32-197.18
Blue 197.18-276.45
Red 276.45-359.97
identifies the direction of the downward slope of the maximum rate of change in value from each
cell towards its neighbors. This can be seen as the direction of the slope. The values in each cell
in the output raster indicate the direction of the compass the surface faces at that location. It is
measured clockwise in degrees from 0 (due north) to 360 (again due north), making a full circle.
Flat areas with no downslope direction are assigned a value of -1.
Fig.26: -Aspect directions
Conceptually, the Appearance tool fits a plane to the z values of a 3 x 3 cell neighborhood
around the process or center cell. The direction in which the plane faces matches the appearance
of the processing cell.
The following diagram shows an input elevation dataset and the output aspect raster.
Fig.27: - Elevation and Aspect Raster
Why use the Appearance tool?

With the Appearance tool, you can do the following:
Page | 38
• Find all of the north-facing trails on a mountain as part of a search for the best trails for ski
trails.
• Calculate solar illumination for each location in an area as part of a study to determine the
diversity of life at each site.
• Find all the southern slopes of a mountainous region to identify places where snow is likely to
melt first as part of a study to identify residential locations likely to be affected by runoff first.
• Identify areas of flat ground to find an area for a plane to land in an emergency.
6.10 Slope
The Slope tool identifies the steepness at each cell of a raster surface. The lower the slope value,
the flatter the terrain; the higher the slope value, the steeper the terrain. The output slope raster
can be calculated in two types of units, degrees or percent (percent rise). The percent rise can be
better understood if you consider it as the rise divided by the run, multiplied by 100. Consider
triangle B below. When the angle is 45 degrees, the rise is equal to the run, and the percent rise is
100 percent. As the slope angle approaches vertical (90 degrees), as in triangle C, the percent rise
begins to approach infinity.
Rise
Degree of Slope =θ ∗tenθ A Rise B C
Run
θ θ
Rise
Percent of Slope = ∗100
Run
Run
degree of Slope = 30 45 76
Percent of Slope = 58 100 373
Comparing values for slope in degrees versus percent.
The Slope tool is most commonly run on an elevation dataset, as shown in the following images.
Steeper slopes are shaded darker brown on the output slope raster.
The tool can also be used with other types of continuous data, such as population, to identify
sudden changes in value.
6.10.1 Calculation methods and side effect

Table: -4 Slope area description of Ajmer urban area
Page | 39
DESCRIPTION SHAPE AREA Sq.Km.
1-2% Flate Region 34.55818503
2-5% Gentle Slope 25.3707047
5-15% very gentle slope 5.459914138
15-40% Moderate slope 1.942393711
40-60% Steep slope 0.886590481
60-75% Very steep slope 0.402036817
>75% Vertical clip 0.05911653
Two TOTAL AREA 68.68030717
methods are available for calculating the slope. You can choose between performing planar or
geodetic calculations with the Method parameter. For the planar method, slope is measured as
the maximum rate of change in value from a cell to its immediate neighbors. The calculation is
performed on a flat projected plane using a 2D Cartesian coordinate system. The slope value is
calculated using the mean maximum technique (Burrough, 1998). With the geodesic method, the
calculation will be performed in a 3D Cartesian coordinate system by considering the shape of
the earth as an ellipsoid. The slope value is calculated by measuring the angle between the
topographic surface and the referenced datum.
6.10.2 Planar method
SLOPE AREA SQ.KM.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1-2% Flate 2-5% Gentle 5-15% very 15-40% 40-60% 60-75% Very >75% TOTAL AREA
Region Slope gentle slope Moderate Steep slope steep slope Vertical clip
slope
For each cell, the tool calculates the maximum rate of change in value from that cell to its
neighbors. Basically, the maximum change in elevation over the distance between the cell and its
eight neighbors identifies the steepest downhill descent from the cell.
Graph:1- Slope Range of Ajmer urban area
Page | 40
Fig.28: - Slope of Municipal area of Ajmer City
Page | 41
6.11 Contour
Derivation of contour lines from a surface. Contour lines are a familiar way of representing
surfaces on maps. An outline is a line passing through all contiguous points with equal (or other)
height values. You can create contour lines for a raster, triangulated irregular network (TIN), or
terrain dataset surface. A 200-meter contour was generated using ArcMap software. Contours
less than 100 meters have been removed.
Ajmer is a very dense hilly area which has been shown on the map through the contours
generated by the DEM. A 10-meter contour formation generated using the DEM. Figure showing
the outline of the Ajmer municipal area.
Why creates Contours?
By following the polyline of a particular outline, you can identify locations that have the same
value. Contours are also a representation of useful area, as they allow you to simultaneously
view flat and steep areas (distance between contours) and ridges and valleys (converging and
diverging polylines). The example below shows an input elevation dataset and the output contour
dataset. Areas where the contours are closer indicate the steepest locations. They correspond to
the highest altitude zones (in white on the input altitude dataset). The contour attribute table
contains an elevation attribute for each contour polyline.
Page | 42
Fig.29: - Contour Line municipal area of Ajmer City
Page | 43
6.12 Drainage System
The area over which waterfalls and the network through which they move to an outlet is called a
drainage system. The flow of water through a drainage system is only a subset of what is
commonly referred to as the hydrologic cycle, which also includes precipitation,
evapotranspiration, and groundwater flow. Hydrology tools focus on the movement of water over
a surface.
A drainage basin is an area that drains water and other substances to a common outlet. Other
common terms for a watershed are watershed, basin, watershed, or contributory area. This area is
normally defined as the total area flowing to a given outlet, or pour point.
A pour point is the point at which water flows from an area. This is usually the lowest point
along the watershed boundary.
The boundary between two basins is called the watershed line or the watershed boundary.
Fig.30: - Components of drainage basin
The network through which water moves to the outlet can be visualized as a tree, with the base
of the tree being the outlet. The branches of the tree are channels of flow. The intersection of two
flow channels is called a node or junction. The sections of a flow channel connecting two
successive junctions or a junction and the outlet are called flow links.
Page | 44
6.13 Drainage System
Fig.31: -Drainage System
Page | 45
Chapter 7
RESULT AND CONCLUSION

7.1 Low-Lying
Fig.32: - Low-Lying Area Municipal of Ajmer City
Page | 46
7.2 Low-Lying Area
Table:5- Low-Lying Location Municipal Area of Ajmer City
COD LATITUDE LONGITUDE ELIVATIO
E LOW-LYING LOCATION (N) (E) N (M)
A FRIENDS COLONY (D BLOCK) 26° 29' 57.560'' 74° 37' 20.544'' 377.53
B SHIV VIHAR (C BLOCK) 26° 29' 18.016'' 74° 37' 24.367'' 436.45
C SAGAR VIHAR COLONY (L BLOCK) 26° 29' 08.234'' 74° 37' 41.552'' 445.85
D BANDI RIVER 26° 28' 19.290'' 74° 36' 47.490'' 450.63
E RAILWAY STATION 26° 27' 24.038'' 74° 38' 12.225'' 436.25
F AAM KA TALAB 26° 26' 58.417'' 74° 40'13.060'' 437.34
NEW COLONY ALWAR GATE (JADUGAR
G COLONY) 26° 26' 39.850'' 74° 38' 49.430'' 430.05
H NAGRA 26° 26' 20.250'' 74° 38' 50.570'' 445.54
I ANGIRA NAGAR 26° 26' 00.830'' 74° 38' 53.357'' 433.87
J BIHARI GANJ 26° 25' 54.850'' 74° 38' 57.250'' 431.74
K ADARSH NAGAR 26° 25' 14.920'' 74° 39' 03.245'' 427.19
7.3 Factors of Urban Flooding Cases

Flooding is an accumulation of water in an area either by direct rainfall irresistible to the volume
of drainage systems or a spill of huge amount of water from water bodies beyond normal limits.
Urban floods in Municipal Area of Ajmer City.
Causes
7.3.1 Natural causes
 Meteorological phenomenon: Cyclone like Nada, Roanu, Vardah making landfalls in
coastal areas induce heavy rainfall finally leading to flooding.
 Excessive rainfall in some cases.
7.3.2 Man-made Causes
 Encroachment: More migration >> reduced availability of land >> higher economic value
of land >>> more encroachment of water bodies >> reduced economical services from
water bodies. Aam ka talab, shive vihar colony, Gulab badi, pal vichala, Vaishali nagar
 Pollution: Explosive increase in the urban population without corresponding expansion of
civic facilities such as lack of adequate infrastructure for the disposal of waste results in
waste clogging the natural channels and storm water drains. Thus flooding.
 Cultural or religious festivals also misuse water bodies.
 Illegal mining activities: Illegal mining for building material such as sand and
quartzite both on the catchment and on the bed of the lake have extremely damaging
impact on the water body.
 Interference in drainage system: drainage congestion caused by badly planned
construction of bridges, roads, railway tracts, hampers the flow of water and the result is
flood.
Page | 47
 Absence of administrative framework: The government does not have data on the total
number of urban water bodies in the country. Few cities have recorded water bodies
because of court rulings. Union Ministry of Environment & Climate Change had not
identified wetlands and no identifications of risks to these wetlands due to pollution of
river water. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) had not identified the major aquatic
species, birds, plants and animals facing risks due to pollution of rivers and lake.
7.3.3 Way forward
 Detailed survey of the wetlands and then bring every water body and its catchment under
legal protection.
 Inclusion of water bodies and their catchment in the city development rules.
 Comprehensive urban planning with proper study of topography, drainage, rainfall, soil
lithology with improved flood water disposal system.
7.4 Ward Wise Area of Lulc Feature
7.4.1 Feature
1) SETTLEMENT
2) HILLS
3) WATER BODY
4) URBAN GREEN SPACE
5) OTHER CATOGORY
Page | 48
7.5 MUNICIPAL AREA OF AJMER CITY WARD
Fig.33: - Ward Municipal Area of Ajmer City
Page | 49
Table:6- Area of Category Wise All Ward of Municipal
WAR
Ajmer
SETTLEMENT HILLS WATER URBAN OTHER TOTAL AREA
D_NO. BODY GREEN CATEGORY
SPACE
1 1171191.386 1241708.572 700.02 1575756.105 16047.06252 4005403.145
2 683558.7161 0 0 534006.7463 0 1217565.462
3 1028441.608 0 0 268044.5936 499.9995 1296986.201
4 447039.639 0 0 44742.04219 0 491781.6812
5 322401.0969 0 0 51249.12442 0 373650.2213
6 311448.5901 8730.428099 0 37205.82346 0 357384.8416
7 206972.5584 0 0 25557.15653 0 232529.7149
8 105306.0449 0 0 179.902434 0 105485.9473
9 159557.0747 1461.004611 0 33995.61691 0 195013.6962
10 132586.3602 0 0 8028.902215 0 140615.2624
11 137620.004 181875.2038 0 98947.54259 0 418442.7504
12 163269.3684 973363.818 0 72990.49615 0 1209623.683
13 112253.0707 0 0 2200.0045 0 114453.0752
14 81484.59525 0 0 0 0 81484.59525
15 194037.3477 0 0 5351.008004 0 199388.3557
16 236134.5848 0 0 4948.985496 0 241083.5703
17 102520.3525 12963.97183 0 16560.56936 0 132044.8937
18 83447.73556 12369.58433 0 12390.15364 0 108207.4735
19 108411.6558 0 0 1197.22586 0 109608.8817
20 200295.5803 0 0 4993.123645 0 205288.704
21 160679.8542 7440.349118 0 7353.41238 0 175473.6157
22 184713.1867 0 0 10897.36077 0 195610.5475
23 306735.8862 102806.9337 0 59613.29725 0 469156.1172
24 384699.4934 0 0 422505.1896 3650.001 810854.684
25 208236.1214 0 0 6356.902114 0 214593.0235
26 165706.7352 132809.1681 0 90478.8773 0 388994.7806
27 100473.8829 0 0 8462.183042 0 108936.0659
28 476004.8231 0 0 92282.56 6748.94628 575036.3294
29 77075.99031 77075.99031 0 298422.8452 2999.9975 455574.8233
30 349719.5526 57862.58451 0 490668.1105 0 898250.2476
31 1052504.917 0 999.9985 928849.9775 10600.0083 1992954.901
32 557459.3333 0 0 99598.74559 0 657058.0789
33 453286.129 0 138349.0089 216802.0766 123265.4502 931702.6647
34 627893.3925 0 13870.90588 454416.4507 58825.08651 1155005.836
35 450797.4784 0 10945.22416 201432.987 36614.72951 699790.4191
36 585994.179 0 0 761965.1237 483819.6207 1831778.923
37 1416295.723 0 0 1725376.583 1725376.583 4867048.89
38 775403.6857 76010.45381 0 197722.3768 0 1049136.516
39 447061.3965 37280.2372 0 206670.5968 5772.045084 696784.2756
40 317776.9144 0 0 51947.61361 0 369724.528
41 876033.1682 0 15473.13574 758416.089 140847.7362 1790770.129
42 168830.7598 0 0 6045.254298 0 174876.0141
43 148369.3341 0 0 17327.83881 0 165697.1729
44 155952.8138 0 0 2507.449658 0 158460.2634
45 362495.8226 0 0 24504.68179 38397.97531 425398.4797
46 434328.5571 0 0 75981.72924 0 510310.2864
47 358266.512 0 0 33528.21243 0 391794.7244
48 316417.5193 0 0 65584.54859 0 382002.0679
49 139500.9614 0 0 23313.68722 0 162814.6486
50 327453.6172 0 15666.28707 658892.3603 0 1002012.265
51 576050.0544 0 0 63328.16989 0 639378.2243
52 426983.6444 0 0 226936.5157 9600 663520.1601
53 604095.3305 426510.9982 0 758398.64 28715.9892 1817720.958
54 913908.4764 17086.28387 0 1173113.769 450518.267 2554626.796
55 446226.871 165309.4955 0 514543.0157 114262.2404 1240341.623
56 328550.4122 62899.27023 0 87732.99976 0 479182.6822
57 579014.2004 0 0 59591.35791 0 638605.5583
58 399430.4389 0 27962.66323 352965.1925 6432.905258 786791.1999
59 392188.1979 0 0 932977.7552 17300.0015 1342465.955
60 850629.3757 111330.6934 0 1176869.135 20399.986 2159229.19
Page | 50
61 319888.5833 216049.2986 1459.343215 583179.4929 10102.38172 1130679.1
62 316044.6174 398081.3371 0 495291.2056 0 1209417.16

63 317119.7076 152983.7039 0 77700.55227 0 547803.9637
64 439324.2762 0 0 158182.4377 200.00 597706.7144
05
65 754392.0208 0 0 404778.4275 900 1160070.448
66 407736.9614 113891.5499 0 41635.29641 0 563263.8077
67 730686.5956 0 0 142808.2689 0 873494.8645
68 356882.8361 0 0 10139.72246 0 367022.5585
69 264986.5389 0 0 23859.61562 0 288846.1545
70 129189.0816 0 0 700 0 129889.0816
71 1060601.377 0 3134904.5 431532.6815 0 4627038.626
67
72 252913.5805 29381.81516 0 46384.51126 0 328679.907
73 359049.3563 65471.40369 0 25756.437 0 450277.197
74 46231.00166 75369.64377 0 40802.46926 1800.0 164203.1162
015
75 365760.9891 3873.527314 0 96365.95964 0 466000.4761
76 1029156.693 0 0 959629.8328 53801. 2042587.731
20518
77 430075.4273 0 0 37867.7783 0 467943.2056
78 390109.6838 165524.0433 178579.78 1492021.371 25054. 2251289.639
55 75559
79 591155.8348 0 4228.2981 364756.26 52849. 1012990.388
57 9955
80 1266063.301 482142.0723 9130.3904 1013864.331 3399.9 2774600.091
28 96696
TOT 33718590.58 5409663.435 3552269.6 22589983.45 344880 68719310.05
AL 28 2.968
YEA ANNUAL RAINFALL

R MM
2010 653.4
2011 491.6
7.6 Ajmer Annual Rainfall 2012 595.5 in Millimeter
2013 577.6 Table:7- Annual Average
Rainfall data 2014 577.6
2015 478.3
2016 556.6
2017 529.5 Page | 51
2018 343.5
2019 1129
2020 472
7.6.1 Ajmer Rainfall Data
ANNUAL RAINFALL MM
1200 1129
1000
800
653.4
595.5 577.6 577.6
600 556.6 529.5
491.6 478.3 472
400 343.5
200
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Graph:2-Annual Rainfall
Page | 52
Table:8 – AJMER RAINFALL DATA 2010
Page | 53
Page | 54
Page | 55
Page | 56
Page | 57
Page | 58
Page | 59
Page | 60
Page | 61
Page | 62
7.7 Solid Waste Management
The city badly requires effective Solid Waste Management which is not the part of Swach Bharat
Abhiyan but is one of the key elements for Smart city development programme. According to the
JNNURM ―The total waste generation for the ULB is estimated for base year (2006) and future
up to 2021on a waste generation rate of approximately 250 gms/capita/day (based on CPEEHO
norms). The waste generation rate can be expected to grow higher than 250 gms/capita/day as the
city population increases and there are enhanced levels of consumption. The city is spotted with
dustbins and garbage all around it.
Fig.34-Ajmer City: Ramganj Fig.35-Ajmer city: kutchery road

Ajmer
Fig.36-Ajmer city: opposite of JLN medical collage Fig.37-Ajmer city: JLN medical
collage
7.8 Proper Drainage Facility
Along with proper Solid Waste Management proper drainage facility is urgently required.
During monsoons Ajmer city is often flooded without any proper outlets for water that
accumulates. The drains are often clogged with solid waste which blocks the easy flow of
sewage and waste water. Some of the drains which play important role in drainage pattern of the
city is:
Page | 63
 Bandi River
 Kazi ka Nalla
 Arihant colony drain
 Anted Chatri Yojna Drain
 Vaishali Diversion Channel
 Anasagar Escape channel
 Bhrampuri Drain
 Inderkot Madargate Drain
The pictures ahead a highlight the present conditions of these drains. Indiscriminate
discharge of solid waste from the nearby areas into these drains regularly results in unhygienic
environment which is hazardous to our health.
This hampers the traffic flow, causes inconvenience to pedestrians and increases the risk of
accidents.
Fig.38
Fig.39-Source: Rajasthan Patrika, July 2015 Fig.40- Source: Rajasthan Patrika, July2015
Page | 64
Fig.41- Ajmer Fig.42-Ajmer
The pictures clearly portray that it requires an effective Sewage and Drainage Management
without which city ‘s proper development is a challenge.
7.9 AJMER HAVIY RAIN AUGUST 2019
Fig.-43 Ajmer 2019
Page | 65
7.10 Field Work
Fig.44- low- lying area condition
Page | 66
Fig.45-field work
Page | 67
Chapter 8
CONCLUSIONS
8.1 REDUCING FLOOD HAZARDS IN URBAN AREAS
There are many approaches for reducing flood hazards in basins under development. Areas
identified as flood-prone have been used for parks and playgrounds that can tolerate occasional
flooding. Buildings and bridges have been elevated, protected with floodwalls and levees, or
designed to withstand temporary inundation. Drainage systems have been expanded to increase
their capacity for detaining and conveying high streamflow’s; for example, by using rooftops and
parking lots to store water. Techniques that promote infiltration and storage of water in the soil
column, such as infiltration trenches, permeable pavements, soil amendments, and reducing
impermeable surfaces have also been incorporated into new and existing residential and
commercial developments to reduce runoff from these areas. Wet-season runoff from a
neighborhood in Seattle, Washington, was reduced by 98 percent by reducing the width of the
street and incorporating vegetated swales and native plants in the street right-of-way.
Page | 68
CONCLUSIONS
Urbanization generally increases the size and frequency of floods and may expose communities
to increasing flood hazards. Current streamflow information provides a scientific foundation for
flood planning and management in urban areas. Because flood hazard maps based on streamflow
data from a few decades ago may no longer be accurate today, floodplain managers need new
peak streamflow data to update flood frequency analyses and flood maps in areas with recent
urbanization. Streamflow-gaging stations provide a continuous record of streamflow that can be
used in the design of new urban infrastructure including roads, bridges, culverts, channels, and
detention structures. Stormwater managers can use streamflow information in combination with
rainfall records to evaluate innovative solutions for reducing runoff from urban areas. Real-time
streamflow-gaging stations, which make streamflow and rainfall data available via the internet
and other communications networks as they are recorded, offer multiple benefits in urban
watersheds. In particular, they provide flood managers with information that can guide flood
control operations and emergency actions such as evacuations and road closures.
Page | 69
RECOMMENDATION
1. Public awareness.
2. Encroachment.
3. Clean drains before rain.
4. Proper master urban planning.
5. Do not allow Water bodies and agriculture sector in new urban development.
Page | 70
Chapter 9
REFERENCES
9.1 Research and article
1)Flood zone mapping of Guwahati municipal corporation area using GIS technology
2)Ajmer as a Smart City; an Assessment of Challenges and Responsibilities
3)Urban flood modeling: a GIS based approach in lemma, skene region
4) Urban Floods in India, Farhat Rafiq, Sirajuddin Ahmed*, Shamshad Ahmad**, Amir Ali
Khan**** Department of Civil Engineering, Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi, India**
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah,
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia*** National Institute of Disaster Management, Ministry of Home
Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi
5) Remote sensing analysis for flood risk management in urban sprawl contexts FRANCESCA
FRANCI*, EMANUELEMANDANICI and GABRIELE BITELLI, Department of Civil,
Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering (DICAM), University of Bologna, Bologna
40126, Italy.
6) Delimitation of flood areas based on a calibrated a DEM and geoprocessing: case study on the
Uruguay River, Itagui, southern Brazil.
7) Identifying urban areas prone to flash floods using GIS -preliminary results Marzena Wicht1
and Katarzyna Osi´nska - Skotak1 1Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Geodesy and
Cartography, Department of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and GIS, Pl. Politechniki 1, 00-
661 Warsaw.
8) Flood Hazard Mapping using Aster Image data with GIS, Eric Kwabena Forkuo Department
of Geomatic Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Private Mail
Bag, Kumasi, Ghana eforkuo.soe@knust.edu.gh
9) ESA (2004) Space and public safety, civil protection assistance. Downloaded web page from
http://www.esa.int/esaeo/ SEMQFF3VQUD_environment_0.html on 5 August.2006.
10) Miwa, J. & Kikuchi, R. (2003) Flood hazard mapping project in ESCAP/WMO typhoon
committee area. In: APHW2003 Proceedings (ed. by K. Takara & T. Kojima) (Kyoto, Japan, 13–
15 March), 792–795.
11) Prasad, A. K. (2006) Potentiality of multi-sensor satellite data in mapping flood hazard. J.
India Soc. Remote Sensing 34(3), 219–231.
Page | 71
12) Elkharchy, "Flash Flood Hazard Mapping Using Satellite images and GIS tools: Case study
of Najran City, Saudi Arabia (KSA)," The Egyptian journal of remote sensing and space
sciences, vol. 18, pp. 261-278, 2015.
13) L Jian Guo & Mason, Philippa J. (2009). Essential Image Processing for GIS and Remote
Sensing. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-470-51032-2.
14) N. B. A.-C. Akajiaku C. Chukwuocha, "Geographic Information Systems based Urban

drainage efficiency Factors," in FIG Working week, 2015.
15) National Research Council; Committee on Population: Tools and Methods for Estimating
Populations at Risk from Natural Disasters and Complex Humanitarian Crises; National
Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2007.
16) Feng, Q., Liu, J., & Gong, J. (2015). Urban flood mapping based on unmanned aerial vehicle
remote sensing and random forest classifier—A case of Yuyao, China. Water, 7(4), 1437-1455.
17) Wynne, R. H., Magnuson, J. J., Clayton, M. K., Lillesand, T. M., & Rodman, D. C. (1996).
Determinants of temporal coherence in the satellite‐derived 1987–1994 ice breakup dates of
lakes on the Laurentian Shield. Limnology and Oceanography, 41(5), 832-838.
18) Sowmya, K., John, C. M., & Shrivasthava, N. K. (2015). Urban flood vulnerability zoning of
Cochin City, southwest coast of India, using remote sensing and GIS. Natural Hazards, 75(2),
1271-1286.
19) Schumann, G. J. P., Neal, J. C., Mason, D. C., & Bates, P. D. (2011). The accuracy of
sequential aerial photography and SAR data for observing urban flood dynamics, a case study of
the UK summer 2007 floods. Remote Sensing of Environment, 115(10), 2536-2546.
20) Kulkami, A. K., Mandal, B. N., & Sangam, R. B. (1994). A study of heavy rainfall of 8–10
June 1991 over Maharashtra, India. Advances in atmospheric sciences, 11(3), 353-366.
22) Patel, J. K. (2017). Knowledge and Preparedness of Village Level Disaster Management

Committee (VDMC) Members regarding Community Based Disaster Preparedness for
Flood (Doctoral dissertation, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda (India)).
23) Ganpatrao, J. S. (2014). Knowledge and practices of school teachers regarding disaster
management. International Journal of Health System and Disaster Management, 2(2), 98.
24) Ahmed, Z. (2013). Disaster risks and disaster management policies and practices in Pakistan:
A critical analysis of Disaster Management Act 2010 of Pakistan. International Journal of
Disaster Risk Reduction, 4, 15-20.
24) Markandey, K., & Srinagesh, B. Urbanization in the 21st Century.
25) Sabu, G. (2020). Economic Impact of Floods on Plantation Sector: A Study of Selected
Districts in Kerala.
Page | 72
26) Yaseen, Z. M., Kisi, O., & Demir, V. (2016). Enhancing long-term streamflow forecasting
and predicting using periodicity data component: application of artificial intelligence. Water
resources management, 30(12), 4125-4151.
27) google.co.in
28) https://www.esri.in//
29) https://shodhganga.inflinet.ac.in//
30) https://districts.ecourts.gov.in/ajmer//
31) https://water.rajasthan.gov.in//
32) https://desktop.acr.gis.com//
33) https://pubs.usgs.gov.in//
34) https://www.ukessays.com//
35) https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov//
Page | 73
Page | 74

Urban Flood Mapping and Analysis of Low-Lying

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Urban Flood Mapping and Analysis of Low-Lying

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

URBAN FLOOD MAPPING AND ANALYSIS OF LOW-LYING

MUNICIPAL AREA OF AJMER CITY

Prof. SUBROTO DUTTA

DEPARTMENT OF REMOTE SENSING AND GEOINFORMATICS

MAHARSHI DAYANAND SARASWATI UNIVERSITY, AJMER

FOR THE ACADEMIC YEAR 2019-2020

It is my pleasure to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. Subroto Dutta HOD Department of

1.5 Causes of urban flooding:

1.6 Natural Causes:

1.7 Human Causes:

1.8.2 Environmental effects:

Fig.1-Index map municipal area of Ajmer city

2.2 Landmarks and Monuments

Fig.4-City of Gold in Ajmer Jain temple

Fig.5-Nareli Jain Temple is a recent addition to Ajmer Nareli Jain Temple

REMOTE SENSING GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS)

Fig.6-Remote Sensing process

4.2 Categories of Remote Sensing

Fig.7-Active and passive sensor

4.4 Global Positioning System

4.5 Geographic Information Systems

Fig.10-Geographic Information Systems

4.6 GIS Data

Fig.11-Data stored in a raster format represents real-world phenomena

Fig.12-Points, Lines, and Polygons

4.7 GIS Tasks

4.8 GIS Uses and Applications

Fig.13-Geographic Information Systems

b) Military and Defense

MATERIAL AND DATASET

5.1.1 Erdas Imagine

Fig.14- Erdas Imagine 2015

5.1.2 Arc GIS 10.4

6.1 Digital Image Processing

6.3 Integration with GIS

6.5 Conceptual Methodology

Fig. 18: - Sentinal-2 Image

6.6.2 Land use and land cover (LULC)

Table:2- Area of Lulc Ajmer City

6.7 ASTER DEM

Fig.21: - Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer

Fig.22: - Visualization of a Raster DEM Surface.

6.8 Base Map

Fig.24: - Base Map Municipal Area of Ajmer City

Table: -3 Aspect Range of Ajmer urban area

Fig.26: -Aspect directions

Fig.27: - Elevation and Aspect Raster

Why use the Appearance tool?

6.10.1 Calculation methods and side effect

SLOPE AREA SQ.KM.

Fig.30: - Components of drainage basin

Fig.31: -Drainage System

RESULT AND CONCLUSION

Fig.32: - Low-Lying Area Municipal of Ajmer City

7.3 Factors of Urban Flooding Cases

7.4 Ward Wise Area of Lulc Feature

4) URBAN GREEN SPACE

Fig.33: - Ward Municipal Area of Ajmer City

62 316044.6174 398081.3371 0 495291.2056 0 1209417.16

YEA ANNUAL RAINFALL

Fig.34-Ajmer City: Ramganj Fig.35-Ajmer city: kutchery road

7.9 AJMER HAVIY RAIN AUGUST 2019

Fig.-43 Ajmer 2019