14.

Biomolecules

Carbohydrates:
Most carbohydrates have the general formula Cx(H2O)y
Classification of carbohydrates: Three groups (on the basis of their behaviour on
hydrolysis)
 Monosaccharides: Cannot be hydrolysed further to yield simpler units;
Example: glucose, fructose
 Oligosaccharides: On hydrolysis, give two to ten units of
monosaccharides
 Disaccharides (give two units)
Example: sucrose (gives glucose and fructose) maltose (gives two
molecules of glucose)
 Trisaccharides (give three units)
 Tetrasaccharides (give four units), etc.
 Polysaccharides: On hydrolysis, give a large number of units of
monosaccharides
 Called non-sugars as they are not sweet to taste
The carbohydrates which are sweet to taste are also called sugars.

All monosaccharides are reducing sugars

Classification of monosaccharides
 Aldose (contains an aldehyde group)
 Ketose (contains a keto group)

Different types of Monosaccharides

Carbon atoms General term Aldehyde Ketone
3 Triose Aldotriose Ketotriose
4 Tetrose Aldotetrose Ketotetrose
5 Pentose Aldopentose Ketopentose
6 Hexose Aldohexose Ketohexose
 7 Heptose Aldoheptose Ketoheptose

Glucose:

Evidences for the given structure

 Molecular formula, C6H12O6
 The six C-atoms are linked in a straight chain.

 Presence of a carbonyl group

 Presence of carboxyl groups as an aldehydic group

 Presence of five –OH groups attached to different carbon atoms

  Presence of a primary alcoholic (–OH) group

Spatial arrangement of –OH groups

Cyclic structure of glucose

 Reactions that are not explained by the open-chain structure
 Does not give 2, 4–DNP test, Schiff’s test, and does not form
hydrogensulphite addition product with NaHSO3
 There is no reaction between pentaacetate of glucose and
hydroxylamine (i.e., free –CHO group is absent)
 There are two different crystalline forms of glucose, and
 –form and -form are called anomers
 Haworth structure

Fructose:
Molecular formula, C6H12O6
Structure
 Cyclic structure (Haworth structure)

Disaccharides:
Glycosidic linkage Linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom
Sucrose

 Invert sugar The product of the hydrolysis of sucrose

Maltose

Lactose
It is also know as milk sugar (as it is found in milk)
Polysaccharides:
Starch
 Main storage polysaccharide of plants
 Two components – Amylose and amylopectin
Cellulose
Predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells
Glycogen
 Storage carbohydrates of animals
 Known as animal starch

Proteins:
Amino acids

One-
Name of the Characteristic feature Three-letter
letter
amino acids of side chain, R symbol
code
Glycine H Gly G
Alanine –CH3 Ala A
Valine* (H3C)2CH– Val V
Leucine* (H3C)2CH–CH2– Leu L
H 3C CH 2 CH
Isoleucine* | Ile I
CH 3
HN C NH CH 2 3
–
Arginine* | Arg R
NH 2
Lysine* H2 N CH 2 4
Lys K
Glutamic acid HOOC CH2 CH2 Glu E
Aspartic acid HOOC–CH2– Asp D
 Glutamine Gln Q

Asparagine Asn N
Threonine* H3C–CHOH– Thr T
Serine HO–CH2– Ser S
Cysteine HS–CH2– Cys C
Methionine* H3C–S–CH2–CH2– Met M
Phenylalanine* C6H5– CH2– Phe F
Tyrosine (p)HO–C6H4–CH2– Tyr Y

Tryptophan* Trp W

Histidine* His H

Proline Pro P

*essential amino acid, a = entire structure

Classification of amino acids

 Essential amino acids (cannot be synthesised in the body and
must be obtained through diet)
Example: valine, bucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine
 Non-essential amino acids (can be synthesised in the body)
Example: glycine, alanine, cysteine, aspartic acid
In aqueous solution, amino acid exists as zwitter ion (a dipolar ion)

Structure of proteins:
Peptide linkage Amide formed between –COOH group and –NH2
group
Insulin contains 51 amino acids.
Classification of proteins (based on their molecular shape)
 Fibrous protein
Parallel polypeptide chains are held together by hydrogen and
disulphide bonds. Generally, they are insoluble in water.
Example: keratin, myosin
 Globular protein
Coil of polypeptide chains of spherical shape. Generally, they are
soluble in water. Example: insulin, albumin
 Primary structure of protein –
Sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chain
 Secondary structure of protein –
Due to regular folding of polypeptide chain on account of
H-bonding
–helix

–pleated
  Tertiary structure of protein –
Overall folding of the polypeptide chains
 Quaternary structure of protein –
Spatial arrangement of subunits with respect to each
other
Denaturation of protein: Loss of biological activity by a protein as a result
of unfolding of globules and uncoiling of helix. Example: coagulation of egg on
boiling, curdling of milk

Enzymes: Biocatalysts
Maltase
C12 H 22 O11 2C6 H12 O6
Glucose
 Oxidoreductase: Enzymes which simultaneously catalyse the
oxidation of one substrate and the reduction of another substrate
 Enzymes reduce the magnitude of activation energy of a reaction

Vitamins:
Organic compounds required in small amounts in the diet, whose deficiency causes
specific diseases.
Classification of vitamins
 Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E and K
 Water-soluble vitamins: Vitamin C and B group vitamins

Sl. Name of Deficiency

Sources
No. vitamins diseases
Xerophthalmia
Fish, liver, oil,
(hardening of cornea
1 Vitamin A carrots, butter
of eye), night
and milk
blindness
Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, Beri beri (loss of
2.
(Thiamine) green vegetables appetite, retarded
 and cereals growth)
Cheilosis (fissuring
at corners of mouth
Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, and lips), digestive
3.
(Riboflavin) liver, kidney disorders and
burning sensation of
the skin
Yeast, milk, egg
Vitamin B6
4. yolk, cereals and Convulsions
(Pyridoxine)
grams
Pernicious anaemia
Meat, fish, egg
5. Vitamin B12 (RBC-deficiency in
and curd
haemoglobin)
Citrus fruits,
Vitamin C Scurvy (bleeding
6. amla and green
(Ascrobic acid) gums)
leafy vegetables
Rickets (bone
deformities in
Exposure to
children) and
7. Vitamin D sunlight, fish
osteomalacia (soft
and egg yolk
bones and joint pain
in adults)
Vegetable oils
Increased fragility of
like wheat germ
8. Vitamin E RBCs and muscular
oil, sunflower
weakness
oil, etc.
Green leafy Increased blood
9. Vitamin K
vegetables clotting time

Nucleic acids: Polymers of nucleotides

Mainly two types
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Chemical composition of nucleic acid
A pentose sugar
Phosphoric acid
Base (nitrogen-containing heterocyclic ring)
 DNA
Sugar moiety – D – 2 – Deoxyribose
Bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T)
 RNA
Sugar moiety – D – ribose
Bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U)
Structure of nucleic acid:

Formation of dinucleotide

Primary structure –
 Sequence of nucleotides in the chain
Secondary structure –
 Double-strand helix structure for DNA: The two strands are
complimentary. This is because H–bonds are formed between
specific pairs of bases.
A–T
C–G

 RNA is single stranded

 Classification of RNA on the basis of their functions
Messenger RNA (m–RNA)
Ribosomal RNA (r–RNA)
Transfer RNA (t–RNA)
Biological functions of nucleic acids
 DNA
 Maintains the identity of different species
  Stores the message for the synthesis of a particular protein
 RNA
 Carries out protein synthesis in the cell

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