MECHANICAL
OPERATIONS
8.1 Pumps
Pumps allow liquids to be circulated and are found in different forms in refin-
ing units. They can be classified into two main categories:
centrifugal pumps and
positive displacement pumps.
I Positive
~
Rotary Gear
Screw
Vane
Reciprocating Piston
Diaphragm
Plunger
492 Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
Figure
Approximate range of operation for the three main types of pump (Adapted
from Karassik, I.J., 1986).
Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS 493
In any case, they must be selected, installed and maintained with the great-
est care so that they can give continuous service for several months under the
best conditions. To assure continuous service in total security, pumps are gen-
erally provided with an installed spare, or often a pump driven by an electric
motor can be associated with one driven by a steam turbine. The backup
pump must always be ready to take over, either by manual or automatic con-
trol.
Characteristic curve o f a
pump: head H(m) versus
flow rate Q(m3/h).
A. Euler line (theoretical
curve). 1. Hydraulic friction
losses increasing as the
square o f the flow rate. I I
I -
C
Q
2. Losses by shocks in the (m3/h)
poorly adapted flow.
C. Effective curve.
494 Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS
250 100
-
-80 $
0
c
- 60 .g
- 40 E
- 20
-___
Figure
8.4 Basic curves characterizing a centrifugal pump
i?
3a,
c
s!
3
m
Dynamic component = H,=
v2-v;
-
2
0.
- 2g
m
e
c -
Flow rate Q
~
Figure
8.5 Curve characteristic of the system.
/ \
Valve opening J
B : Operating point
Figure
8.6 Variation in operating point by means of a value.
Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS 497
a,
0. N,
0
5 z
W
N m m b
7
I
-
I
7
I
7
I
0
c\l
I
m
N
I
0
m
0
d
I
0
m
I
0
w
1
0
a3
I
z :Z E
O
I
O
I
O 0
I ,
O
Ei
I
26 & iiii
I I
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lo CDr-Coao m o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 7 c u c9 d m w b c o a g
-
Figure
8.7 Variation in specific speed versus the type o f impeller used.
~ Bell-shaped curve
Characteristic curves
-
.- ..
.
K Downward
AQ
downward
c - AQflat _i
Flow rate Q
I Figure
8.8 Different types of characteristic curves.
H2 -- H -
l(?)Z
As a result, the absorbed power varies with the cube of the speed:
P2 -- P l(;)B-
Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS 499
HA system curve
t 1
\/ Q'H
curves
t
Flow rate Q
Figure
8.9 Variation in the operating point versus the rotation speed.
In actual practice, the choice of the speed is in most cases dictated by tech-
nical limitations and by the constraints of the drivers used, most frequently
electric motors.
(4) Influence of impeller diameter
The characteristic curve of a given impeller can be modified by trimming
down the outside diameter. As long as ratios are limited to those that upset
flow calculations only slightly, the flow rate and the head are proportional to
the square of the diameter:
P2 -- P 1 ( E-
:)I
In actual practice, losses by shocks and recirculation are greater when the
diameter decreases. This is shown by the iso-efficiency curves given in sup-
plier catalogs (Fig. 8.10).
U
g
240
210
c
I
180
150
120
90
60
30
01
0
t I
200
I
400
I
600
I
800
I I I
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
I I J
Figure
8.10 Influence of impeller diameter on the characteristic curve.
I
6L
5
4t
4 -
3-
/
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (“C)
Figure
Water vapor pressure (expressed in meters of water column) versus the tem-
perature.
P + T,
NPSHa= -- Aj - Hgeo
P&?
with:
P pressure above the liquid
Pa atmospheric pressure if the tank is open
T, vapor pressure
p density of the pumped fluid
g 9.81 m/s2
Aj pressure drop between the pump and the tank
Hgeo difference in geometric height
For a pump operating under load, located below the level of pumped liq-
uid (Fig. 8.12B), the following is obtained by simplifying:
P + T,
NPSHa= -- Aj + Hgeo
P&?
Operation without cavitation requires NPSHa > NPSHr. In actual practice, a
safety margin must be kept, usually of 0.5 to 1 m.
502 Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS
t
A Reference level
Open Closed I
tank 1 tank Hgeo
-
-
Figure
8.12 Diagram indicating the parameters to be taken into account to calculate
NPSHd. A. Operating by suction. B. Operating under load.
35
v
30
D
ma,
I
25
20
15
10
0 I I I I I I I I I I I
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Figure
8. I 3 Determination of NPSH versus impeller diameter reduction.
Flow rate Q
In usual practice, 4 points are calculated for the nominal flow rate Q, and
at 0.6 x Q,, 0.8 x Q, and 1.2 x Qn, that allow new curves to be plotted. The cor-
rection factors are empirical. The Hydraulic Institute chart (Fig. 8.15) is widely
used. It allows the correction coefficients Ca, C, and C,, to be applied respec-
tively to the flow rate, head and efficiency variables, to be deduced. The power
must be recalculated taking the liquid density into account if it is different.
Example for a liquid with the following properties:
= 440 cSt and p = 900 kg/m3.
Table 8.2 gives the computed values and Figure 8.16 shows the results in
the form of a curve.
0’ 80
0.8 x 0,
I 1.o x 0,
I
v)
I- 60
z
2 40
i 301
n)
DO
50
DO
so
60
10
30
25
20
15
10
6
4
20
00
20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 300 400 600 800 1 000 1 500 2 000
Flow rate Q (m3/h)
Figure
8.15 Correction chart of characteristics for viscous liquids (Hydraulic Institute stan-
dards).
506 Chapter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS
-
Figure
8.17 Example of a “Process”pump (API 8th edition, IDP documentation).
ers it can be utilized in a wide temperature range (up to over 400°C). Due to its
overhung design construction, the suction pressure generates uncompensated
axial loads, so the suction pressure is limited to about 30 bar.
c. LLProcess”
Pumps between Bearings
These are used when the preceding type is no longer suitable for a variety of
reasons:
The NPSHa is too low and requires a double suction impeller (Fig. 8.18).
The suction pressure is too high.
Two stages are necessary to produce the required head (Fig. 8.19).
The high power requires better shaft mechanical strength.
I Figure
8.19 Two-stage pump (KSB documentation).
Chapter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS 509
-
Figure
8.20 Pump with an axially split casing (KSB documentation).
Figure
8.21 1 Pump with radially split casing, integral pressurized casing, or “barrel”pump
(IDP documentation).
e. Vertical Pumps
Vertical barrel pumps are generally buried and by means of their length pro-
vide the suction head required for operation (Fig. 8.22A). The NPSHa can be
close to zero at the suction flange (complete draining of a tank for example).
The pumps are often high pressure and are widely used in gas treatment pro-
cesses. Vertical pumps without a barrel are mainly employed for lifting, most
frequently on water (Fig. 8.22B). They are common in offshore operations, for
injection water feed or fire figting pumps where they are over 20 m long.
510 Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS
B
1
A
f. Construction Materials
API standards are once again very explicit on the subject and define no less
than 13 possible construction categories. Each one describes the materials
chosen for the different pump components. The most widespread categories
are listed in Table 8.3.
Simpler construction with no specific standards is used in particular for
pumping fresh water. Here the pump is generally made of cast iron and the
shaft of carbon steel. Other types of construction employing copper alloys,
nickel-alloy cast iron or very highly alloyed stainless steels (with a composite
austenite / ferrite structure, termed duplex) are possible. Duplex stainless
steels are especially used in offshore applications to carry seawater, making it
one of the most expensive common products to pump.
The price is naturally highly dependent on construction standards and on
the chosen material.
Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS 511
To pump a flow rate of 100 m3/h to a head of 100 m, for a pump alone with-
out baseplate or driver, the approximate cost is:
10000 FF for cast iron, non-API construction (fresh water),
50000 FF for construction in compliance with API S-6 (petroleum prod-
ucts),
80000 FF for duplex stainless steel API construction (seawater).
8.1.1.3 Tightness
The conventional stuffing boxes have today disappeared from the realm of
petroleum industry. Only some water pumps, generally low speed, still use this
solution. Mechanical seals have become an essential part of pump design and
maintenance as well. Here too standardization has become involved. The first
APl standards, series number 682, exclusively devoted to mechanical seals
were published in October, 1994 (Fig. 8.23). Readers are advised to refer to the
document for further information. For pump manufacturers, it should be noted
that this standard has considerably increased and specified the space
required to incorporate seals, thereby allowing for all types of possible assem-
bly configurations.
The “zero emission” concept is today gaining ground. The solution is to
over-pressurize the intermediate volume of double seals featuring closed cir-
cuit circulation of an external fluid (usually by means of a screw pump) and
heat extraction by an exchanger in the pressurized tank (Fig. 8.24). The fluid is
pressurized with respect to the pump liquid so as to prevent any product from
leaking out toward the environment. Cooling is accomplished by this same
intermediate fluid (circulated by a number of different systems) through an
exchanger. Appropriate instrumentation monitors temperatures, flow rates,
pressures and levels.
512 Chapter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES,
AND EJECTORS
Other even more reliable but also more expensive solutions are sometimes
specified for total tightness without any dynamic joint:
Magnetic couplings: the driving power is transmitted by means of very
powerful permanent magnets through a thin wall composed of a material
that limits the destructive effects of eddy currents.
Submerged rotor pumping groups, where the driver is protected by a thin
welded sleeve and is submerged inside the pumped liquid.
Figure
8.23 Standard seal with "cartridge"mounting (API 682).
A. Single seal. B. Double seal.
Chapter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS 513
These two solutions raise the price of the pump, but have the same draw-
back of requiring the shaft to be supported by radial and axial bearings in the
pumped liquid. In addition to the problems due to the product having low
lubricating power, it also frequently contains abrasive particles. The solutions
employed by manufacturers entail choosing very hard materials, generally
ceramics: chromium oxides, tungsten or silicon carbides, silicon nitrides, etc.
Outside pressure
source
Figure
8.24 Pressurization diagram for a mechanical seal: Set up termed “Plan53”API682.
514 Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS
B
pinion
Figure
Gear pumps.
A. External gears. B. Offset internal gears.
Lobe-type pump.
-___
Figure
8.27 Screw pump.
516 Chapter 8 PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES, AND EJECTORS
4
;@re
Sliding vane
pump.
Discharge
nozzles
Figure
Simplified schematic of a piston pump.
F 2 9
The piston is moved by a crank and connecting rod system or by coupling with
another piston that is pushed in a cylinder by pressurized oil or steam. In the
second drive system the pistons are often double acting. The flow rate can be
varied by varying the speed but also by adjusting the piston stroke.
The main drawback of reciprocating pumps is that they supply a pulsating
flow with large pressure variations. This can be minimized by using double act-
ing systems or by having several pistons in parallel working out of phase.
For all these pumps, check valve quality is of prime importance in pre-
venting deteriorated performance with time. Likewise, special attention must
be paid to the installation and maintenance of piston and driving rod sealing
systems (stuffing box). From this standpoint, diaphragm or bellows pumps
can afford a solution in some cases.
The action of the piston on the pumped fluid is sometimes obtained by a
hydraulic fluid acting on a plane diaphragm that isolates the pumped fluid
from the environment and the hydraulic fluid (Fig. 8.30). A relief valve protects
from over-pressures. The metallic or PTFE diaphragm is most often double
with an alarm system to indicate diaphragm rupture. These pumps work at a
relatively low flow rate and are essentially used a s metering pumps or in pilot
plants. The flow rate of some pumps can, however, go up to 50 m3/h per head.
The flow rate is manually or automatically controlled with very great precision
Figure
Metering diaphragm pump (Lewa). Piston. @ Compression chamber con-
taining oil. @ Double diaphragm. @ Purge valve. @ Relief valve. @ Valve to
0
offsetinternal leakage after slide valve opens.
518 Chapter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES,
AND EJECTORS
8.2 Compressors
A compressor is a machine designed to raise the pressure of a compressible
fluid that passes through it. The name indicates that the fluid becomes com-
pressed (its volume decreases) as the pressure increases. Sir,ce gases are com-
pressible fluids they require compressors, while liquids require pumps as they
are practically incompressible. Gases can be considered incompressible for
very low compression ratios and blowers or fans are used.
The pressure of a gas is raised by a compressor in order to:
reach a level of pressure required by processes such as:
- chemical reactions requiring pressure, temperature, catalyst (make up
function),
- storage in underground cavities,
- liquefaction or separation,
- refrigeration cycles,
- supplying a compressed air network (energy transmission);
offset pressure drops related to the circulation of a gas flow in a network,
such as for:
- incomplete chemical reactions requiring unconverted gases to be recy-
cled (recycle function),
- gas transportation in a pipeline.
Operating principle
Positive displacement compressors (for example a reciprocating com-
pressor): a mechanical transfer of energy allows physical reduction of a
volume containing the gas.
Dynamic compressors (for example centrifugal or axial compressors):
aerodynamic forces provide the gas with energy that will be converted
into pressure.
Dynamic compressors:
Centrifugal compressors X Medium to high Low to high Good to very good
Axial compressors X Very high Low Good to very good
Peripheral compressors X Low Low Mediocre
Table
Different types of compressors with their main characteristics.
520 Chapter 8. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, TURBINES,
AND EJECTORS
Gas compressors
Compressed gases are quite often inflammable (natural gas, hydrocarbon
mixtures, hydrogen) or toxic (H2S, CO). They should be handled with care,
safety and tightness are crucial.
General applications are as follows:
producing, treating and transporting natural gas,
processes associated with oil production, gas lift, reinjection,
refining,
petrochemistry,
chemistry,
cooling.
The compressors most commonly used in a refinery are reciprocating pis-
ton compressors in the positive displacement category and centrifugal com-
pressors in the dynamic category.
In the gas and oil industry, these machines are built in compliance with the
recommendations in the latest edition of API 618 standards.
1 1
Figure
8.33 Photograph o f a fourcylinder reciprocating compressor
ot I b
0
I IDischaraed t;olume
I lpzq! Sucked volume I
I Swept volume (stroke) -1
Flume
1
Dead I
Total volume in cylinder
I
Compression
phase
( l ) + (2:
at point (a;
Discharge
I
I
I
I1. - - -,
I In I I
I- -- -1 '
phase
(2) -
(3)
at point i b)
I
I
I
Dead volume
expansion
phase
(3: + (4)
at point 'c
Suction
phase
(4)+ 1 , I
I
at point (d I _ - >
out
Figure
8.34 1 Diagram showing the differentphases o f a compression cycle