Agitation and Mixiing Techniques

Jean-Paul Euzen

Agitation and mixing are involved in a large number of chemical processes and
serve a wide variety of purposes such as:
obtaining uniform composition of a fluid phase,
carrying out a chemical reaction in the presence of one or more phases,
creating an interfacial area between two immiscible fluid phases,
keeping a divided solid in suspension in a fluid phase,
increasing heat transfer between a solid surface and a fluid phase, etc.
The results depend on the interactions between three elements: the
medium, the agitator and the vessel. Their main characteristics will be exam-
ined in turn before the problems of equipment selection and scaling u p are dis-
cussed.

9.1 T h e Medium
The type and number of phases present in the medium are important refer-
ence points in approaching the problems of agitation and differentiating the
objectives.

9.1.1 One-Phase Media: Liquid Alone

A distinction must be made according to the rheological behavior of the sys-
tem. More simply a difference is made between low viscosity Newtonian media
and the others, particularly viscous media.
566 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

a . Low Viscosity Newtonian Media

When the medium contains only one phase, the problems are categorically dif-
ferent for a liquid or for a gas phase. Here the discussion will be confined
solely t o the one-phase liquid medium in which all components are perfectly
miscible. There can be two types of objectives:
obtaining uniformity in the medium in terms of composition and/or tem-
perature,
carrying out very rapid homogeneous phase reactions.
These two objectives have points in common, but also some differences. In
both cases, the aim is to mix the whole medium in order t o avoid significant
discrepancies in concentration or temperature. Mixing time for the medium is
an important characteristic of the system, along with the volume and geome-
try of the vessel. The approach is different for a reactor, a column or large stor-
age tanks.
When rapid chemical reactions occur, in addition to the uniformity objec-
tive there is a space-related particularity. This is because the aim is to control
the concentrations and even the temperatures with precision all throughout
the reactor, especially at the point where one or more reactants are intro-
duced. Here local turbulence and the injection point of chemical species are
determining.

b. Viscous Liquids
Whether the aim is to obtain simple homogeneous mixtures or t o implement
and control chemical reactions, agitation is very important when viscous liq-
uids are involved. If the chemical reactions have a marked thermal nature,
problems of mass transfer and more subtle problems of heat transfer must be
solved at the same time. This is true in a particular process: polymerization.
Additionally, as the viscosity or the rheology often varies over time, the
constraints will be varied and sometimes even hard t o reconcile.

9.1.2 Media with -0 Fluid Phases

Whether a liquid and a gas phase or two liquid phases are present, the objec-
tives of agitation can be:
simply physical in nature, e.g. dissolution of phases in one another, or
often chemical in nature too, such as for all the major families of oxida-
tion, hydrogenation, chlorination, etc. reactions.
In both cases, the problems of mass transfer and sometimes of heat trans-
fer are coupled with the problems of uniformity. The aim is to disperse one of
the phases in the form of bubbles or drops and distribute them as thoroughly
a s possible in the medium. As a result, the critical problems of interface exist
in both cases and they are just as sensitive t o tiny modifications in the physic-
ochemical nature of the medium. The subject of foaming and more or less sta-
ble emulsions will not be dealt with in this chapter.
 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 567

a. Gas + Liquid Systems

The objective may be to dissolve a gas in a liquid phase, i.e. purely physical
absorption, or a liquid phase chemical reaction after dissolving a gaseous reac-
tant. Whatever the case, it is necessary to disperse the gas phase in the form of
fine bubbles to promote mass transfer and develop a large interfacial area.
Depending on the media and the desired reactions, the amounts of gas used
and the required contact times can vary widely. For simple dissolution for
example, the liquid flow rate can be high, but the gas flow rate and agitation
lower. In contrast, in treating wastewater for example, the liquid flow rate is
much lower while the agitation and contact gas flow rate are much higher. In
many instances, gas injection and agitation will fulfill complementary functions.

b. Liquid + Liquid Systems

Like operations carried out in gas-liquid media, reactions and extractions in
liquid-liquid media are closely related to the interfacial area and to the forma-
tion of drops dispersed in the continuous liquid phase. Here however, a diffi-
cult compromise must often be found for the drop size, since after fragmenta-
tion and dispersion drops must later settle out and coalesce.
It should be remembered that liquid-liquid media behavior is complex, as
it depends greatly on the physicochemical properties of each of the phases.
The tendency to coalesce in particular, which has a determining influence on
interfaces, is very sensitive to traces of certain products.

9.1.3 Fluid + Solid Media

The presence of solid particles in a medium with a liquid phase alone or with
a liquid and a gas phase can be related to:
purely physical processes, such as producing a suspension, dissolution
or crystallization, or
chemical processes where the solid can act as a reactant or a product
that precipitates out, but also as a catalyst.
As such, the constraints are quite varied. The following can be mentioned:
Suspending a solid
The objective can just be to keep all the particles suspended, therefore the
largest and heaviest in particular. Alternatively, the aim may be to obtain a
homogeneous suspension where the concentration in particles is as uniform
as possible throughout the volume under consideration.
Dissolution
For dissolution, the criteria of producing a suspension and of overall tur-
bulence are important in:
favoring uniformity of concentrations and regular distribution of parti-
cles, and
keeping the biggest particles from settling out.
568 ChaDter 9 AND MIXING
AGITATION TECHNIQUES

Crystallization
The formation of crystals is greatly influenced by the homogeneity of the
medium and the heat transfer, but also by the turbulence and the shear forces.
Reactions
When a solid compound acts as a reactant or a precipitated product, the
criteria of medium homogeneity are once again very important. When a sus-
pension is to be achieved, a regular distribution of solid particles in the whole
medium is sought. The same is true when reactions occur in the presence of a
solid catalyst. This is in addition to conditions of good mass and heat transfer.
Fragile particles sometimes require maximum shear forces to be limited.
Certain types of fermentation in a two- or three-phase medium utilize micro-
organisms that are sometimes particularly fragile. Consequently, they also
require shearing risks to be examined.
This rapid review of the different media that have to be stirred, agitated,
sheared and mixed clearly shows the wide diversity of situations and objec-
tives. The solutions and operating conditions are therefore far from universal
and will depend on the choice of agitators and their relevant operating condi-
tions. First of all the main categories of existing agitation systems will be exam-
ined.

9.2 Agitation Systems

In all cases the purpose of agitation is to increase the turbulence of a fluid.
However, the technique implemented will have to be chosen and adapted
depending on the precise objective. In this section, the rotating agitators used
in tanks will be discussed first of all. Their main characteristics will be indi-
cated with a view to the applications mentioned above. The next topic dealt
with is in-line mixers, which have been increasingly widely used in the past
decade. Lastly, some information will be given on mixing by recirculation.

9.2.1 Different Qqes of Rotating Agitators

There are many types of rotating agitators, but only the most common ones
will be considered here. (For further details, see Uhl and Gray, 1966, 1986;
Nagata, 1975; Oldshue, 1983; Tatterson, 1991, 1994; or consult manufacturers
such as Mixel, Robin, Missenart-Quint, Sulzer, Lightnin, Pfaudler, Rayneri,
Ekato among others.)
A rotating agitator consists of a driver that imparts a rotational movement
via a shaft to an impeller that stirs the relevant fluid(s). The primary effect of
rotating agitators is to cause the fluid to circulate inside the tank. Circulation
can be essentially axial, radial or peripheral. The impeller must be of different
shapes in order to suit each case.
 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIOUES 569

They are classified into four categories in industrial practice:

(1) propeller type,
(2) paddle turbine type,
(3) those with a large radius of action (anchors, large blades), and
(4) those using the principle of the Archimedean screw.
These different shapes of impellers are shown in Figures 9.1 to 9.4.
Figure 9.5 illustrates the various fluid circulation types that they generate.

9.2.1.1 Propellers
The first propellers were directly derived from the marine types used to pro-
pel boats (Fig. 9.1). Since then, a variety of models have been developed to
improve energy efficiency (see Section 9.3.3). They can have thin, flat, stream-
lined or multi-plane blades (Fig. 9.lC). They cause essentially axial movement
with low shear and therefore have numerous uses in obtaining uniformity in
fluid media. These agitators are characterized by:
The diameter, DA, often equal to one-third or otherwise between 1/5 and
2/3 of the reactor diameter, D,. The highest DA/DT ratios tend to favor
more of an axial flow rate, and therefore promote uniformity and heat
transfer. The lowest ratios, associated with higher speeds, are favorable
to turbulence and micromixing.
The number of blades (generally 2, 3 or 4).
The pitch, often equal to the propeller diameter, but more often ranging
between 0.5 and 3 times this diameter.
The rotational direction, which induces a rising or falling fluid movement.

9.2.1.2 Turbines
Typically turbines consist of radial flat vertical blades mounted on a horizon-
tal disk and deliver a basically radial flow rate with high shear at the blade tip
(Fig. 9.2). As a result they are very often used whenever a fluid needs to be
broken up into bubbles or drops. The base model with flat blades (called the
Rushton turbine) is characterized by:
The diameter, often equal to one-third or otherwise ranging from 1/5 to
2/3 of the reactor diameter.
The number of blades (usually 6).
The blade dimensions compared with the turbine diameter, in particular
the width between 1/10 and 1/4 of the turbine diameter.
A large number of variations are differentiated by the number, shape, incli-
nation and curve of the blades, and by the presence or absence of a central
disk, etc. They are often more efficient in terms of power and maximum allow-
able gas flow rate, but in contrast provide less accentuated shear (Nienow,
1996).
570 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

TT profile propeller

-
Figure
9.1 Examples of propeller type impellers.
A. Marine propeller with three blades. B. Propeller with 6 inclined plane

9.2.1.3 Anchors
Anchor agitators (Figs. 9.3 and 9.5) consist of a tube or a flat ribbon in a nar-
row U shape, which rotates in a diametral plane near the reactor wall. They
produce more of a peripheral tangential flow and are suited to stirring viscous
products near walls. Walls can additionally be scraped, in particular to
improve heat transfer.
 Chapter 9. AGlJAJlON AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 571

Figure
9.2 Examples o f turbine type impellers.
I I A. Turbine with 6 flat blades. B. Turbine with 8 curved blades. C. Turbine with
6 flat disk-mounted blades. D. Turbine with 6 curved disk-mounted blades.

9.2.1.4 Others
In the wide variety of other rotating agitation impellers, mention can be made
of Archimedean screws and bands as well as disks and turbines that may be
hollow to some degree, etc. (Figs. 9.3,9.4and 9.5). Each one is specific to some
particular application. Despite their variety, certain complex cases lead to the
choice of associations of impellers that tend to be complementary, such as a
turbine and a propeller for example.

9.2.2 Static Mixers

Static mixers are stationary obstacles placed in piping to systematically mix
the streams transversely, achieving a plug-type, cocurrent, axial flow. They
have no moving parts, but the pressure drop they generate provides the
energy required for mixing. There is a wide variety of shapes, which can some-
times be helical and are open and complex t o varying degrees (Fig. 9.6).
However, the objective is most often the same: separation and rotation of fluid
streams, then more or less turbulent grouping with other streams coming from
another sector of the piping cross-section. Several mixer elements are often
572 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

A B

Figure
~ 9.3 Examples of large
L -A coverage radius
C D agitators.

A B

Examples of the
Archimedean screw type
of agitators.
$ Ip
 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 573

C D n

n
E

Guide cylinder -

1 Figure
9.5 Types of fluid circulation generated by the various impellers.
574 Chaoter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

placed in series in the piping to attain the degree of mixing desired. Static mix-
ers are well suited t o a number of applications (Baker, 1991; Harnby et al.,
1992; Sulzer, 1994; Myers, 1997) such as the following:
continuous homogenization of mixtures of miscible liquids (particularly
viscous fluids) or even gases,
heat or mass transfers,
gas-liquid dispersions or absorptions,
liquid-liquid dispersions or extractions,
rapid reactions,
complex reactions when any backmixing would be detrimental,
reactions in the presence of solids or fragile compounds.
The limits of application are mainly related to the relatively long residence
times required (more than a few minutes), the extreme viscosities and a cer-
tain lack of flexibility. Additionally, it is also difficult or even impossible to
clean them mechanically.

I A B

E .,

-1 , I . . .

Figure
9.6 Examples of in-line or static mixers.
A. Perforated pipe distributor. B. Fluid injection with a strainer in the axis of
 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXINGTECHNIQUES 575

Sizing rules for these mixers are as yet not readily available in published
form, but the key variables are: the flow rate, the residence time and the vis-
cosity of the fluid(s). On the mixer side they are: the length, the pitch and the
number of streams (corresponding to the number of divisions or rotations),
the degree of turbulence and overall the pressure drop (which is moderate,
approximately 0.2 to 0.5 x lo5 Pa generally).
Numerous uses can be found for in-line mixers in the various refining pro-
cesses. The products coming from manufacturing units seldom actually meet
specifications for marketable end products. Hence, mixtures need to be per-
formed from storage tank stocks. The products from storage are introduced
simultaneously in an in-line mixer, with each stream controlled by a flow meter
or even a "proportion" meter. These in-line mixing operations are now carried
out with control by near infra-red spectrometry on-line measurements of prop-
erties (Espinosa et al., 1994).

9.3 Hydrodynamic Characteristics of the System

Determining and comparing the hydrodynamic characteristics of agitation
assemblies is a complex task. Methods of measurement are numerous (Euzen
et al., 1993). They differ from one manufacturer to another and are not stan-
dardized a s yet. Additionally, a number of recent methods lead to more reli-
able values which are sometimes lower than those found by older methods
and published in the past. The user must therefore carefully weigh to what
extent he can trust any given correlation, especially when it is established with
disparate points that are few in number or correspond to limited ranges of
operating conditions. Nevertheless, hydrodynamic characteristics remain a
precious means of assessing the influences in systems that can effectively be
compared.

9.3.1 Hydrodynamic Regimes

With a liquid phase alone, the turbulence of the medium is identified as it is for
other fluid flows in terms of the ratio between the inertia and viscous forces.
This is expressed by the dimensionless Reynolds number, which can be cal-
culated according to the following formula:
P NRDi
Reynolds number: Re = -
CL

In agitated media, the hydrodynamic regimes prevailing are usually turbu-

lent (Re > lOOOO), laminar (Re < 10) when the fluids are particularly viscous,
or sometimes in the transition zone (110 < Re < 10000).
With a gas-liquid mixture, the Reynolds number is not sufficient t o describe
the behavior of the medium a s a whole. The level of turbulence is then identi-
fied according to the interactions between the agitator and the gas injection. If
576 Chapter 9 AGITATION
AN0 MIXING
TECHNIQUES

the agitator rotation speed is increased gradually with a given gas flow rate,
the behavior of the medium goes through several typical situations:
The bubbles rise regularly as in a bubble column if the agitator rotates
very slowly below a minimum rotation speed NRm.The energy absorbed
by the agitator is then lower than or of the same order as that of the
isothermal expansion of the bubbles in the medium. Bubble size is
defined by the gas distributor, the residence time is short and the inter-
facial area is small. The composition of the medium is non-homogeneous
and the agitator is flooded.
The bubbles are dispersed in the medium to a certain degree toward the
tank sides and bottom according t o how the ratio of energies (provided
respectively by the agitator and the gas) varies between 2 and 5. This
regime is generally sought for its efficiency in terms of gas dispersion and
turbulence of the medium. The interfacial area and the gas hold-up are
large and the composition of the medium is uniform.
The turbine slips, or there is even cavitation if the agitator rotates too
rapidly or if the gas flow rate is too high and causes a sort of gas bubble
to grow around the turbine. The agitator starts to race with no corre-
sponding effect on the overall mixture. The absorbed power decreases
very sharply.

9.3.2 Energy Dissipated by an Agitator

It can easily be shown by dimensional analysis that the energy dissipated by
an agitator can be correlated with two dimensionless numbers. They are char-
acteristic of the system under consideration:
PNRDi
a Reynolds number: R e = -
NiDA
a Froude number: Fr = -
g
with:
NR rotation speed of the agitator (s-l)
DA characteristic diameter of the impeller (m)
p liquid density (kg/m3)
p fluid dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)
g acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s?
The power PA is then included in a third dimensionless number, the power
number:
D
' A
N p = - (or Newton number) (9.3)
pN g D j
 Chapter 9 AGITATION
AND MIXINGTECHNIQUES 577

These dimensionless numbers are related by an equation of the following

type:
Np = C(Rey (Fr)b (9.4)

or: (9.5)

@ is generally called the power factor.

When a system is provided with baffles or is such that a vortex can not
develop, the influence of the forces of gravity becomes negligible and the
exponent b approaches 0. Then @ = N p , a parameter than depends only on the
Reynolds number. This is a case that is often found in actual practice and will
be considered below. @ versus Re can be schematically represented on a
graph as indicated in Figure 9.7. Three regions can be distinguished according
to the value of the Reynolds number:
(1) For low values of Re (< lo), in the viscous or laminar range where @
decreases when Re increases: a = -1 roughly speaking and therefore Np = CfRe
(AB part of curve).
(2) For Reynolds numbers ranging from 10 to lo4,there is a transition zone
between the laminar and turbulent regimes. It can be noted that in the absence
of baffles, the vortex would occur for a value of Re close to 300 (point C).
(3) For Reynolds numbers greater than lo4 @E part of curve), the turbu-
lent regime is totally developed and the power number practically does not
vary: Np = Constant.
Note that curve parts C D' E correspond to the transient and turbulent
regimes observed without any baffles.

Laminar Transition zone Turbulent

100 10' 102 103 Re 104 105

Figure
9.7 Variation in the power factor versus the Reynolds number (for a turbine).
578 Chapler 9 AGITATION
AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

cp NFiD,2
Reynolds number, Re = ~

DA/4 = 113 Tank

H =4 Baffle b = 0.2 Dn
Z =DA (4 to 90") I = 1.25 b
w = 0.1 4 DD= 0.75 DA
H

Turbine with
6 flat disk-mounted
blades
7
/ 4

Variation in the power factor Q, for a turbine with six disk-mounted blades,
showing the definition o f the differentdimensions (socalled "standard"con-
figuration).
 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 579

Numerous curves such a s those in Figures 9.7 t o 9.9 can be found in the lit-
erature for the various types of impellers mentioned above. The following
remarks can be made on this subject:
The propellers and turbines used to agitate relatively low viscosity liq-
uids generally operate in the turbulent range (Re > lo4). With baffles
placed near the vessel walls, the values of the power number generally
vary only slightly:
- turbines: N p is most frequently between 1 and 6 and increases with the
number of blades and their angle of inclination,
- marine propellers or turbines with inclined blades: N,, between 0.2
and 1.
As an example, Figure 9.8 shows the power factor 4, variation curve cor-
responding to a turbine with six flat blades used in conditions considered
to be a standard configuration. The different geometrical variables which
influence the behavior of an agitation impeller can be seen.
If several impellers are superimposed, the total dissipated energy is
equal to or slightly lower than the sum of the energies dissipated by each
impeller considered separately.
Anchors and Archimedean screws, recommended for viscous or very vis-
cous liquids, work in the Reynolds number range lower than lo3
(Fig. 9.10). The power factors 4,vary considerably in this case, the expo-
nent a of the Reynolds number in Eq. 9.5 often being between -0.5 and
-1.0. The values of @, which vary between 1 and 100, are approximately
1 for Re = lo3.

9.3.3 Mixing Time

A rotating agitator is often used to obtain uniformity in a liquid phase. This
effect is related to the fluid circulation induced by the impeller. The time
required t o obtain a homogeneous mixture in the tank, or mixing time tM, can
be measured experimentally. Its value depends on:
the characteristics of the medium (viscosity in particular),
the homogeneity criterion chosen to characterize the end of mixing, and
the size of the tank.
It varies from a few seconds for small laboratory reactors to a few minutes
for industrial units. For consecutive or competitive reactions, specific product
selectivity is often the result of a careful balance between the macro- or
micromixing homogeneity scales. Scaling-up is thus particularly difficult.
Readers interested in the subject should refer to the numerous articles pub-
lished on the subject, but in particular t o the work by Villermaux (1993).
There are few general correlations that allow mixing time to be estimated
precisely. For Rushton turbines and inclined blade turbines, Rewatkar and
Joshi (1991) suggest the following (see Eq. 9.6):
 580 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES
Click here to view
LIVE GRAPH
 LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view

Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIOUES 581

102

O - W a / D T = 0.128
a) A - W,/DT = 0.085

10’

100
10’ 102 Re 103
-
Figure
9.10 Variation in the power factor versus the Reynolds number (for an anchor).

with C = the distance between the blade and the bottom (m) and the following
limitations:
1
0.57m < D, < 1.5 m,

-n < A < - ,7c 4<np<8,

6 3

: (Dy
-< - <-,
3
4
-
1 <
4
(T) s -,
1
3
2 s(+ 1.

Since the mixing time is always inversely proportional to the impeller rota-
tion speed, a few specific correlations will be found linking the group NRtM to
the characteristic variables of particular systems.
In the turbulent regime, the product NRtMis relatively constant for a given
system. Depending on the geometry, this constant can be expressed simply by
relations of the following type:
582 Chapter 9 AGITATION
AND MIXINGTECHNIQUES

with:
NRfM = 6 for marine propellers
NRtM 2 ~(D,/DA)‘ for turbines
In the laminar regime, the group NRfM also remains relatively constant for
a given system. This constant is between 40 and 150 for impellers of the heli-
cal band type, screws or anchors:
NRtM 2 70 for helical screws
NRtM 50 for helical bands
Further information can be found in the works by Roustan et al. (1991) and
Tatterson (1994).
In addition, the mixing time is related to the pumping flow rate, or liquid
flow rate through the impeller:
V
fM= -
QP

This pumping flow rate Q, depends on the agitator diameter, rotation

speed and type. Each agitator can thus be characterized by a “pumping num-
ber” NQ:

NQ= -
QP
or Qp = NQNRDi (9.9)
NRD2
In the turbulent regime range, the pumping number, NQ,varies only slightly.
For a vessel with baffles, the following values can be taken in an initial approx-
imation:
NQranges from 0.5 to 1.0 for propellers,
NQranges from 0.6 t o 0.9 for turbines with straight or inclined blades.
Since the pumping flow rate causes a complementary induced liquid flow
rate in the tank, overall there is a total circulation flow rate, Qc, which is the
sum of the direct pumping flow rate and the induced flow rate. The induced
flow rate is only slightly lower than the pumping flow rate so:

Qc 2Qp (9.10)

Based on this concept of circulation flow rate, a circulation time can be

defined. It corresponds to the average time it takes a fluid element to make a
complete rotation in the tank. The circulation time is 4 t o 5 times shorter than
the perfect mixing time. Moreover, the value of the group tMNRDi/V,propor-
tional to the number of fluid recirculations in the total volume Vof the tank, is
reportedly approximately 2.6 for marine propellers and 1.7 for turbines in con-
ventional conditions (i.e. impellers in a vertical position centered in a cylin-
drical tank with a height about the same as its diameter, equipped with baffles
and in speed conditions that induce a turbulent regime).
The mixing time considered up t o now involves tanks working in closed
systems. If a tank is continuously fed, the mixing time will generally be shorter
 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 583

than that obtained with a closed tank. However, because of the lack of preci-
sion in the values for mixing times, the same values will be used a s in a closed
system.
Based on the pumping number Na and the power number N p which are
characteristic of an agitator in the turbulent regime, an energy efficiency can
be defined:
Nd
Ep= - (9.11)
NP

This criterion corresponds to the power absorbed to achieve a given

pumping flow rate. It is well suited for comparing the different agitators allo-
cated for pumping (Baudou, 1997) as shown in Table 9.1.

Agitator NP NQ EP
Rushton turbine 4.3-5.0 0.75-0.84 0.08-0.14
Turbine with 4 blades at a 25" angle 0.51 0.47 0.20
Turbine with 6 blades at a 45" angle 1.7 0.83 0.34
Marine propeller 0.30-0.35 0.52-0.56 0.40-0.59
Multi-plane propellers 0.65 0.73 0.60
~

Table
9.1 Power number, pumping number and energy efficiency o f different agitators.

9.3.4 Agitator Radius of Action

For Eq. 9.8 it was assumed that all the volume V of the tank was swept uni-
formly by the pumped fluid subsequent to agitator action. Figure 9.5 shows
that in fact the different parts of the tank are certainly not swept in the same
way. Moreover, if Eq. 9.5 and its graphic expression in Figure 9.7 are consid-
ered, it can be seen that the power absorbed by the agitator in the turbulent
regime no longer depends on the fluid viscosity. This fact can only be inter-
preted by considering that the absorbed power is dissipated in a certain vol-
ume depending on the viscosity. Hence a volume can be defined where the agi-
tator action makes itself felt. This volume is in the shape of an ellipsoid of
revolution (Fig. 9.11) whose half large axis and half small axis are expressed
based on the radius of action Ractioncalculated as follows:
7

Raction= 0.1 (9.12)

with Pa being expressed in W, p in Pa.s and Ractionin m.

Given the limitations on a turbine-type agitator radius of action, several
impellers may have to be superimposed on the same shaft when the tank
height is much larger than its diameter.
584 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIOUES

Rah= 0.2 RA
R,, = 0.6 RA

Rah = 0.5 RA
R,, = 0 2 RA

Figure
9.1 1 Definition of agitator radius of action: horizontal (R,,,) and vertical (R,,,).
A. Propeller with axial circulation. B. Turbine with radial circulation.

9.3.5 Velocity Gradient

The shear generated by the blade movement in contact with the fluid is a sen-
sitive characteristic for many systems. The maximum velocity gradient or
shear rate corresponds to the blade tip velocity or peripheral velocity. It is
often bounded by two values:
an upper value related to the fragility of the species present in the
medium,
a lower value necessary for the dispersion of gas bubbles, liquid drops,
particle clusters, etc.
 Chapter 9. AGITATION
AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 585

The average velocity gradient corresponds to the overall phenomenon to

be taken into account in general. It corresponds to the average stress gener-
ated by all the agitator parts, whether close to or far from the axis and is
important in dispersing the fluid phases. Proportional to the rotation speed
but independent of the turbine diameter, the average velocity gradient
remains constant during scale-up, if the vessel diameter DT is increased while
the rotation speed is kept constant. However, in this case the maximum gradi-
ent increases proportionally to the diameter.
Shear obviously depends on the type of impeller. In fact, shear and pump-
ing flow rate are practically opposed. As such propeller type impellers which
shear the least give the highest flow rate and vice versa. For example notched
disks shear a lot, practically without pumping.

9.3.6 Heat Transfer in Agitated Tanks

This heat transfer can take place either by using the tank wall as an exchange
surface or by creating an exchange surface by submerging a coil, a tube bun-
dle or plates for example. In order to calculate the enthalpy balance, it is nec-
essary to determine the heat transfer coefficients, in particular the transfer
coefficient, hi”,of the fluid side agitated in the tank. Numerous correlations can
be found in the literature and allow the transfer coefficient for a given system
to be calculated. There are many combinations possible between types of agi-
tator and exchange surfaces. Generally speaking, the correlations are given in
dimensionless terms and usually involve the following dimensionless num-
bers:
DT
Nusselt number: NU= -
h

Reynolds number: PNRD.Z

Re = -

cPM
Prandtl number: Pr= -
h
and the ratio of viscosities taken respectively at the wall temperature (TJ and
in the bulk of the fluid: vis = &,/pL.
Dimension ratios of certain elements characteristic of the system can also
come into play. Generally speaking, the correlations are of the following form:
Nu = K(Re) (h)(vis) (9.13)
It can be noted that in most of the correlations the coefficients K, a, b and
c, appearing in the equation above, are always close to the following values:
K between 0.1 and 1.0
Q = 0.5 to 0.7

b close to 0.3
c = -0.1 to -0.2
586 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

As an example, two equations are given below that correspond to the stan-
dard configuration defined previously (Fig. 9.8):
For a double shell (Fig. 9.12A):
Nu = 0.75 (Re)0.67(PY)O.~~
(vis)-0.14 (9.14)
For a submerged coil (Fig. 9.12B):

(9.15)

The exponent c varies depending on the fluid viscosity at the experiment

temperature:
c = -0.97 for pL = 0.30 mPa-s
c = -0.18 for pL = 1000 mPa-s.

A
iwc n

L
-DT-
1
Figure
Tank correspond- 9.12
ing to the standard
configuration,
equipped for heat B
transfer.
A. Double shell.
B. Submerged coil. L,/& = 0.65
D c / 4= 0.70
D,, IDA = 0.032 0.14
H c / 4 = 0.15
S,/D,, = 2 - 4
 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 587

It can be noted that, given the other heat transfer resistances (heat carrier-
side film and wall), the overall heat transfer coefficient U in actual practice
generally ranges between 50 and 400 W/m2.K. When an agitated tank is being
designed, a certain degree of heat transfer degradation must be anticipated
due to fouling of the exchange surfaces, the same as for any exchanger.
As for the choice of the agitation impeller best suited to accomplish a heat
transfer in a tank, the following recommendations can be given:
The large dimension impellers (anchor, helical band) or those that
induce significant circulation along the walls (propeller) give better per-
formance for wall transfer.
The impellers that induce intense radial circulation (turbines or large
blades) are preferable when a coil is used.
If tubes or exchange surfaces are immersed, baffles are no longer indis-
pensable with the impellers that usually require them (turbines, pro-
pellers, etc.), provided these exchange surfaces are properly designed.
Lastly, the type of material or the cooling fluid circulation velocity can be
taken advantage of.

9.3.7 Mass Transfer in Agitated Tanks

The turbulence generated by agitator rotation or by the shape of static mixer
fins promotes mass transfer. Several parameters are involved: the interfacial
area, the mass transfer coefficient and the dispersed phase hold-up ratio.
In gas-liquid media, a few generally accepted correlations can be used to
estimate the numerical values of the most important parameters. A number of
authors have examined them critically without managing to reach complete
agreement (Midoux and Charpentier, 1979;Nienow et al., 1986;Tatterson, 1991,
1994). The most clear cut conclusions are as follows.
The interfacial area A,, depends greatly on agitation conditions and in
particular on the total power input (agitation + gas injection) per unit volume
of tank (P/V, termed specific power). The relationship between the interfacial
area, the specific power input in the tank and the superficial velocity of the gas
introduced for a given physicochemical system can generally be expressed in
the following way:
with b = 0.7 and c = 0.3 (9.16)

with P G PLG+ Qvc AP,where:

PLG agitator power input in the gas + liquid medium
Qvc gas volume flow rate
AP = Hp,g hydrostatic head corresponding to the non-expanded liquid
When the gas superficial velocity (V,,, remains lower than 0.01 m/s, the
interfacial area AGLcan also be calculated by the following simplified formula:
588 Chapter 9. AGITAJION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

A,, = K ( 4r with 0.65 < R < 0.7 (Reith, 1968)

For aqueous systems, K = 4, if A,, is in m2/m3and PA/V is in W/m3.

The liquid-side transfer coefficient, k,, used in the film model depends
practically only on the characteristics of the liquid itself and varies little from
one impeller to another. It is often correlated via the group kLAGL (Harnby et
al., 1992):
~ L A G L= a(7)
A‘ (vsG>‘ (9.17)

with a, b, and c depending on both the multiphase medium and the agitated
system under study (Tatterson, 1991), but approximately:
a = 0.05, b = 0.5 et c = 0.7, if kLAGL expressed in s-I
A fairly complete correlation established for Rushton turbines by
Nishikawa et al. (1981) based on the Yagi and Yoshida correlation (1975) takes
certain liquid properties into account:

The gas hold-up ratio along with the bubble or drop size are also sensi-
tive to the introduced gas flow rate, the power input, the maximum shear or
the peripheral turbine velocity, and also obviously the interfacial properties of
the fluids:

(Hassan and Robinson, 1977) (9.19)

with:
non-electrolytes Z = 0.6 K = 0.1
aqueous electrolytes 0.4 < Z < 0.5 and 0.2 < K < 0.3
For pure liquids, the following is also found:

(9.20)

if E~ < 0.2 V, < 0.05 m/s HID, = 1.

For electrolytes:
EG = 0.075( PL (N RoDTRd
- N D A2 )(x)- 1

(Van Dierendonck, 1968) (9.21)

if E, < 0.3 V,, < 0.03 m/s HIDT = 1.

 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIOUES 589

Despite the apparent pertinence of these correlations, they should how-

ever be used with care. The interfacial properties that bring about the forma-
tion of bubbles and drops as well as their coalescence are not entirely
described by the surface tension, the density and the viscosity.

9.4 Selecting an Agitation System

Carrying out a given operation in actual practice involves selecting the tank
and the type of agitator, usually by scaling-up from the pilot to the industrial
scale or by analogy with existing systems.

9.4.1 The Tank

9.4.1.1 Reactors
Geometry. The tank, commonly cylindrical, and the height of liquid in it are
often of relatively conventional proportions:
H = D, (9.22)
Increased diameter is limited by the heterogeneity of local effects versus
the distance to the axis or in some cases by practical considerations of space
available and transportation, etc. It is possible and often advantageous to
increase the tank height though, for example for liquid + gas media, when the
gas superficial velocity is limited. The gas flow rate is better used (depletion,
residence time) in fact with a significant liquid height. This therefore means
multiplying the “agitation stages” by superimposing impellers.
Impeller location. The distance between the agitator and the tank bottom
ranges between DT/6 and D,/2 (the agitator is preferably located at 113 of the
liquid height) so that the bottom can be properly stirred. When several
impellers are superimposed, their optimum interaction distance depends on
the type: approximately DT/2 for propellers, 2 DT/3 for turbines.
Mechanical parts, shaft entrance. The driver and the reducer if applicable
are ordinarily fixed to the top of the reactor by a sealing flange, at least in
medium size tanks. In contrast, they are placed under the reactor, with inlet
through the bottom if the agitator shaft is too long and might undergo exces-
sive stress (vibrations) or if the driver + reducer is too heavy. The drawback
is due to the seal, since the shaft entrance is in the liquid phase, under some
pressure and solids may be present, but many manufacturers propose reliable
solutions. Bottom mounting also affords the advantage of freeing the head of
the reactor so it can accommodate numerous nozzles and accessories.
Beyond these more process-related considerations, mechanical aspects
must be taken into account for a complete definition of the system, although
they are not developed here. The effects of bending and torque, the vibrations
and rigidity especially will lead to a precise definition of the shaft diameter,
seal packing characteristics, driver power rating, etc. Manufacturers are gen-
erally in a good position to formulate and solve these mechanical problems.
590 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

Baffles Baffles

A B

C
;111
Figure
Examples o f devices used to avoid forming a vortex.
A. Bafflesalong the walls, for propellers and turbines. B. Bafflesthat can be
used with an anchor. C Agitator and baffle used in enamelled steel tanks.
D. Example o f a propeller mounted at an angle.

Agitator axis. It is generally the same a s the tank axis, but sometimes off-
center or at an angle, once again to leave more free space in the upper part of
the tank (inspection port, numerous off-takes, introduction of solids, etc.). An
inclined axis allows wider circulation movements to be induced.
Baffles. It is generally inevitable that a rotating movement will be imparted
t o the fluid around the agitation axis. The absence of baffles or obstacles very
rapidly leads to vortex formation. This rotating movement of the medium a s a
whole without any real mixing of the fluid streams and the vortex may cause a
gas influx (gas is present in the upper space) to the impeller. The agitator then
rotates in an irregular gas/liquid medium and this can lead t o excessive vibra-
tion and even failure of the moving parts or seals. In order to reduce the ampli-
tude of the fluid mass movement and limit its detrimental effects, the rotary
agitator is either mounted off-center or with its axis at an angle (Fig. 9.13), or
 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIOUES 591

equipped with fixed baffles near the walls. The baffles, usually numbering 3,
placed at 120" of each other (or 4 at 90.) are approximately &/lo in width for
moderate viscosity fluids (< 4000 mPa.s) and about as tall as the total height
of the medium being agitated. There is usually a slight space between them
and the tank wall in order to avoid any dead areas, particularly in the presence
of solids or viscous solutions.
In some cases, fixed obstacles such as submerged tube bundle or plate
exchangers can serve as baffles and offset this rotation movement. In order to
make axial circulation more effective, a draft cylinder is sometimes placed
around the impeller (Fig. 9.5E).
Phase inlet. If the reaction is very rapid, reactant injection must be located
in the zone of maximum turbulence, often near the tip of the turbine blades.
The nozzle angle and the exiting fluid velocity will be selected so that the cur-
rents induced by the turbine suck the reactants out of the feed pipe rather
than causing a back flow (Fasano et al., 1991). The same level of local turbu-
lence should be maintained during scaleup.
Phase withdrawal. In order to lower the chances of short circuiting, the
withdrawal nozzle should not be placed near the fluid inlet. If the tank is filled
or gradually drained in a batch process, the location and even the rotation
speed of the agitator will be controlled to keep the medium agitated as long as
possible.

9.4.1.2 Large Vessels

For large vessels or tanks used for storage, the aim is to keep the concentra-
tion uniform in the medium term. The propeller type impellers are often
installed at the bottom of the tank, sometimes vertically, but more frequently
horizontally (Fig. 9.14). The axis is often off-center by approximately lo" in
relation to the tank radius. In this case the installed power can be consider-
able, over 50 kW per agitator. The driver-reducer and agitator impeller are
directly connected together by a sealing flange to the tank wall. The seal is pro-
vided by a polished stainless steel knee joint and a special gasket. Another
solution consists in submerging the driver and agitator together in the liquid
being stirred.

9.4.2 Rotating Agitators

A number of indications have already been given on selecting the type of
impeller according to the characteristics of the system under study and/or the
phenomenon that is to be promoted by agitation. Selecting the type of agitator
obviously depends on the objective (see for example Myers et al., 1996), but
the viscosity of the fluid being agitated is also a crucial element in the choice.
Figure 9.15 shows the fluid viscosity ranges in which the various types of
impellers can be used.
592 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

-I
I

-=
I I I
I

I -1-1.5 D t

Example of an agitator at the bottom of a tank with a horizontal axis (Lightnin,

Brochure No. E109) and several mounting possibilities (Weber).
 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 593

10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104 Pa.s

I I I I I I I I *
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I
Propellers I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I I I I
1 10 102 103 104 105 106 10
7

Figure
9.15 Viscosity ranges for the different types o f agitator impellers.

Propeller
Large Archimedean Helic
Desired action )rinclined rurbine Anchor
blades screw ribbc
blades

Liquid phase
uniformity
in Pas)
p < 0.1 N
0.1< p < 10 A
p > 10 R
Gas-liquid contact N
Liquid-liquid contact N
Liquid-solid contact N
Suspending a solid
Gas/liquid/solid contaci N
Heat transfer
Wall R
Coil N
~

R: generally recommended E: suited and relatively efficient

A acceptable with precautions N: not suited
-
Table
9.2 Selection criteria for different agitators.
594 Chapter 9 AGITATION
AND MIXING
TECHNIQUES

- -.
Figure
9.16 Schematic of an agitated
_. tank with gas injection

l l+ 4 I 1 A

Gas

For the phenomena considered up to now, it is generally advantageous to

select an impeller giving the highest possible circulation flow rate (QJ in the
tank. However, there are cases when this parameter is not the most important.
For two-phase systems for example, since the prime objective is often to gen-
erate an interfacial area, the shear produced by the impeller becomes the first
priority. As a result, turbines of the type with six flat disk-mounted blades and
a relatively high blade tip velocity (> 4 m/s) will therefore be recommended.
Table 9.2 lists the comparative selection criteria for the different agitator
impellers according to the objective. When a single impeller alone can not
solve all the problems, the association of several agitators must sometimes be
contemplated (Fig. 9.16). This is the case for example when the aim is t o favor
heat transfer and mixing, or mixing and interfacial area. Two frequent layouts
illustrate this solution:
A Rushton turbine at the bottom t o disperse one of the phases, with a
propeller above it to stir the medium in general.
Several Rushton type turbines t o increase the interfacial area in a two-
phase medium. Here turbines of the same diameter will be placed regu-
larly at a height roughly equal to 1 t o 2 turbine diameters.
 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIOUES 595

A
EKATO- Straiqht blade Helical aaitator
rnizer

L I I I

CD-6 Impeller Helix Impeller Maxflo <<T)>

Impeller

Lightnin A31 5 \
A

~-
Figure
9.17 Examples o f agitator impellers proposed by various manufacturers.
A. Ekato (Brochure ' l a technique d'agitation sur rnesure", 1991).
596 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIOUES

Manufacturers propose a wide variety of agitation impellers (Fig. 9.17)

suited to each type of operation described earlier. They also generally supply
the power number versus Reynolds number curve for each impeller. Data, at
least of the relative type, are also available for the various selection criteria
such a s circulation flow rate, gas dispersion, suspending solids etc. In addi-
tion, these same manufacturers generally propose specific testing for new
applications that can not be dealt with by similarity with previous cases.
Impellers and shafts are very often made of a variety of grades of steel but,
depending on corrosion or weight conditions, they can also be made of other
specifically resistant metals or also of reinforced plastics (Salzman et al., 1991).

9.4.3 Other Mixing Techniques

9.4.3.1 InvLine M i x e r s
The mixing operation can also be carried out in-line in the pipe. It is widely
accepted that the mixture between two miscible fluid streams is achieved after
a pipe length equal to approximately 100 times the diameter in turbulent flow.
The in-line mixer consists of a simple junction of two pipes (T or Y shaped). If
the two fluids being mixed have very different flow rates, the dispersion of the
minor phase can be promoted by means of a distributor (Fig. 9.6A and B). A
number of methods can be used t o reduce the length of pipe required for mix-
ing (to 10 times the diameter for example):
Inject one phase via a T-shaped nozzle at sufficiently high velocity to
generate a jet flow in the main pipe carrying the other phase.
Generate a pressure drop just after the two fluids are introduced by
means of orifices or valves that are partially closed.
Use systems called in-line mixers, whose main characteristic is that they
produce turbulence and hence added pressure drop (Fig. 9.6C and D).
The basic principle of in-line mixers (Fig. 9.6E) is to divide the main fluid
stream and alternate the directions of the diverted streamlets that are pro-
duced. In the past ten years a large number of static mixer models have been
designed not only to mix miscible fluids but also to disperse gas-liquid or liq-
uid-liquid phases and improve heat transfer in pipe (Fig. 9.18). The various
manufacturers (Kenics, Sulzer, Lightnin, Koch, etc.) propose modules that are
placed in series inside the pipe in varying numbers (Myers, 1997). Some of the
mixers are more specially suited t o viscous products whose laminar flow
regime makes mixing more difficult.
In all cases, the pressure drop required to accomplish the mixing will be of
the same order of magnitude. For mixers of the Kenics or Lightnin type, the
pressure drop is between 5 and 100 times the value there would be in the same
length of empty pipe (Myers, 1997). In-line mixers can also be used when the
two fluid phases are not miscible to produce a dispersion of varying fineness.
 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIOUES 597

Figure
9.18 Examples of in-line mixing elements.
A. Sulzer. B. Koch. C. Lightnin.
598 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

The interfacial area thus generated depends directly on the energy dissipated
in the form of pressure drop:
(9.23)
For a mixture of air and water, Sulzer mixers typically allow interfacial areas
between 200 and 500 m2/m3 to be produced for an energy expenditure of
1 kW/m3. The interfacial area depends in fact on the gas hold-up ratio E~ and
on the bubble size:
(9.24)

The bubble size, dB,can be related to the Weber and Reynolds numbers by
means of an equation of the following form:
dB = C WeaRep
- (9.25)
dt
with:
a = -0.5 and p E 0.1
dt diameter of the pipe where the mixing element is placed, and
We = pmdtu2/oand Re = pmdtu/pmbeing relative to the pipe diameter dt
For example, for a Kenics mixer:
C = 0.39, a = -0.43, p = 0
Results obtained with Sulzer mixers have also been correlated by express-
ing the average drop diameter dBversus the Reynolds and Weber numbers cal-
culated on the basis of the hydraulic diameter dhof the mixing element and the
average physical properties (viscosity and density) of the mixture (Sulzer,
1994):
-dB = 0.21(We)-'.5(Re)o.15 (9.26)
dh

with: Pmdhu2 and Re=

We= - -
Pmdh
o Pm
with u being the real linear velocity of the mixture in the mixing element (less
than 1 m/s).
For velocities greater than 1 m/s, this equation underestimates the diame-
ters. A more complete expression taking into account the pressure drop
across the static mixer is proposed on the basis of research by Streiff et al.
(1997):

with E = QVLL AP
PV
Droplets whose average size varies from 0.1 to 1mm can easily be obtained.
Whenever the simple solution of in-line mixing is used, care must be taken to
 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 599

control the flow rates of the two fluids being mixed precisely enough to avoid
fluctuations in composition after the mixer. Note in addition that a centrifugal
type pump or a very small strongly stirred vessel can serve as excellent in-line
mixers.

9.4.3.2 Mixing by Recirculation

If the mixture quality is not good enough, another solution that can be used is
mixing by recirculation to improve uniformity. Products are sent to a tank after
in-line mixing and the method consists in recirculating them together repeat-
edly for a certain length of time. They are sucked in by a pump at the bottom
of the tank and discharged also at the bottom by a nozzle (simple or conver-
gent type) that ejects the liquid in a jet, thereby causing currents that promote
mixing (Fig. 9.19).

Storage
tank
Recirculation

-
-
Figure
9.19 Simplified diagram of a jet mixer in a storage tank.

The mixing time tMcan be evaluated by means of the following formula

(Greenville et al., 1996):
d 2 2
t, = 3.0 - (7) (9.28)
'i
600 Chaoter 9 AGITATION
AND MIXINGTECHNIOUES

d diameter of the nozzle producing the liquid jet

uj linear velocity of the liquid jet exiting the nozzle
Z maximum possible length of the liquid jet between the nozzle
exit and the farthest point in the tank
u.d Z
with 0.13 < 2 < 0.013 in m/s and 86 < - < 753.
z d
For a given volume, the optimum tank geometry corresponds to D,/H= lh.
The ejector is angled from the bottom toward the farthest point on the surface
of the liquid. In addition it is slightly off-center to favor a rotation effect of the
whole fluid mass.
As an example, automotive fuels are made up by mixing the required
amounts of different gasoline stocks in a tank. This first blending step is car-
ried out in line. Then small amounts of additives are blended into this mixture.
Mixing is performed in line via venturis or jet mixers that draw in the additives.

9.5 Scaling#up
The aim of scaling-up an agitated system is to obtain the same end result (mix-
ture uniformity, reaction, transfer), but also the same time scales when the vol-
ume of the system goes from pilot plant t o industrial size. It is a difficult pro-
cedure, with the conclusions being worked out gradually. An indispensable
opportunity is left for dialogue between the client who knows his system and
objectives and the specialist equipment manufacturer or vendor who will
know how to optimize the resulting system. (Dickey, 1991, 1992; Harnby et al.,
1992; Leng, 1991; Nagata, 1975; Oldshue, 1983, 1997; Roustan et al., 1979;
Tatterson, 1991.) Scaling-up by successive steps with moderate scale factors is
the safest. It allows any deviations during the process t o be diagnosed in the
most cost-effective way.
Operating conditions remain roughly constant in continuous systems,
whereas in batch or semi-batch systems they can vary widely with time.
Precise control of the contact time, the programmed variation in temperature,
pressure or concentration of a reactant, a catalyst or even a product is thus
possible. Gradual addition of a reactant is frequent, but it can also be advan-
tageous to withdraw a product selectively by incorporating in the reactor spe-
cific separation devices for filtration, precipitation, distillation or ultrafiltra-
tion for example.
In order to make preliminary economic comparisons and choices easier, a
number of general considerations are suggested below along with a reminder
of the formulas for absorbed power. Then a few relations will be developed
that are more specific to several very frequent special cases.

9.5.1 General Relations

Generally speaking, the medium does not change during scale-up and keeps
the same physicochemical characteristics (density, viscosity, interfacial ten-
 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXINGTECHNIQUES 601

sion, composition). Moreover, the overall objectives remain the same in terms
of quality, quantity, efficiency and time. Therefore, the very first step consists
in carefully identifying the elementary objectives and key associated parame-
ters and in classifying them by priority.
The scale-up criterion to be chosen thus depends on the main phe-
nomenon whose intensity is to be maintained as constant a s possible when the
prototype becomes a larger size device with the same type of impeller for a
given fluid medium. The medium, the capacity and the objectives being fixed,
the vessel must be defined (geometry and accessories), along with the agita-
tor impeller (type, dimensions, location, rotation speed) and any other oper-
ating conditions (e.g. gas flow rate).
If the volume of the agitated vessel is modified during scale-up without
changing the geometrical ratios between:
the vessel height and diameter, and
the vessel diameter and agitator geometry,
then the agitator diameter is automatically defined. All that is left is to choose
the rotation speed. This rotation speed will depend greatly on the phe-
nomenon that is considered to be a priority. Table 9.3 shows the amplitude of
variation for the exponent affecting the reactor diameter in the simplified rela-
tion (ND; = Constant) used to calculate the rotation speed.

Phenomenom
Criterion to be observed
to be promoted

Simple mixing Peripheral speed x= 1

Gas-liquid:
mass or heat transfers Power per unit of volume X = 0.67
Dispersion Power per unit of volume X = 0.67
Micromixing Turbulence x=2
Dissolution,
suspension of solids Depends on the solid X = 0.5 to 0.85
Heat transfer Turbulence x=2
Rapid reactions Mixing time x=o
1 Table 1
Criteria for scaling-up various mixing operations and values o f the exponent X
in the equation: ND? = Constant.

A volume scale-up factor @ from V, t o V, = K 3 V , corresponds t o the tran-

sition from a vessel diameter of DT, to DT2 = KDTI. Depending on which char-
acteristic parameter is kept constant, this change in scale involves a multiply-
ing factor that is sometimes very different for each of the different parameters,
as shown in Table 9.4.
602 Chapter 9 AGIJAJION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

Parameter
Mixing Maximum Average Power
kept Turbulence
time shear shear )er volume
constant

Rotation
speed N 1 K 2 K 1 K 2
Turbulence
= ND; K 2 1 K-’ K-2 K-4
Maximum
shear ND, K K 1 K-’ K
Average
shear N 1 K 2 K 1 K 2
Power
per volume
= N3D; ~0.66 ~ 1 . 3 3 ~ 0 . 3 3 K4.66 1
Circulation
time
=N 1 K 2 K 1 K 2

Table

In these sometimes incompatible recommendations, a few very simple

guidelines can be useful in an initial approach:
Keep the same hydrodynamic regime (preferably turbulent which pro-
vides a lot of flexibility):
- Reynolds number: Re, i.e. ND: > Constant
- Froude number: Fr, i.e. N2DAi= Constant
Keep the power per unit of volume constant, i.e.:
- = Constant, or N3D%= Constant
V
The interfacial area is thus kept constant but the installed power required
for large capacities becomes considerable.
Keep the same tip speed: ND, = Constant. The linear velocity at the blade
tip and the maximum shear are unchanged but the average shear
decreases. This can modify the distribution of bubble or drop size in
media with two fluids.
Keep the circulation flow rate per unit of volume constant, which is
expressed by N = Constant.
If the compromises are too difficult t o reach, the vessel geometry or even
the agitator geometry can be modified.
 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 603

In order to assure heat transfer, several complementary parameters can

be modified:
- the internal exchange surface area, provided it does not disrupt the
agitation-mixing function excessively,
- the temperature difference between the process fluid and the medium
(LMTD),
- a recirculation loop can be incorporated with an external exchanger.

Several criteria can give an initial assessment of agitation intensity, at least

for propeller or turbine type impellers (Table 9.5):
the power per unit of volume:

the linear blade tip velocity:

up = TGNRDA(m/s)
the pumping flow rate related to a unit of equivalent cross-section:

with re,,= i: )?
-V 3: effective diameter of the vessel (m).

Even if these criteria do not vary in the same way during scale- up, they still
constitute reference points for simple cases.
During scale-up it will evidently be difficult or even impossible to keep the
mixing time fM constant or the heat transfer at the wall proportional to the vol-
ume (hi,Q/V) = Constant. As a result, scaleup factors will be limited (maxi-
mum lo3 in volume). Moreover, it is not necessarily desirable from an eco-
nomic standpoint to increase the size of mechanically agitated tanks.

Agitation Power per unit Value of S,

intensity of volume v / m 3 )

Low 750 1-2 3

Medium
(the most common) 750-1 500 3-6 3-4
High to very high 1500 7-10 4
-~

Table
9.5 Characterizing agitation intensify
604 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

The agitator investment remains more or less proportional t o the installed

power. In contrast, the reliability of large size rotation systems is always a
difficult point which consequently results in higher maintenance costs.
Consequently in actual practice tanks are generally limited t o a few tens or
hundreds of m3 and agitated tanks over 1000 m3 are an exception.

9.5.2 Power Input

In order to assess process economics, it is necessary t o estimate the mechan-
ical power that will be dissipated by the agitator and the result obtained (mix-
ing time, interfacial area, heat transfer coefficient, etc.). Earlier (see Section
9.3.2) the power input in an agitated medium was seen to depend greatly on
the rotation speed and the impeller diameter: PA = N p p N $ D i , with Np being
characteristic of the impeller and the hydrodynamic regime.
The medium, the type of impeller and the hydrodynamic regime usually
remain unchanged during scale-up. If the regime is turbulent, the power num-
ber does not change either. Taking geometrical similarities into account, the
power related to the reactor volume therefore varies as the group N a D f . In
each of these expressions, the diameter is involved with a high exponent, that
is far from negligible in the choices required during scale-up.
Lastly, in addition t o the power absorbed by the medium, it is also neces-
sary t o estimate the power rating of the driver to be installed, taking the rele-
vant safety factors and efficiency into account.

9.5.3 Specific Problems

A number of general considerations are common to many systems and in par-
ticular to homogeneous media. Beyond these, certain special precautions are
required for multi-phase media.

9.5.3.1 Media with a Single Liquid Phase

The best suited agitators are most frequently propellers or turbines for low
viscosity media (see Figs. 9.1 and 9.2). Figure 9.15 shows that it is not recom-
mended t o use propeller or turbine type impellers for liquids whose viscosity
is higher than 10 P a s . In this case anchor, Archimedean screw or helical rib-
bon type agitators must therefore be implemented. The general equations
remain usable. Note however that the Reynolds number is generally low and
the regime is laminar due t o the high viscosity of the medium and the low agi-
tator rotation speed. For non-Newtonian fluids, it is obviously the viscosity
corresponding t o the shear resulting from agitator movement that is taken into
account.
The technical literature publishes characteristics of these systems and
equations to evaluate the absorbed power PA and the mixing time tMthat take
the characteristic dimensions of the systems into account (Trambouze et al.,
 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 605

1988; Bakker and Gates, 1995). The heat transfer coefficient is more influenced
by the circulation and overall movement of the fluids (Midoux and
Charpentier, 1979).
In batch operations, the variation in the medium with time sometimes
poses difficult problems. In polymerization for example, the medium is very
fluid in the beginning in the presence of monomers and becomes very viscous
when the polymer chain gets longer, The stages are controlled successively by
homogenization of the fluid mass, then by heat transfer problems in a medium
that is first fluid but gradually more and more viscous. Associations of
impellers of different type, size and rotation speed can be quite useful (for
example propeller and anchor or ribbin, with two different concentric axes).

9.5.3.2 GaseLiquid Media

One of the particular features of the gas-liquid medium is related to the gas
introduction and the complementary function it can fulfill in addition to the
agitator. Figure 9.16 shows this type of equipment. Besides the injection of
gases, the equipment hardly differs from the tanks used for a single phase.
However, although the aim is to achieve good mixing for one-phase systems,
here for two-phase systems the objective is in general to favor good transfer
between phases. As such, agitators producing high shear (Rushton turbine for
example) should generally be preferred to propellers which generate a higher
pumping flow rate, but are less efficient in creating an interface. It is some-
times advisable to use a turbine t o disperse the gas at the same time as
impellers with pitched blades to promote complete stirring of the tank
(Fig. 9.16). The fluid being dispersed is injected preferably in the region swept
by the radial circulation of the turbine, for example by means of a central pipe
under the turbine or by a perforated ring instead, located a few centimeters
under the blades (Hicks and Gates, 1976)).
For certain applications such as wastewater treatment, surface aerators
allow a large amount of gas to be transferred t o the liquid medium. Several
fairly large diameter turbines are often placed in parallel in relatively shallow
tanks covering a large surface area (Roustan and Roques, 1979).
The power input, often approximately 1 kW/m3, is correlated by calculating
the power absorbed by the non-aerated medium (PJ first with conventional
equations, and then the real power (P,J in different ways:

pLG'K(
P:N,D~
Q$.6 )0.45
(Michel and Miller, 1962) (9.29)

with K = 1 for aqueous systems, or:

(Nagata, 1975) (9.30)

606 ChaDtel9 AGITATION
AND MIXING TECHNIOUES

If all the experimental results are examined, the ratio P L G / P A is always seen
to be between 0.3 and 0.6 for common industrial applications, with a value of
0.4 occurring the most frequently. This is a good basis for design in the
absence of more precise data. It is still indispensable to anticipate sufficient
power to be able to agitate the liquid even without gas, a situation which may
or may not be accidental.
Gas injection at superficial velocities of several cm/s leads rapidly to a lack
of agitator efficiency. The energy from the gas then becomes much greater
than the mechanical agitation energy. As mentioned earlier (see Section 9.3.1),
optimum interaction corresponds to energy from agitation that is 2 to 5 times
greater than the energy from the gas expanding through the medium.
The agitator rotation speed will be greater than the minimum speed Num,
which can be estimated by means of the following correlations:

Turbine: A = 1.22 B = 1.25

Blades: A = 2.25 B = 0.68

DT > 1.0 m
if V , < 0.03 m/s
0.1 < (h,/DT) < 0.6
h,: height of liquid above the agitator at rest.
In gas-liquid reactors, the ratio between the gas volume flow rate and the
liquid volume present in the reactor is usually kept constant. This means
increasing the gas flow rate like the reactor volume, and therefore increasing
the superficial velocity like the diameter. The agitator may then work closer to
flooding limits. In addition, an attempt is made to keep the value of the group
kLAGL constant, and this often means keeping the same power density.
These criteria are difficult and expensive to observe. In order to avoid a
decrease in the mass transfer in spite of everything, the volume is also often
increased by making the reactor higher.

9.5.3.3 Liquid + Liquid

Agitation impellers are chosen in the same way as for gas-liquid media, but
their location must allow calmer zones to be established that favor coales-
cence if need be. The agitator will be placed in the continuous phase and the
 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXINGTECHNIOUES 607

dispersed phase will be introduced as close a s possible to the tip of the tur-
bine to obtain effective dispersion.
The power input can be estimated by the conventional equation for a liq-
uid one-phase medium:
PA
Np= - (9.3)
PNiR
provided that the power and Reynolds numbers are calculated using the fol-
lowing definitions for:
the density of the mixture:
~m = EDPD + (1 -ED)PC (9.33)
the apparent viscosity of the mixture:

(9.34)

In order to obtain a practically homogeneous dispersion in a liquid-liquid

medium, agitation must exceed a minimum value corresponding to a specific
power input in the tank of between 0.2 and 0.4 kW/m3. Readers interested in
further information on the subject can refer to Chapter 3 which presents liq-
uid-liquid extraction equipment.

9.5.3.4 Suspending a Solid

Solid particles are basically characterized by three parameters;
the density, ps,
the size, often confined t o the average diameter, dp,but sometimes the
grain size distribution curve is considered,
the mass fraction.
Particle size and solubility will greatly influence the definition of operating
conditions. The solids injection point will be chosen to facilitate dissolution
and avoid excessive impacts between the rotating parts and the solid particles.
The power will be calculated the same a s for a liquid, but the adapted val-
ues below will be used for the density and viscosity:
Pm = EsPs + ELPL (9.35)

with E $ being the volume fraction of solids when the suspension is allowed to
settle.
I t is often recommended t o scale up with PAIL'= Constant, even if it is some-
what costly.
608 ChaDter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

There are a few correlations (Harnby et al., 1992) that can be used to cal-
culate the minimum agitator speed, NRm,required for suspending a given solid.
Note that the criteria selected correspond only to a certain aspect of the sus-
pension. In any case the solid distribution will not be uniform over the height
of the liquid. Uniformity will be approached only by achieving a circulation
flow rate Q as high as possible. A correlation suggested by Zwietering (1958),
then improved and confirmed by several authors, gives the rotation speed that
is just sufficient for the particles to be suspended:

NRm= P [ g(ps - pJ/pL]0.4Xo.12D-o.76

A (9.36)

The constant K depends on the geometry of the tank and of the agitator,
while X is the weight concentration of solids.
The minimum agitation speed NRm can be obtained from a critical Froude
number (Fr), with the equation below:

(9.37)

with X once again the weight concentration of solids in the suspension.

If the bottom is elliptical or spherical, which are better suited than a flat
bottom, Eq. 9.37 is used with the following values of p:
P = 1.21 for a turbine with 6 flat blades
P = 3.06 for a propeller.
In order to have a good axial flow rate and a jet effect on the bottom of the
tank, the rotation speed must be increased and the following geometrical ratio
must be used:
DT/DA 3.0 to 3.5
If the solid is lighter than the liquid, the same laws can theoretically be
applied, but the agitation impeller is preferably placed higher in the reactor.
The formation of a controlled vortex may allow the light particles to be
entrained toward the bottom of the reactor. A vortex can be promoted by
adjusting the agitation speed, the impeller diameter or the baffles (reduce
their width to approximately 1/50 of the reactor diameter, according to
Etchells et al. (1992), and decrease their height).
For three-phase media, the presence of the gas does not bring about any
fundamental change. The bubbles often improve stirring somewhat, but some-
times on the contrary they become attached to the particles and disturb the
formation of the suspension. Here preliminary testing is useful (Nienow et al.,
1986).

9.5.3.5 Crystallization
The formation of crystals, precipitates or flocs is greatly influenced by the uni-
formity of the medium and the heat transfer, but also by the turbulence and
the shear forces. Depending on the location of the mother liquor inlet, i.e. in a
 Chaoter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 609

zone with high or low shear, nucleation will or will not be promoted versus
crystal growth. Moreover, solid withdrawal conditions at the bottom of the
tank, which is often conical, must preserve the integrity of the crystals formed
without causing them to break, agglomerate or stick together. Further infor-
mation can be found in works such as those by Mullin (1995) or Amirtharajah
(1991).

9.6 Prospects
Appreciable progress is needed in several areas:
To favor straight-forward and objective choices and facilitate the users'
task, manufacturers still need to do a great deal of clarification and coor-
dination in order to standardize the methods of measuring the technical
characteristics of agitated systems.
The foreseeable progress is related to the development of more precise
measurement methods, which are also furthered by mathematical mod-
elling and fluid mechanics (CFD). Some research already seems promis-
ing (see Baudou et al., 1997; Bugay et al., 1997; Mavros et al., 1997; Xu et
al., 1996; Djebbar et al., 1996 among others). Increasingly pertinent math-
ematical models must simplify optimization and shorten development
time, provided they are correctly validated and used with caution
(Trambouze, 1996).
Complex evolutive media are still inadequately characterized. Handling
them is more a question of skill or experience than a rigorous or predic-
tive procedure. A better analysis of their behavior is needed (Tatterson
et al., 1991).
Some problems brought up by process specialists are increasingly diffi-
cult to solve. Some aim for several more or less contradictory objectives
at the same time. The solution then requires combined assemblies imple-
menting associations of impellers with identical or different speeds. Here
again the knowledge base and the solutions could well make progress.

Nomenclature
A angle of the blade plane (rd)
A,, interfacial area (m2/m3)
C distance between the blade and the bottom (m)
C, specific heat (J/(kg.K))
d orifice diameter of a jet nozzle (m)
D, agitation impeller diameter (m)
dB bubble or drop diameter (m)
610 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIOUES

Dc coil diameter (m)

9 L diffusion coefficient (m2/s)
dP particle diameter (m)
4 pipe diameter with a static mixer (m)
DT tank diameter (m)
EP energy efficiency (-)
H height of liquid in the reactor (m)
hin tank-side heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2.K))
kL mass transfer coefficient (m/s)
L static mixer length (m)
NP power number (-)
NQ pumping number (-)
NR rotational speed (s-l)
NUm minimum rotational speed (s-l)
Nu Nusselt number (-)
P total power input (agitation + gas injection) (W)
PA absorbed power (W)
PLC absorbed power in a gas-liquid medium (W)
Pr Prandtl number (-)
Qc circulation flow rate (m3/s)
QP pumping flow rate (m3/s)
QVL liquid volume flow rate (m3/s)
Qvc gas volume flow rate (m3/s)
Raction agitator radius of action (m)
SA pumping flux (m3/(m2.s))
tM mixing time (s)
U mixture velocity in the tube (m/s)
UP tip velocity (m/s)
V fluid volume (m3)
vis viscosity ratio (-)
S‘G gas superficial velocity (m/s)
W blade width (m)
X mass fraction of solids (-)

Greek symbols
AP pressure drop @‘a/m)
@ power factor
C2 heat exchange surface area (m2>
(3 interfacial tension (N/m)
 Chaoter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES 611

References
Amitharajah A., Clark M.M., Trussel R. Rhodes (1991) Mixing in Coagulation and
Flocculation. Ed. American Water Works Association Research Foundation,
Denver (US).
Baker J. R. (1991) Motionless mixers stir up new uses. Chern. Eng. Progress,
June 1991, 32-38.
Bakker A., Gates L.W. (1995) Properly choose mechanical agitators for viscous
liquids. Chern. Eng. Progress, Dec. 1995, 25-34.
Baudou C. (1997) Agitation par des s y s t h e s axiaux simples ou multi4tagCs.
Thesis INPT, Jan. 9, 1997.
Baudou C., Xuereb C., Costes J., Ranchin G., Bertrand J. (1997) Laser Doppler
Measurements of flow field and turbulent flow parameters in a stirred tank
equipped with two industrial propellers. Re'cents Progrk en Ge'nie des Proce'de's
1 1 , 51, 11-18. Lavoisier, Paris.
Bouaifi M., Roustan M., Djebbar R. (1997) Hydrodynamics of Multistage
Agitated Gas-Liquid Reactors. Re'cents ProgrGs en C&ie des Proce'd6s 1 1 , 52,
137-144. Lavoisier, Paris.
Bugay S., Line A., Roustan M. (1997) Efficiency of particle image velocimetry
(PIV) technique to analyse the mixing agitated tanks. Rkents Progrgs en Ge'nie
des Proc6de's 11, 51, 27-34. Lavoisier, Paris.
Dickey D.S. (1991) Succeed at stirred-tank-reactor design. Chern. Eng. Progress,
Dec. 1991, 22-31.
Dickey D.S., Hemrajani R.R. (1992) Recipes for fluid mixing. Chern. Eng., March
1992, 89.
Djebbar R., Roustan M., Line A. (1996) Numerical computation of turbulent gas-
liquid dispersion in mechanically agitated vessels. Trans IChernE 74, PartA,
May 1996,492497.
Espinosa A., Sanchez M., Osta S., Boniface C., Gil J. (1994) On-line NIR analysis
and advanced control improve gasoline blending. Oil & Gas J., Oct. 17, 1994,92
(42), 49-50 and 52-56.
Etchells A., Hemrajani R., Koestler D., Paul E. (1992) The many faces of mixing.
Chern. Eng., March 1992, 92-94.
Euzen J.P., Trambouze P., Wauquier J.P. (1993) Me'thodologie pour l'extrapola-
tion des proc6de's chirniques. Editions Technip, Paris.
Fasano J.B., Penney W.R. (1991) Cut reaction by-products by proper feed blen-
ding. Chern. Eng. Progress, Dec. 1991, 46-52.
Greenville R.K., Tilton J.N. (1996) A new theory improves the correlation of
blend time data from turbulent jet mixed vessel. Trans. IChernE 74, Part A, April
1996, 390-396.
Harnby N., Edwards M.F., Nienow A.W. (1992) Mixing in the Process Industries,
2nd Edn. Butterworth Heinemann.
Hassan I.T.M., Robinson C.W. (1977) Stirred tank mechanical power require-
ment and gas holdup in aerated aqueous phases. AlChE J. 23, 1,48-56.
Hicks R.W., Gates L.E. (1976) How to select turbine agitators for dispersing gas
into liquids. Chern. Eng., July 19, 1976, 141-148.
612 Chapter 9 AGITATION AND MIXING TECHNIQUES

Koch (1991) Static mixing technology. Bulletin KSM-G, Koch Engineering.

Leng D.E. (1991) Succeed at scale up (mixing). Chem. Eng. Progress, June 1991,
23-32.
Mavros P., Xuereb C., Bertrand J. (1997) Effect of radial or axial impeller and
liquid viscosity on energy dissipation in agitated vessels. Recents Progr& en
Genie des Proc@d@s11, 51, 51-58. Lavoisier, Paris.
Michel B.J., Miller S.A. (1962) Power requirements of gas-liquid agitated sys-
tems. AIChE J. 8, 2, 263-266.
Midoux N., Charpentier J.-C. (1979) Les reacteurs gaz-liquide cuve agitee
mecaniquement. Entropie 88, 5-38 and 101 (1981), 3-31.
Mixel (1997) La maftrise de la technologie des melanges. Technical Doc.
Mullin J.W. (1995) Crystallization. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford (UK).
Myers K., Bakker A., Ryan D. (1997) Avoid agitation by selecting static mixers.
Chem. Eng. Progress, June 1997, 28-38.
Myers K., Reeder M., Rigden M. (1996) Agitating for success. The Chemical
Engineer, Oct. 10, 1996, 39-42.
Nagata S. (1975) Mixing Principles and Applications. Ed. Kodansha, John Wiley
& Sons.
Nienow A.W. (1996) Gas-liquid mixing studies: a comparison of Rushton tur-
bines with some modern impellers. Trans IChemE 74, PartA, May 1996,417-423.
Nienow A.W., Konno M., Bujalski W. (1986) Studies on three-phase mixing. A
Review and recent results. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 64, Jan. 1986, 35-42.
Nishikawa M., Nakamura M., Hashimoto K. (1981) Gas Absorption in aerated
mixing vessels with non-newtonian liquids. J. Chem. Eng. Japan 14, 227-232.
Oldshue J. (1983) Fluid Mixing Technoloa. McGraw-Hill.
Oldshue J.Y. (1997) Heed this advice in scaling up mixers. Chem. Eng. Progress,
March 1997, 70-73.
Reith Th. (1968) Physical aspects of bubble dispersions in liquids. Thesis,
Univ. Delft.
Rewatkar V., Joshi J.B. (1991) Effect of impeller design on liquid phase mixing
in mechanically agitated reactors. Chem. Eng. Comm. 102, 1-33.
Roustan M., Pharamond J.-C. (1991) Agitation melange A5900 et A5902
Techniques de l'ingenieur. Editions Techniques d e l'hgenieur, Paris.
Roustan M., Roques H. (1979) Principe et methode de calcul des aCrateurs
mecaniques d e surface. Entropie 88, 49-53.
Salzman R.N., Webster W.C., Weetman R.J. (1991) Dynamic mixers turn more to
reinforced plastics. Chem. Eng. Progress, June 1991, 39-44.
Streiff F.A., Mathys P., Fischer T.U. (1997) New Fundamentals for liquid-liquid
dispersion using static mixers. Recents ProgrGs en Genie des Proc@d@s 11, 51,
307-314. Lavoisier, Paris.
Sulzer (1994) Procedes d e melange et d e reaction. Doc. Sulzer.
Sulzer (1994) Static mixers for refineries. Doc. Sulzer Chemtech MRT-0655/
TUF/18.11.1994.
 Chapter 9. AGITATION AND MIXINGTECHNIQUES 613

Tatterson G. (1991) Fluid Mixing and Gas Dispersion in Agitated Tanks. McCraw-
Hill.
Tatterson G.B., Brodkey R.S., Calabrese R.V. (1991) Move mixing technology
into the 21st century. Chern. Eng. Progress, June 1991, 45-48.
Tatterson G (1994) Scale up and Design o f Industrial Mixing Processes. McGraw-
Hill.
Trambouze P. (1996) CFD applied to process engineering; an introduction. Rev.
Inst. Franc. du Pe'trole 51, 2, 199-203.
Trambouze P., Van Landeghem H., Wauquier J.P. (1988) Chemical Reactors:
Design, Engineering, Operation. Editions Technip, Paris.
Uhl V., Gray J. (1966) Mixing Theory and Practice. Ed. Academic Press, Vol. I and
VOl. 11.
Uhl V., Gray J. (1986) Mixing Theory and Practice. Ed. Academic Press, Vol. 111.
Van Dierendonck L., Fortuin J., Venderbos D. (1968) The specific contact area
in gas-liquid reactors. Proc. IV EUKSyrnp. Chern. React. Eng., Brussels, Sept.
1968, 205.
Villermaux J. (1993) Ge'nie de la re'action chirnique. Conception et fonctionne-
rnent des re'acteurs. Ed. Technique et Doc., Paris.
Weber A.P. (1963) Selecting propeller mixers. Chern. Eng., Sept. 2, 91-98.
Westerterp K., Van Dierendonck L., De Kraa J. (1963) Chern. Eng. Sc. 18,157 and
495.
Xu Y., McGrath (1996) CFD Predictions of stirred tank flows. Trans IChernE 74,
PartA, May 1996,471-475.
Yagi H., Yoshida F. (1975) Gas absorption by newtonian and non-newtonian
fluids in sparged agitated vessels. Ind. Eng. Chern. Proc. Des. Dev. 14, 4,488.
Zwietering Th. (1958) Suspending solid particles in liquids by agitators. Chern.
Eng. Sc. 8, 244-253.