Assignment On Flownets

ECE 2303 SOIL MECH 1 DKUT
CHAPTER 4
PLASTICITY OF SOILS
In the case of fine or cohesive soils, it is the shape rather than size of particles that has the greater
influence on engineering properties. Soils with flaky particles (clay minerals) behave as plastics
materials.
Plasticity of a soil is its ability to undergo unrecoverable deformation at constant volume without
cracking or crumbling. Plasticity is due to the presence of clay minerals or organic matter and the water
that holds these particles. This water is chemically held and is called the adsorption water. The clay
particles are separated by layers of this water that allows the particles slip over one another.
CONSISTENCY LIMITS
Consistency of a soil is its physical state characteristic at given water content. A Swedish agronomist
called Atterberg conceptualized the behavior of soil with clay when wet. There are four consistency
states for cohesive soil; namely
a) Solid sates
b) Semi-solid state
c) Plastic state
d) Liquid state
Volume
Liquid
Plastic
Semi Solid State
Solid State State
State
Moisture
The transition from one state to the next is gradual. However, arbitrary limits corresponding to change
over moisture content are defined consistency limits or Atterberg limits.
Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Page 1

These are
i) Liquid limits (LL or WL)
ii) Plastic limit (PL or WP)
iii) Shrinkage limit (SL or WS)
LIQUID LIMITS (LL OR WL)
Defn: Liquid is the water content at which the water content at which the soil ceases to be liquid and
becomes plastic.
The liquid limit is determined in the laboratory either by cassagrande apparatus or by cone
penetration method.
Cassagrande apparatus consist of a brass cup which drops through a height of 1cm on a hard base
when operated by the handle.
The cassagrande apparatus is operated by turning the crank which raises the cup and let it drop on the
rubber base. The height of the drop is adjusted with the help of adjusting screws.
The liquid limits test as proposed by cassagrande involves forming a groove in a part of soil in a brass
dish (cup) of certain dimensions. The cup is then bumped by dropping through a distance of 1cm for
25times at the end of which the groove is just closed for distance of 12mm.
The test is carried out by determining a series of moisture content each corresponding to a number of
blows close to 25cm. A graph is then drawn relating blows and the moisture content. The moisture
content corresponding to 25blows is read off as the liquid limit of soil.
M.C
LL
20 25 30 Blows
Liquid limited flow curve

The cassagrande apparatus has the following limitation
i. The method is subjected to the judgment of the operator
ii. Though procedure is standardized, it leads to empirical values (that may not be reproduced).
The liquid limit may be determined through what is known as a one-point determined by the following
relationship
n
N
WL = Wn  
 25
Where
WL = Liquid limit
Wn = Water content of soil when the groove closes in N blows

n = Index that varies that varies between 0.0092 and 0.12
CONE PENETROMETER METHOD
This is another way of determining the liquid limit of a soil using cone penetrometer. The penetrometer
consists of a stainless cone having an apex angle of 310 and a length of 30.5mm.
Dial Gauge
Shaft Clamps
Release
button
Cone
Cup Base
Frames
Sample

The cone is fixed at the lower end of sliding rod (shaft) fitted with disk at the top. The total weight of
the cone, shaft and disk is 148gm. The soil sample is prepared just as in the case of the cassagrande
method. The sample is placed in a cup of 50mm diameter and 50mm internal height. The cup is filled
with the sample taking care so as not to entrap air. Excess soil removed and the surface of the soil
leveled up.
The cup is placed below the cone that is lowered gradually so as to just touch the surface of the soil in
the cup. The graduated scale (dial gauge) is adjusted to zero and then the shaft is released by push
button allowing the cone to penetrate into the soil for 5 seconds.
The water content giving a penetration of 25mm is taken as the liquid limit. However, since it is
difficult to obtain an exact penetration of 25mm, liquid limit is determined from the following equation.
WL = Wy + 0.01(25 − y)(Wy + 15)
Where
WL = Liquid Limit
y = Penetration in mm
Wy = Water content during that penetration
The equation above is only valid for the range of y , between 20 and 30mm.
The cone penetrometer method has several advantages over cassagrande method. Namely
1) The method is easier to perform
2) The method is applicable to a wide range of soil
3) The result of the method reliable and do not depend on the judgment of the operator
PLASTIC LIMIT (PL or WP)

Plastic limit is the water content at which the soil ceases to be plastic and become a semi-plastic solid.
Below this water content the soil begins to crumble when rolled into a thread of 3mm in diameter.
The soil used in determination of plastic limit is air-dried and then sieved through 425µm piece. About
30g of the spoil is mixed with distilled water in an evaporating dish until it becomes easy to move with
fingers i.e. it becomes plastic.

The moist soil is made into a ball that is rolled with fingers over a flat glass plate to form a soil thread
of uniform diameter. If the diameter becomes smaller than 3mm without crack formation, it shows that
the water content is more than plastic limit. Therefore the soil is kneaded further and re-rolled until the
3mm diameter thread of soil crumbles.
The water content at which the soil can be rolled into a thread about 3mm without crumbling is known
as the plastic limit.
The test is repeated at least three times and the average value reported as the plastic limit.
SHRINKAGE LIMIT (SL or WS)

Shrinkage limit is the maximum water content at which a reduction in water content will not cause a
decrease in the total volume of the soil mass ie drying shrinkage ceases. It is also the minimum water
content at which a soil can still be saturated
In order to determine the shrinkage limit a sample of soil having high moisture content is filled up in a
mould of known volume. The sample in the mould is dried in the oven at 1050 C for 24hrs. it is allowed
to cool and weight of the dry soil pat is taken. The volume of the pat is measured by the mercury
displacement method. The transition between semi-solid and solid state occurs at the shrinkage limit
where by the volume of the soil reaches its lowest value as it dries out.
COMPUTATION OF SHRINKAGE LIMIT (SL or WS)
With reference to the schematic diagram for the initial and final states of the sample, shrinkage limit
can be determined in the following two methods.
Initial State Shrinkage Limit

Dry State
V0-V1
Water
V0 Ww Water Air
W0
Vs
Solids Solids V1=Vf Solids
Vf

i) When Gѕ is unknown
Let Vo and Vf be the initial and final volumes of the sample and Wo and Wf be in corresponding
weights. Also let the weight of water at final volume be Ww.
By definition, the volume of the soil at shrinkage limit is equal to its final volume. Then the shrinkage
limit is given by:
Ww
Ws =
Wf
At the initial stage, weight of water =W 0−W f
Weight of water evaporated upto shrinkage limit = (V0 −Vf )γ w
∴ Weight of water at final volume, Ww = (W 0 −W f ) − (V 0 − V f )γ w
Thus, shrinkage limit
Ww (W0 −Wf ) − (V0 −Vf )γ w

Ws = =
Wf Wf
When Gѕ is known
Let Vs=volume of solids
Wf Wf
Then Vs = =
γs Gs γ w
 Wf 
But Ww = (V f − V s )γ w =  V f −  γ w
 G sγ w 
Wf
= Vf γ w −
Gs
Therefore, shrinkage limit
Wf
Vf γ w −
Gs
Ws = Recall
Wf
Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Wf Page 6
=γs
Vf
Vf γ w 1
Ws = −
Wf Gs
γw 1
Ws = −
γ s Gs
CONSISTENCY INDICES
1) Plasticity index (Ip)
This is the water content range of the plastic state of a soil. It is the difference between liquid and
plastic limit which represent respectively the upper and the lower bounds of the plastic state.
I p =WL −Wp
2) liquidity index (IL)
This gives the relationship between the natural water content (Wn) of the soil and its consistency limits.
Wn −Wp
IL =
Ip
3) Consistency index (Ic)
This relates the natural waters content (Wn), the liquidity index (IL) to the consistency limit of the soil
IL −Wn
Ic =
Ip
4) Flow index (If)
This is the slope of the flow curve obtained from the liquid limit test (by the cassagrande method)
W1 − W 2
If =
N
Log 10 2
N1
Where
N1 and N2 = the member of blows

W1 and W2 = corresponding water content
5) Toughness index (It)
This is the ratio of plasticity index to the flow index
Ip
It =
If
6) Activity number (A)
Activity is the degree of plasticity of the clay size fraction of soil; the plasticity index to the percentage
of clay size particles in the soil.
Activity=Plasticity index/percent clay particles (<0.002mm)
B SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Soil classification is different from soil description.
Soil description includes the characteristic of both the soil material and in-site soil mass.
A comprehensive report considers:
a) Material characteristic –particle grading, plasticity, color, shape and texture.
b) Mass characteristic- bedding discontinuation and weathering.
c) Macro –fabric features inclusive organic
d) Minor geological details-formation, type of depose eg alumnus
In soil classification a soil is allocated to unlimited number of groups on the basic the material
characteristic only. It is especially important where a sol is to be used as a construct material. However
if the soil is to be used in its natural undisturbed condition then a full description will be adequate.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION PRINPCLES
a) Provide a convectional classification of types of soil-so as to avoid conflicting interpretation of terms
b) The system adapted shouldn’t be sufficiently comprehensive to include all bit of the latest of natural
deposit-should remain reasonable systematic and concise. To be sufficiently adequate a classification
system must satisfy the following conditions
c) It must incorporate as description definitive terms that are brief and yet meaningful to the use.
d) Its classes and sub-classes must be defined by parameters that are reasonably easy to measure
qualitatively
e) Group together soil leaving characteristics that will imply similar engineering properties without the
use of a classification system. Published information or recommendations on design and construction
based on a material type are likely to be
i. Misleading, reading the process of communication ineffective
ii. Difficult to apply experience gained in future design.
Most classification systems divided soil into three main groups:
a) Coarse soils-rounded particles <0.06mm
b) Fine soil-flaky particles shape and
c) Organic soil-fibrous particle shape

CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY

A: CAPILLARITY
This is the rise of ground water in the soil above the water table through the tiny interconnected pore
spaces in the soil mass. These pore spaces are alternated to form innumerable capillary tubes. Due to
surface tension, water gradually rises from the water table through the tubes causing the soil above the
water table to be partially or even fully saturated.
Surface tension is the attractive force exerted at the interface or surface between materials in different
physical states i.e. solid/liquid or liquid/gas. The water held above water table by surface tension is
called capillary water.
CAPILLARY WATER
The capillary water rises against gravity and is held by the surface tension. Therefore this water is held
at negative pressure and exerts a tensile force on the soil.
The maximum height of capillary rise of water in a capillary tube can be determined thus:
Ts
Ts
α α Let
hc = height of capillary rise
d = diameter of capillary tube
Ts = surface tension
α = Angle between upper meniscus
hc and the vertical
The upper meniscus of water is concave upwards and makes an angle α with the vertical. If the tube is
perfectly clean and wet, then α = 0. The surface tension also acts in this direction and its vertical
component is responsible for balancing the self weight of the water column.
d2
Now volume of capillary water = π hc
4
d2
The weight of capillary water = π hcγ w
4
Again, the vertical component of the surface tension force = TsπdCosα
d2
Since the force balances the self weight π hc γ w =T sπdCosα
4
Re arranging
4Ts Cosα
hc =
dγ w
NB:
At 4oC,
Ts = 75.6dykes/cm = 75.6x10-8KN/cm
γ w = 1gm/cm3 = 9.807 KN/m3 = 9.807x10-6 KN/cm.
Assuming the tube to be perfectly clean and wet
α =0 and hence Cos 0o = 1
4 x75.6 x10 −8 x1 0.3084

∴ hc = = cm
(9.807 x10 − 6 )d d
The value of hc may also be determined from:
C
hc =
ed 10
Where
ed10 = d
e=Void ratio
d10 = effective particle size of soil
e = empirical constant, the value lies between 0.1 and 0.5cm2 depending on the shape and surface
impurities of the grains [10-50mm2]
The smaller the size of the pores the higher the water can rise above the water table. The capillarity rise
tends to be irregular due to the random pore sizes occurring in a soil. The soil can be almost

completely, saturated in the lower part of the capillary zone but in general the degree of saturation
decreases with height.
The negative pressure of capillary water results in attractive forces between the particles. This attraction
is referred to as soil suction and is a function of pore size and water content. The range of suction
values is very large. It is therefore convenient to use a logarithm scale and to define the quantity soil
suction index or pF index:
pF = log10 hc ( hc in cm)
The distribution of vertical pressure in a soil saturated up to a height hc due to capillary water is as
shown below:
hcrw
hc -
H
+
Hγ w
PRESSURES IN SOILS
i) TOTAL STRESS ( σ )
When an external load is applied to a saturated soil mass, the pressure is immediately transferred to the
pore water. Therefore the immediate effect is an increase in the pore pressure. This produces a tendency
for the pore water to flow away through the adjoining voids with the result that the pore pressure
decreases and the applied stress is transferred to the granular fabric of the soil.
At a given time after load application, the applied total stress will be balanced by two internal stress
components size;
• Effective stress or intergranular pressure σ 1
• Pore water pressure or neutral stresses, µ

a) Pore water pressure, µ
This is the pressure induced in the fluid (either water or water and vapour) filling the pores. Pore fluid
is able to transmit normal stress but not shear stress. It is therefore ineffective in providing shear
resistance. For this reason the pore pressure is sometimes referred to as neutral stress.
b) Effective stress, σ 1
Also known as the intergranular pressure, this is the stress transmitted through the soil fabric via
intergranular contacts. It is this stress that is effective in controlling both volume change deformation
and shear strength of the soil since both normal stress and shear stress is transmitted across grain-to-
grain contact.
Terghazi (1943) showed that for a saturated soil the effective stress is the difference between the total
stress and the pore pressure.
σ1 =σ − µ
Or
σ =σ1 + µ
However, it should be noted that the effective stress is not the actual grain-to-grain contact stress but
the average intergranular stress on a plane area within the soil mass.

DISTRIBUTION OF VERTICAL STRESS IN VARIOUS SOIL-WATER SYSTEMS
i) Free water
The free water exerts a pressure due to its own self weight which is always comprehensive. This is
known as hydrostatic pressure and depends on depth, z. The hydrostatic pressure distribution is linear
and at any level the vertical pressure is given by:
µ = γ wz
H WATER
Hγ w
ii) Dry soil
In a dry soil mass the distribution of vertical stress is similar to that of free water.
At any depth z the pressure is given by
σ 1 = γz
Where
γ = effective unit weight of soil.
H Soil
Hγd

iii) SUBMERGED SOIL
A soil mass submerged in water with free water standing up to a height Hw, as is shown below. If H, be
the height of the soil, the total pressure at the bottom of it is given by:
σ = γ sub H + γ w (H w − H )
σ = (γ sub − γ w )H + γ w H w
σ = γ sat H + γ w H w
Pore water pressure, µ = γ w (H + H w )
Effective stress σ 1 = σ − µ
= γ sat H + γ w H w - γ w (H + H w )
= H (γ sat − γ w )
σ 1 = γ sub H
HW WATER
a b c γ sub H
a = γ w (H + H w )
d e
Submerged Soil Pore Water Total stress Effective stress
Pressure
a = γ w (H + H w )
b = γ w (H + H w )
c = γ sub H
d = γ wH w

e = γ sat H
b+c=total stress
d+e=total stress
iv) SATURATED SOIL WITH CAPILLARY WATER
The soil mass is saturated up to a height hc above the water level, due to capillary rises of water.
The total stresses, pore ater pressures and the effective stresses at various levels are worked out
below
hc γ w
A
hc
B
SATURATED
SOIL
h
γ sub (h + hc ) + γ w h
Distribution of effective stress
a) Total stresses
σA =0
σ B = γ sat hc
σ C = γ sat (h + hc )
b) Pore Water Pressure
µ A = − hC γ w -----------------------------------------------------------Capillary rise
µB = 0
µC = γ wh

c) Effective stresses
σ 1 A = σ A − µ A = 0 − (− hc γ w ) = hc γ w
σ 1 B = σ B − µ B = γ sat hc − 0 = hc γ Sat
σ 1C = σ C − µ C = γ sat (h + hc ) − γ w h
σ 1C = γ sat hc + (γ sat − γ w )h
σ 1C = γ sat hc + γ sub h
σ 1C = γ sub h + γ w h + γ sub hc
σ 1C = γ sub (h + hc ) + γ w h

B: PERMEABILITY
Permeability is the capacity of a soil to allow water to pass through it. It is a measure of the case with
which water will pass through a soil mass. The term permeability is sometimes referred to as hydraulic
conductivity.
Since soil consists of discrete particles, the pore spaces between particles are all interconnected in that
water is free to flow within the soil mass. In such a porous media, water will flow from places of higher
to lower pore pressure. The pressure head, or simply head, tending to cause flow of water through a soil
mass - from Bernoullis equation are:-
i) The position or elevation head (hc )
 µ 
ii) The pressure head due to pore pressure  
γw 
 v2 
The velocity head which is the third component is Bernouli’s equation   , is usually ignored in
 2g 
problems of ground water flow since, v (Flow velocity) is very small owing to high resistance to flow
offered by the granular structure of the soil. (ignored in soil mechanics)
Darcy’s Law
In saturated conditions, one-dimension flow is governed by Darcy’s law. This law states that the flow
velocity of water is proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
That is
vα i or v = ki
Where
v = Flow velocity
i = ∆h
The hydraulic gradient, =
∆l
∆h = Difference in total head
∆l = Length of flow path

k = The flow constant or coefficient of permeability

q
q = Av = Aki v=
A
q =Quantity flowing in unit time
A=X-Sectional area of soil through which flow is taking place
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
The coefficient of permeability k may be defined as the average velocity flow which will occur under
a hydraulic gradient of unity (T). The value of k is used as a measure of the resistance of flow offered
by the soil. It has unity of velocity i.e. cm/sec, m/day e.t.c.
The range of values of k is extremely large extending from 100m/s in the case of very coarse soils, to
almost nothing in the case of clay.
The coefficient of permeability is affected by several factors that include:-
a) The porosity of the soil - average size of the pores
b) The particle size distribution
c) The shape and structure (orientation) of soil particles
d) The degree of saturation/pressure of air
e) The velocity of water that varies with temperature
NB
A material is said to be porous when its void interstices are continuous. Such a material allows a liquid
to flow through it and is thus described as a permeable material. In general all soils are permeable to
varying degrees. A soil is termed impervious when its permeability is very low.
Permeability controls the hydraulic stability of soil masses. A knowledge of permeability is therefore
necessary in the determination of settlement of buildings, the yield of wells, seepage through and below
earth structure and design of filters.
Velocity of Darcy’s law depends on;
a) Flow of water must be laminar
b) Flow of water must be in a homogenous soil and hence depend upon the dimension of the
interstices based on particle size.
Flow of water in soils is laminar when the Raynold’s number is less than unity (1) i.e.
ρvD
Re = ≤1
η
For the flow to be laminar the maximum particle diameter D is 0.5mm.
Darcy’s law is valid for flow in clays, silt and sands. For flow through coarse sands, gravels and
boulder, the flow is turbulent and the seepage velocity is given by
v = ki n
Where n = an exponential = 0.65
APPROXIMATIONS OF K
A number of approximate empirical relationships have been suggested between the coefficient of
permeability, k and other soil and water properties like effective size (d10), void ratio (e) viscosity ( η )
and unit weight of water (γ w )
The coefficient of permeability can be represented by the equation
γw
k= K
η
Where
γ w = Unit weight of water
η = Viscosity of water
K = An Absolute coefficient depending only on the characteristics of the soil skeleton (Units m2)
ALLEN HAZEN’S FORMULA
The most frequently used approximation is one suggested by Alter Hazen (1930). He found
experimentally that for loose filter sands
k = Ck D102
Where
k = Coefficient of permeability in cm/sec
C k = Experimental coefficient dependent on the nature of soil (Varies between 10 and 15)

D10 = Effective particle size in mm
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY, k
The coefficient of permeability k can be determined using:-
i) Laboratory methods
ii) In-site of field methods.
LABORATORY METHODS
The coefficient of permeability of a soil can be determined using parameters that are of the following
two types:-
a) Constant head parameters
b) Falling on variable head parameters
Example
The void ratio of a given soil A is twice that of another soil B, while the effective size of particles
of soil A is one-third that of soil B. The height of capillary rise of water in soil A on a certain day
is found to be 40cm. Determine the corresponding height of capillary rise in soil B.
ANSWER
Using equation
C
hc =
eD10
Let h A and hB be the heights of capillary rise in soil A and B respectively. Also lets e A and
e B be the respective void ratios and D A and DB be the respective effective sizes.
From the Equation
eB 1 D
= and B = 3
eA 2 DA
hA C e D e D 1
Now, = x B B = B B = x 3 = 1 .5
hB e A D A C e A DA 2
h A 40
Now hB = = = 26.67cm
1 .5 1 .5

SEEPAGE AND FLOWNETS

SEEPAGE
Seepage is the general term given to the movement of water through a soil mass. On a microscopic
scale, the water when flowing follows a torturous route through the voids in the soil. Macroscopically
however, the flow both can be considered as a smooth line.
SEEPAGE THEORY
The seepage taking place around water retaining structures (like sheet-piles seed dams) and through
embarkments and earth dams is two dimensional. This means that the vertical and horizontal velocity
components vary from point to point within the x-section of the soil mass.
The general case of seepage in two dimensions is now considered whereby it is initially assumed that
the soil is homogeneous and isotropic with respect to permeability (KH=KV)
FLOW NETS
Flow net is a graphical construction of a facility of equipotential and of flow lines. It is a pictorial
representation of paths taken by water in passing through a soil mass (material).
Flow times represent the path of flow through a soil. There are an infinite number of flow lines, the
paths of which never cross since the nature of flow is laminar. Therefore, each line is appropriately
parallel to the last. Each impervious boundary may be taken as flowlines.
Equipotential lives join together all points where the pressure head is equal. Water will only flow where
there is a pressure head and this is dissipated as the water flows through the soil. There is infinite
number of these equipotential lines. At the point where water flows into and out of the soil, the ground
levels will be equipotential lines.
PROPERTIES OF A FLOW NET

A flow net has the following properties:-
1. All flow lines and equipotential lines are smooth curves.
2. Flow lines (or equipotential lines) will never cross one another
3. A flow line used for equipotential line shall cross each other orthogonally or at right angles
(90o)
4. The flow lines and the equipotential lines should form a series of approximate rectangles
(squares) called fields

Uses of flownet
i) Enable to determine the quantity of seepage
ii) Enable to determine the hydrostatic pressure
iii) Enable to determine the exit gradient

Assignment On Flownets

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Assignment On Flownets

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ECE 2303 SOIL MECH 1 DKUT

Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Page 1

i) Liquid limits (LL or WL)

ii) Plastic limit (PL or WP)

iii) Shrinkage limit (SL or WS)

LIQUID LIMITS (LL OR WL)

Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Page 2

The cassagrande apparatus has the following limitation

i. The method is subjected to the judgment of the operator

Wn = Water content of soil when the groove closes in N blows

CONE PENETROMETER METHOD

Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Page 3

WL = Wy + 0.01(25 − y)(Wy + 15)

Wy = Water content during that penetration

1) The method is easier to perform

2) The method is applicable to a wide range of soil

PLASTIC LIMIT (PL or WP)

Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Page 4

SHRINKAGE LIMIT (SL or WS)

COMPUTATION OF SHRINKAGE LIMIT (SL or WS)

Initial State Shrinkage Limit

Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Page 5

At the initial stage, weight of water =W 0−W f

Weight of water evaporated upto shrinkage limit = (V0 −Vf )γ w

∴ Weight of water at final volume, Ww = (W 0 −W f ) − (V 0 − V f )γ w

Thus, shrinkage limit

Ww (W0 −Wf ) − (V0 −Vf )γ w

Let Vs=volume of solids

Therefore, shrinkage limit

N1 and N2 = the member of blows

Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Page 7

W1 and W2 = corresponding water content

5) Toughness index (It)

This is the ratio of plasticity index to the flow index

6) Activity number (A)

Activity=Plasticity index/percent clay particles (<0.002mm)

A comprehensive report considers:

a) Material characteristic –particle grading, plasticity, color, shape and texture.

b) Mass characteristic- bedding discontinuation and weathering.

c) Macro –fabric features inclusive organic

d) Minor geological details-formation, type of depose eg alumnus

SOIL CLASSIFICATION PRINPCLES

a) Provide a convectional classification of types of soil-so as to avoid conflicting interpretation of terms

i. Misleading, reading the process of communication ineffective

ii. Difficult to apply experience gained in future design.

Most classification systems divided soil into three main groups:

a) Coarse soils-rounded particles <0.06mm

b) Fine soil-flaky particles shape and

c) Organic soil-fibrous particle shape

Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Page 9

CAPILLARITY AND PERMEABILITY

Again, the vertical component of the surface tension force = TsπdCosα

γ w = 1gm/cm3 = 9.807 KN/m3 = 9.807x10-6 KN/cm.

Assuming the tube to be perfectly clean and wet

α =0 and hence Cos 0o = 1

4 x75.6 x10 −8 x1 0.3084

The value of hc may also be determined from:

Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Page 11

• Effective stress or intergranular pressure σ 1

• Pore water pressure or neutral stresses, µ

Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Page 12

a) Pore water pressure, µ

Tulatia Mungathia ©2013: Sem 1 Civil Page 13