ExHFT-7

28 June – 03 July 2009, Krakow, Poland

HEAT FLUX EFFECTS ON FALLING FILM EVAPORATION

INSIDE A VERTICAL TUBE

Th. Storch, Ch. Philipp, A. Doeg, U. Gross*

Institute of Thermal Engineering, Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg
D-09596 Freiberg, Germany

ABSTRACT. Falling film evaporation has widely been investigated in the past. This has been done
for pure liquids and mixtures covering wide ranges of liquid Re and Pr numbers, various
geometries, cocurrent and countercurrent vapor flow and stagnant, and finally at heating conditions
yielding nucleate boiling or not. Nevertheless, for Re < 100 and conditions without bubble
formation in the superheated liquid film, only a few references are published. Therefore the heat-
flux effect has been investigated while measuring the evaporation heat transfer coefficient inside a
vertical tube at zero shear stress. Results for isopropanol are presented in the article where
influences of Re, Pr and Ka numbers on heat transfer are discussed, correlated and compared with
the literature.

Keywords: Falling film evaporation, Heat flux, Heat transfer, Vertical tube, Wave factor

INTRODUCTION

Falling film evaporation and condensation inside vertical tubes is found in industrial applications
like heat exchangers and chemical process columns where heat transfer is always affected by the
vapor-side shear stress. This acts cocurrent or countercurrent to the liquid film depending on the
vapor flow direction. The open literature provides lots of publications about heat transfer
measurements, both for evaporation and condensation, and also studies of the hydrodynamics of
falling liquid films. For this see, e.g., [1] regarding falling film evaporation, [2] for condensation,
and [3] for the hydrodynamics.
Film structure and heat transfer results are found to depend on the wall-surface geometry which
may be concave (with the film flow at the inner surface of a tube), flat or convex (film flow at the
outside surface, which possibly may be part of an annular flow passage).
The present authors performed extended reflux-condensation heat transfer measurements inside a
vertical tube with water, ethanol, and isopropanol in the countercurrent flow situation with the focus
directed to shear stress effects on heat transfer, see [4], [5] and [2]. The excellent reproducibility (±
1 % for water, ± 0.5 % for isopropanol) allows extrapolation of the measured data to zero shear
stress. The resulting Nusselt number, see Fig. 1, has been referred to Nusselt’s solution [6] and Fwave
has been obtained as the enhancement factor, see Fig. 2. The condensation heat transfer data have
been correlated in the range of laminar-wavy film flow, see [7] and [8], evaluated from experiments
with water, ethanol and isopropanol. This was done for three sub-ranges corresponding to wave
characteristics as obtained from visual observations (for definitions, see equations (4) - (10) below):
* Corresponding author: Prof. U. Gross
Phone: + 49 (0) 3731-392684, Fax: + 49 (0) 3731-393963
E-mail address: gross@iwtt.tu-freiberg.de
7th World Conference on Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics 28 June – 03 July 2009, Krakow, Poland

Fwave = 1.028 ( Re Ka 0.09 < 0.8 ) (1)

Fwave = 1.096 Re 0.141
Ka 0.0126
( 0.8 ≤ Re Ka 0.09
< 4.2 ) (2)
Fwave = 1.270 Re 0.040 Ka 0.0036 ( 4.2 ≤ Re Ka 0.09 < 7.3 ) (3)

1.5
Liquid matter t / °C Ka / 10-10
Fwave « isopropanol 50 56 - 108
Prliq
0.6 ƒ 2.6 … 2.8
ethanol 49 4.6 - 8.5
3.6 … 3.8 1.375 … water 50 0.0283
Nuτ→0 water 70 0.0099
°
„
12.4 … 14 1.345
• 15.8 … 18.4
0.4 + 29 … 33 1.3
× 43 … 55

1.2

following
0.2
Nusselt
(1916) following Thumm
et al. (2001) 1.1

1 10 100 1000 Re 1.06

1.028
Figure 1. Condensation heat transfer for
the limiting case of zero shear stress 1.0
1 10 Re 100

Figure 2. Wave factor vs. Re number

(condensation heat transfer data)

Based on additional visual observations of surface waves, the effective wave frequency as the
leading effect on heat transfer enhancement has been evaluated from slow motion videos, see [9].
Various characteristic ranges have been obtained from both studies with clear criteria for the
transition from the range of occasional small waves with a limited heat transfer enhancement of
about 2.8 %, equation (1), to two-dimensional waves with low effective wave frequency, equation
(2), and finally three-dimensional waves with increased effective wave frequency, equation (3),
bringing enhancement factors up to 34.5 % and 37.5 %, respectively.

EXPERIMENTS

Test plant
The falling-film evaporation experiments have been carried out after some modifications of the test
facility. These enable both cocurrent and countercurrent vapor flow, and the limiting case of zero
shear stress can now be established by means of a special control system.
The experimental plant (Fig. 3) consists of a vertical brass tube with a total length and inner
diameter of 4.2 m and 28 mm, respectively. Three cycles are established, one for the liquid and two
for vapor, which can be operated independent from each other. Liquid isopropanol is pumped at a
constant temperature to the top of the tube where it penetrates a porous sintered steel section. A
uniform liquid film is created which flows downward at the inner wall surface with a total
hydrodynamic entrance length of about 1580 mm. The uppermost part of the tube is surrounded by
7th World Conference on Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics 28 June – 03 July 2009, Krakow, Poland

a water jacket for heating where the liquid film is partially vaporized. The heating water can be fed
into three different inlets of the evaporation section, permitting three different lengths of the heating
zone (378, 828, 1628 mm). The measuring level of local heat transfer coefficients is located in the
middle of the third heated section. The present experiments have been done with the thermal
entrance length of 740 mm (mainly) and 1540 mm. Vapor is created in the evaporation section and
it can be forced to flow upwards, i.e. countercurrent to the liquid film (vapor cycle I), and / or
downwards, cocurrent to the liquid film (vapor cycle II). This is managed by the respective
operation of two condensers. The condensate is finally brought together with the excess liquid
coming from the separation device at the bottom of the tube.

vacuum pump

porous steel
condenser I
section

film cycle

vapor cycle I
measuring
vapor cycle II level

brass
tube
heating
system
condenser II

thermostat

liquid pump

Figure 3. Schematic drawing of the test plant Figure 4. Measuring probe

Using a very fine condenser setting the ratio between the two vapor flow rates (upward and
downward) can be controlled in a specific way for shifting the level of zero velocity (vapor) exactly
to the heat transfer measuring level. This vapor flow condition is comparable to experiments outside
a tube where the vapor volume is big enough to be considered at rest.
For identification of the zero-velocity point a special measuring probe has been designed, installed
and tested inside the tube, see Fig. 4. It consists of 8 micro resistance thermometers (PT 1000)
mounted at equal distances of 20 mm and situated along the tube axis being centered in the
measuring level. These resistance thermometers are self heated, and they are cooled by the vapor
flow, see [8]. The resulting temperature distribution along the tube axis directly corresponds to the
vapor velocity and the location of maximum temperature is obtained at the zero-velocity level. By
measuring this temperature distribution the condenser settings were aligned until the vapor
stagnation zone is situated in the measuring level.
7th World Conference on Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics 28 June – 03 July 2009, Krakow, Poland

The particular mass flow rates were measured after liquification by means of Coriolis flow meters
with an accuracy of about ± 0.15% on the measured value. Before entering the porous steel section
the liquid temperature is controlled by a thermostat.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Evaluation of data
The film Re number in the measuring level has been evaluated from the liquid mass flow rate
corrected for the liquid evaporated above the measuring level.
Re film = m
 liq / ( π d inside μ liq ) (4)
Measured heat transfer coefficients are expressed as the Nu number (accuracy ± 5.04%)
h (ν liq
2
/ g)1 / 3
Nu = with h = q wall,inside / ΔTfilm (5), (6)
λ liq
The heat transfer coefficients (condensation and evaporation) typically exceed those predicted by
Nusselt’s theory by a certain amount due to wave formation and turbulence. The improvement in
the range of laminar-wavy film flow is usually expressed by the wave factor Fwave relating the
measured heat transfer coefficients to those predicted by Nusselts’s theory [6]:
Nu exp .
Fwave = (7)
Nu laminar , Nusselt [ 6 ]
Further the Pr and Ka numbers are evaluated with the temperature-sensitive liquid properties due to
c p ,liq μ liq μ liq
4
g
Prliq = and Ka = 3 (8), (9)
λ liq σ liq ρ liq
The liquid properties are taken at a reference temperature
Tref = Twall,inside − f ref (Twall,inside − Tvap ) (10)
with fref = 0.25 for the viscosities and fref = 0.5 for all other. As exception for Prliq, freesurface the
properties are taken at vapor temperature with fref = 1. Extended experiments have been carried out
at zero-velocity conditions. Local heat transfer coefficients have been measured for falling film
evaporation of isopropanol covering film Reynolds numbers up to 100, inner wall heat flux up to
12,500 Wm-2, and vapor temperatures ranging from 8.5 °C to 36 °C.

Reynolds number effects

The results are plotted in Fig. 5 in terms of Fwave versus Re number. Various heat-flux classes
ranging from 2,000 ± 500 Wm-2 to 12,500 ± 500 Wm-2 are represented by a variety of symbols
(there is one exception for 6,550 Wm-2 with only ± 150 Wm-2 as the interval). In general, the wave
factor Fwave is found to increase along with the Re number. This is sketched in Fig. 5 by the yellow
trend line interconnecting data points at 6,550 Wm-2 and tvap = 36 °C.
Five characteristic Re number ranges are found with limits as indicated in Fig. 5 by vertical yellow
lines:
(a) Re < 2.5: Fwave is nearly constant (obtained for heat fluxes 7.500 - 9.500 Wm-2);
(b) 2.5 < Re < 4: The wave factor starts to rise moderately;
(c) 4 < Re < 25: The increase becomes stronger …
(d) 25 < Re < 70: … and weaker again …
(e) Re > 70: … and finally a re-intensification is obtained with a significantly stronger slope
of the yellow curve.
7th World Conference on Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics 28 June – 03 July 2009, Krakow, Poland

The various Re number ranges correspond to respective ranges for the wavy-film flow
characteristics: Only occasional, so-called “very small” and first small waves (both two-
dimensional circled) are found in (a) as reported in Gross et al. [7]. Range (b) represents transition
to two-dimensional waves with rising mightiness, (c), characterized by increasing wave frequency
and heat transfer enhancement, whereby a fluid transition from two to two-dimensional-inclined
and further on to three dimensional wave shape is found. Range (d) with fully three-dimensional
waves brings first indications for the transition to local turbulence with further increased frequency
showing, however, only moderate additional enhancement of heat transfer which finally is further
increased at about Re > 40 with the transition to developed turbulence in range (e).

1.6
Fwave q / Wm-2 q = 5000 Wm-2
12500 t = 14.7°C
11500
1.5
10500 q = 10500 Wm-2
9500
8500
1.4
7500
q = 11500 Wm-2 q = 5000 Wm-2
6550
5000 t = 36°C
1.3 4000
q = 2000 Wm-2
3000
2000
1.2
q = 6550 Wm-2

Re = 12.3 42.2 68.0

1.1

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

1.0
1 10 Re 100

Figure 5. Wave factor vs. Re number (evaporation heat transfer data)

This general Re number effect on Fwave is found to be superposed by a certain influence of the wall
heat flux. This is clearly seen in Fig. 5 for range (c) showing some increase of Fwave when the heat
flux is raised from 2,000 Wm-2 to 11,500 Wm-2. This influence seems to by even stronger in range
(d), i.e. in presence of developing turbulence. Here an additional temperature effect becomes visible
showing a decrease of Fwave when the temperature is raised from 14.7 °C to 36 °C (as measured for
5,000 Wm-2). This strange behavior asks for analysis and clarification.

Heat flux and temperature effects

Three different Re numbers have been selected. They represent the ranges of two-dimensional
waves (Re = 12.3), the begin of transition from three-dimensional waves to local turbulence (Re =
42.2), and finally transition to developed turbulence (Re = 68.0).
7th World Conference on Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics 28 June – 03 July 2009, Krakow, Poland

The Nu number versus heat flux plot, Fig. 6, shows characteristic rising curves for each of the
selected Re numbers with a weak superposed vapor-temperature effect as already seen in Fig. 5.
Both the temperature effect and the heat flux effect (i.e. temperature-difference effect) are caused
by respective thermophysical property variations in the evaporating liquid film.
A vapor temperature decrease results in an increase of the Kapitza number caused by the combined
effects of surface tension, liquid density and viscosity variations. An intensification of the wave
activity is observed, see Gross et al. [7], and subsequently the Nusselt number is forced to rise.

0.40

Nu

0.38
Re 12.3

0.36
0.30

Re 42.2
0.28

0.26 + t = 8.5 … 14.7°C

+ t = 20°C
Re 68.0
+ ¯ t = 30 … 36°C

0.24
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 q 120000
/ W m -2 14000

Figure 6. Nu number vs. heat flux

Increasing heat flux at a constant vapor temperature brings proportionally increasing temperature
differences across the evaporating liquid film. The latter one becomes increasingly superheated next
to the wall surface. The following effects have to been taken into account:
- Superheated liquid is in a metastable thermodynamic state with the latent chance for the
formation of vapor bubbles. If the excess temperature is large enough, transition to nucleate
boiling is obtained with strongly increased heat transfer coefficients on one side and an
increasing danger of dry-patch formation on the other. These phenomena are outside the
scope of the present investigation which is pure related to evaporation from the falling film
surface.
7th World Conference on Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics 28 June – 03 July 2009, Krakow, Poland

- Evaporating films show characteristic temperature profiles with the gradient orthogonal to
the wall surface and respective variations of the temperature-dependent thermophysical
properties. The heat transfer experiments have been evaluated by taking mean values of the
properties, equation (10), ignoring their variations across the liquid film. The liquid
viscosity as the most sensitive property exhibits increasingly big differences between the
wall surface (where it is low) and the vapor-side surface (where it is large) when the heat
flux is being raised.
This phenomenon is not generally new. Heat flux effects on single-phase convection heat transfer in
tubes has already been studied by Sieder and Tate [10] who introduced (μliq / μliq, wall)0.14. This
concept has been modified by M.A. Mikheev and by V.V. Yakovlev in the 1950’s for turbulent
flow situations, and based on their suggestion Hufschmidt et al. [11] found (Prliq / Prliq ,wall)0.11 as an
optimized correction term which finally is suggested in the VDI Wärmeatlas [12] for both laminar
and turbulent internal convection. This concept will now be applied to consideration of heat flux
effects on falling film evaporation heat transfer.

Correlation
All experimental heat transfer data, in terms of Fwave , have been correlated with Re and Ka numbers
using the following power law equation:
0.11
⎛ Prliq , freesurface ⎞
Fwave = C Re Ka ⎜
a b ⎟ (11)
⎜ Pr ⎟
⎝ liq , wall ⎠
This has been done separately for the ranges (b) to (d), see table 1. In (a) the wave factor has been
obtained to be constant at about Fwave = 1.06. For the fully turbulent liquid film in range (e), the
enhancement factor concept based on Nusselt’s solution looses its sense.

Table 1
Results of data correlation following equation (11)

Range Re number Constant Re number exponent Ka number exponent

range a b
(b) 2.5 < Re < 4 1.040 0.0467 0.0021
(c) 4 < Re < 25 1.096 0.1450 0.0126
(d) 25 < Re < 70 1.217 0.0593 0.0036

The strongest Re and Ka number effects are clearly found in range (c), i.e. for the developed two-
dimensional wavy film flow situation with continuous transition to two-dimensional-inclined and
further to three dimensional wave shape.
The remaining deviations between correlated and experimental data are plotted in Figs. 7 and 8
versus Re and Ka number respectively. The correlation proves to be extremely good with deviations
typically within ± 3%. This is, of course, due to the limited width of the data set regarding Re
number and also Ka number ranges. It is not the intension of this article to provide correlations for
design engineers. This will be done in future after completing the data base by measurements with
further liquids like ethanol, water and others. The basic intension of this presentation is a
7th World Conference on Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics 28 June – 03 July 2009, Krakow, Poland

comparison of the characteristics in the various Re number ranges, and also a comparison with the
earlier condensation results as reported in equations (1) to (3).

5%
Fwave,corr − Fwave,exp
4% Fwave,exp
3%

2%

1%

0%

-1 %

-2 %

-3 % 2.5 < Re < 4

4 < Re < 25
-4 %
25 < Re < 70
-5 %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Re 70 0 1 2 Ka3/ 10-8 4

Figure 7. Deviation of correlation vs. Re Figure 8. Deviation of correlation vs. Ka

Comparison with the literature

The open literature contains only a few references regarding the heat flux effect. For conditions
without bubble formation in the superheated liquid film, only a fistful of earlier studies is found.
Struve [13] and Elle [14] investigated falling film evaporation heat transfer of refrigerant R11
outside a vertical tube. No heat flux effect has been found by them below the limit of first bubble
formation.
Shah and Darby [15] studied surfactant effects on evaporation heat transfer in a liquid film flowing
downward a vertical flat plate. Among many other findings they obtained results for the limiting
case of pure water at Re numbers in the range of developing turbulence. There are clear signs of
heat transfer promotion for increasing heat flux which is found to be moderate in case of surface
evaporation. Beyond the onset of bubble nucleation, at about Δt = 5 K, the heat flux effect becomes
much stronger.
Alhusseini et al. [16] measured mean heat transfer coefficients for evaporation of water and
propylene glycol outside a vertical tube and they provided the following correlation valid for the
laminar-wavy region:
Nu = 2.65 (Re* ) −0.158 Ka 0.0563 (12)
which may be rewritten for the wave factor as
Fwave,Alhusseini et al [16] ∝ (Re* )0.175 Ka 0.0563 (13)

Both the Re and Ka number effects are obviously much stronger than in the present investigations.
7th World Conference on Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics 28 June – 03 July 2009, Krakow, Poland

Weise and Scholl [17] present falling film evaporation results for liquids in the high Prandtl number
range with Prliq = 40 to 130. Overall heat transfer measurements have been carried out with the heat
flux, i.e. the driving overall temperature difference, as one of the parameters. Only a few of the
results are found for the laminar range with no significant heat flux effects. In the turbulent range,
however, there is a heat transfer enhancement in the order of 20 % when the driving temperature
difference is increased from Δt = 10 K to 20 K. This effect has been found for Pr = 40 and 58 and it
seems to vanish for larger Prandtl numbers, i.e. Pr ≥ 78.

CONCLUSION

For isopropanol, the authors’ local heat transfer measurements of falling film evaporation have been
evaluated at zero shear stress inside a vertical tube with systematic variations of Re number, heat
flux and vapor temperature. Basically the new results verify the earlier condensation heat transfer
results. Nevertheless, a deviation in the range of transition from three-dimensional wave shape to
turbulence (Re = 25 to 70) was found. Heat flux effects have been detected and correlated. Thereby
the ratio of Pr numbers at vapor temperature and wall temperature, as known from pipe flow
correlations, have been used. Prospective investigation with other fluids will follow to verify the
presented effects.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors like to thank Alexander Köhler, Tobias Nell, Nick Trümmel and Volkmar Wörner for
their contributions. The support by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) is greatly
appreciated.

REFERENCES

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Fallfilmen mit hohen Prandtl-Zahlen, PhD thesis, TU Braunschweig, Cuvillier Verlag,
Göttingen, 2007.
2. Gross, U., Philipp, Ch., Conjugated shear stress and Prandtl number effects on reflux
condensation heat transfer inside a vertical tube, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol.49, pp.144-
153, 2006.
3. Adomeit P., Experimentelle Untersuchung der Strömung laminar-welliger Rieselfilme, PhD
thesis, RWTH Aachen, 1996.
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7th World Conference on Experimental Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics 28 June – 03 July 2009, Krakow, Poland

9. Philipp, Ch., Doeg, A., Tellefsen, Kufaas S., Groß, U., Wave characteristics of liquid films –
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Inst. Refrigeration, Madrid, 1967, 635-640.
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(in german, Der Wärmeübergang bei der Rieselfilmverdampfung des Kältemittels R11 und des
Kältemittel-Öl-Gemisches R11 – 51KM33), PhD thesis, Dresden University, Germany, 1970.
15. Shah B.H., Darby R., The effect of surfactant in evaporative heat transfer in vertical film flow,
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol.16 (1973) 1889-1903.
16. Alhusseini A.A., Tuzla K., Chen J.C., Falling film evaporation of single component liquids, Int.
J. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 41 (1998) 1623-1632.
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High-Prandtl-number Liquids (in german: Fluiddynamik und Wärmeübergang bei der
Fallfilmverdampfung von Reinstoffen mit hohen Prandtl-Zahlen), Chemie Ing. Technik ,Vol. 79
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