Fundamentals of Petrophysics CH 6-11

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Porosity

Porosity is a pf?ysical proper!) 0/ the rock which is of interest to the petroleum engineer since it is used to estimate the volume of oil and/ or natural gas trapped in a petroleum reservoir.

Once the petroleum reservoir is discovered, it must be evaluated to see if it would be economical to develop. Not every petroleum reservoir discovered is commercially valuable. A reservoir is not commercially valuable if the cost to recover the oil and/or natural gas is expected to exceed the cash value of the oil and/or gas recovered. Potential reasons that a reservoir might not be commercial include poor quality rock or a relatively high proportion of water occupying the pore space. In order to evaluate a prospective reservoir, the engineer must have some means of estimating the volume of oil and/or gas within the reservoir. In addition to the physical boundaries of the reservoir rock itself, the engineer must estimate the volume of space available for the fluid within the rock

Since the fluid within the reservoir occupies the pores of the rock, a parameter or property which relays the volume of void space within a given volume of rock would be very useful to the petroleum engineer. This volume of space available inside the pores of the rock is indicated by a petro-physical property of the rock referred to as porosity. Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of void space contained within a volume of rock to the total volume of rock. The volume of void space is called the pore volume as is usually designated by the symbol, Vp. The total volume of the rock is referred to as the bulk volume and is usually designated by the symbol, Vb. Porosity is usually designated by the Greek letter, <p (PHI) and may be expressed mathematically as follows:

(6.1)

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Porosity is often expressed as a percentage. but keep in mind that it is most-often used as a fraction in calculations.

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Notice the utility of this property expressed in Equation (6.1). The volume which the reservoir occupies in space is the bulk volume of the reservoir. Given a map of the reservoir which indicates the boundaries of the reservoir and the average thickness of the reservoir, the bulk volume of rock in the reservoir can be estimated. Once the bulk volume has been estimated, the pore volume in the reservoir is simply the product of the porosity and the bulk volume of the reservoir.

Theoretically, porosity may range from 0% for a "rock" with no pore space to 100% for a "rock" with no rock matrix. Realistically, the porosity of petroleumbearing rocks generally range from a few percent up to about 40%. For example, the porosity of a well-cemented limestone may be less than 5% while the porosity in a very loosely-cemented or unconsolidated sandstone may be greater than 30%. Porosity is often expressed as a percentage, but keep in 'mind that it is most often used as a fraction in calculations.

The bulk volume of the rock is the physical volume occupied by the rock. The bulk volume includes both the pore volume and the volume of the solid rock matrix. The matrix volume is often referred to as the grain volume and is usually designated by the symbol, Vg. The sum of the pore volume and the grain volume must equal the bulk volume, That is,

(6.2)

Thus, given a value for any two quantities, the porosity can be calculated. If the bulk volume and grain volume are known, the pore volume can be inferred from the difference between them. Likewise, if the pore volume and grain volume are known, the bulk volume can be inferred from Equation (6.2) as shown. This relationship combined with various measurement techniques can be used to deter-

mine the porosity of a rock sample. '

POROSITY DETERMINATION

The porosity of a rock may either be determined experimentally in the laboratory by a variety of techniques which require a sample of the rock, or it may be estimated in place (in situ) in the reservoir using a special sensor called a logging tool which can be lowered into the well. The experimental determination of porosity will be covered in detail in the course entitled Rock and Fluids Properties Laboratory (PETE 2034). The determination of porosity by logging will be addressed in detail in the course entitled Well Logging (PETE 3036).

SAMPLING RESERVOIR ROCK

Laboratory analysis of physical rock properties like porosity requires a sample of rock. Cylindrical samples of the reservoir rock called cores may be recovered using special devices for an additional cost before the well is completed. The most

38

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common type of core taken in a well is the side-wall core. The side-wall core is recovered by shooting a small hollow barrel (steel tube) attached to a wire into the side of the open hole using an explosive charge. Whenthe hollow barrels are retrieved, they contain a small cylindrical core or plug of the reservoir rock. As the name implies, side-wall cores are taken from the wall of a previously-drilled borehole. The core or plug is oriented approximately perpendicular to the borehole. The side-wall core is generally no more than an inch in diameter and no more than a few inches in length.

Another less common type of core is the whole core. Whole cores are generally taken while drilling through the rock layers of interest. A special bit, called a core bit, is used to cut the whole core. As the core is drilled it is swallowed in a core barrel ,located in the drill string just above the bit. A whole core is generally oriented vertically rather than sideways. Whole cores are several inches in diameter and can range from a few to many feet in length. When whole cores are available, small plugs are taken from the whole core in the laboratory for routine testing.

The whole core presents a more complete picture of the structure and physical properties of the rock than the side-wall core since the larger whole core provides a large and continuous sample. However, the much higher cost of whole coring operations greatly reduces its use. Although less representative overall, the sidewall core is more common since it is a much cheaper alternative. In either case, the sample taken is extremely small in relation to the overall extent of the rock layers it is taken to represent.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

\'V'hether physical properties of the rock are determined in the laboratory or in the well by logging, only a relatively small sample of the surrounding rock is taken or analyzed. The borehole only offers the engineer a very small window into the subsurface environment. Unless the reservoir rock is very uniform and exhibits the same properties throughout, the sample taken in the local area of the borehole mayor may not accurately represent the overall character of the entire reservoir. Information from other sources, such as seismic, must be combined with core and logging data whenever possible to "fill in the blanks" when making judgments about the character of the reservoir as a whole. Because information cannot be gathered free of charge, data is often scarce. In the absence of sufficient data, good engineering judgment is required. The engineer must use his practical engineering and geologic knowledge to evaluate all of the possibilities and arrive at the most likely solution which is consistent with all of the available data.

EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINA 'rr ON TECHNI QUES

The experimental determination of porosity involves the direct or indirect measurement of two of the three quantities, pore volume, grain volume, and bulk volume. Several methods are based on the indirect measurement of pore volume and

39

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bulk volume. Other methods are based on the measurement of bulk volume and grain volume. Some methods involve the measurement of pore volume and grain volume. Given any pair of measurements, the porosity can be calculated. Typically, bulk volume is one of the two parameters determined since it may be readily determined by direct measurement of the physical dimensions of the sample or indirect measurement by fluid displacement. Thus, these methods can be grouped into one of two types, either (1) a pore volume determination technique or (2) a grain volume determination technique.

A common technique for determining the pore volume of a rock sample is to inject fluid into a clean, dry (air-filled) sample of rock until the rock is completely filled with fluid. Assuming that all of the void space is completely filled with the injected fluid, the pore volume is equal to the volume of fluid injected. Only the pore space which is accessed by the fluid will be counted by this technique. Any pores which are isolated from the rest of the pore space will not be included in the measurement.

Example 6.1

The pore volume of a limestone core needs to be determined. After the core has been cleaned and dried, its weight is recorded. The core is then injected with a petroleumbased liquid called butanol and weighed a second time. The following weights were recorded:

Description Weight, gf
Clean, dry core 26.725
Butonol-filled core 27.575 Assuming the density of butanol is 0.806 gm/ cc, determine the pore volume of the limestone core.

Solution:

Assuming that enough butanol has been injected to fill all of the interconnected pore space of the core, then the pore volume of the core is equal to the volume of butanol injected. Although the volume of butonol injected was not measured directly, it can be calculated based on the given information. Recall that by the definition of weight (a force), mass can be determined. In addition, density is the relationship between mass and volume. Thus, the volume of butanol injected can .be determined from the'weight of the butanol injected.

First, let us determine the weight of the butonol injected into the core. The pore space of a clean, dry core is occupied by air. Neglecting the weight of the air, the weight of the butonol injected can be determined from the difference between the weight of the clean, dry core and the weight of the butonol-filled core as follows:

weight of butonol injected = weight of filled core - weight of dry core

weight of butanol injected = 27.575 gf -26.725 gf = 0.850 gf

40

DOUBLE·CHECK

o Units should simplify to

the correct dimensions.

Otherwise, an error has been made.


Now that we know the weight of the injected butonol, the mass of the injected butonol can be found using the relationship between weight and mass as given in Equation (3.2) and Table 3.2 for consistent units:

0.850 gf (980.2 gm c~)

. ~ ~ ~s

W =co - -)- m =co _c =co =co 0.850gm

gc g 980.2 c~

s

Knowing the mass and the density of butonol injected, solve for the volume of butonol injected by recalling the definition of density:

p ~ m =co 0.850 gm =co 0.806 gm -)- V = 0.850 gtil = 1.0546 ee

V V CC· 0.806 gr.tl

cc

Finally, the pore volume is equal to the volume of butonol injected:

~ IVp = 1.0546 eel <.l

GRAIN VOLUME DETERMINATION

Grain volume determination techniques often involve the crushing of a clean, dry (air-filled) sample of rock. Once a clean, air-filled rock sample is crushed, the volume of the remaining material is the grain volume. The volume of the crushed

. material can be either determined by measuring its weight and density or it can be determined by fluid displacement. The pore volume is inferred as the difference between the bulk volume and grain volume. All pores in the rock, including those which are isolated and not accessible to fluid, are included in this type of determination.

Example 6.2

The pore volume of a limestone core needs to be determined. After the core has been cleaned and dried, its dimensions are recorded. The core is cylindrical with a diameter of 1.00 inch and a length of 1.50 inches. The core is crushed and weighed and a weight of 47.073 gf is recorded. The grain density of the crushed limestone was measured to be 2.71 grnl cc. Assuming that the core is a perfect cylinder, estimate the pore volume of the core.

Solution:

Knowing any 2 of the 3 quantities, the third can be calculated using the relationship given by Equation (6.2). Enough information has been given to calculate both the bulk volume and grain volume of the core. Assuming that the core is cut as a perfect cylinder, the bulk volume of the core can be computed from its measurements using geometry:

41

DOUBLE.CHECK

o Bulk volume must be

greater than grain vol-

ume.

o Bewar:eofUnits! Units

must be same to add or

subtract quantities. Convert units prior to finding pore volume.

Ali pores in the rock, including those which are isolated and not accessible to fluid, are included in this type of determination.


Vb = V. = Irr2 L = Ir(l.OO in)2 (1.50 in) = 1.1781 irr'

cylinder 2

Since the core was dean and dry prior to crushing it, the weight of the crushed cote 1S equal to the weight of the rock matrix or grains. Given the grain weight, the mass can be found:

47.073 gf (980.2 gm c~)

Wg gfs

m= __ C = = 47.073gm

g 980.2 ern

S2

Assuming that the rock matrix of the cords composed of pure lime, the density of the rock MATRIX or GRAIN density is equal to the density of lime which is given as 2.71 gm/ cc. As in Example 6.1, the volume can be found knowing the mass and density:

~ Vg = 47.073 gr;tl = 17.370 cc 2.71 gr,O

ec

Notice that the number calculated for grain volume is greater than that calculated for bulk volume which is not physically possible! This should give you pause. However, before panicking, consider the units. Notice the volumes are not yet in the same set of units. Once the volumes are in the same set of units, the grain volume will be less than the bulk volume as it should.

Finally, the pore volume can ,be found using Equation (6.2) after converting the volumes to the same set of units:

Although the mass of the clean dry core is essentially equal to the mass of the crushed rock matrix since the mass of the air filling the pores is negligible, the density of the intact core is NOT equal to the density of the rock matrix!

Example 6.3

Determine the density and porosity of the limestone core described in Example 6.2.

Solution:

42

DOUBLE-CHECK

o As expected, the den-

sity of the intact core

is less than the density of the rock matrix.


The density of the intact core is defined as the bulk mass per bulk volume and can be thought of as the "bulk density". Likewise, the density of the rock matrix is defined as the grain mass per grain volume and can be thought of as the "grain density". Using the definition of density and neglecting the mass of the air filling the pores of the dry, clean core, the density of the intact core is as follows:

Ph = mb = mp + mg = (0 + 47) gm x( 1 in )' ~ 12.435 gm 1 <

v;, Vb 1.1781 irr' 2.54 em cc

Notice that this value is less than 2.71 gm/ cc for the rock matrix (lime) since the intact core contains void spaces, making it less dense. Using the definition of porosity and choosing consistent units, the porosity of the limestone core is as follows:

¢ = Vp = 0.1181 0.1 002 = 110.02%1 <I

v;, 1.1781

As alluded to earlier, one of the primary methods for determining bulk. volume or grain volume is by fluid displacement. The volume of fluid displaced by a solid object submersed in fluid is equal to the volume of the submersed object. The volume of fluid displaced can be measured directly or determined indirectly from a weight measurement if fluid density is known. If the displaced fluid is collected, its weight can be measured directly. Alternatively, the weight of the displaced fluid can be determined indirectly by measuring the apparent change in weight of the submerged object and applying Archimedes' Principle.

Due to the nature of petroleum reservoir rocks, special care must be taken when determining the bulk volume by fluid displacement. Rocks are not nonporous like the king's lead crown but are filled with tiny pores. Furthermore, some of the pores tend to draw fluid into the rock spontaneously. That is, some of the fluid might "soak" into the rock. Keeping in mind that the objective is to determine the bulk volume of the rock, allowing the rock to soak up some of the fluid it is immersed in would make the displaced fluid measurement worthless. If anyportion of the pore volume was entered by the fluid as the rock was immersed, the volume displaced would not be equal to the bulk volume. The vplurne displaced would be somewhere between the bulk volume and the grain volume.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

First, consider a hollow steel tube, which is open at both ends, immersed in water. The volume of water displaced by the tube would be equal to the volume of the steel walls of the tube. Second, consider the same hollow steel tube but with the ends sealed so that water may not enter the tube. The volume of water displaced by the sealed hollow tube would be equal to the volume enclosed by the outer surface of the tube. The volume of

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the outer surface of the tube is analogous to the bulk volume of a rock. The volume of the steel walls of the tube is analogous to the grain volume of a rock.

Finally, consider the same hollow steel tube divided into separate compartments which can be sealed individually. Suppose that some of the compartments are sealed and some are open when the tube is immersed. In this case, the volume displaced would be neither the volume of the steel walls nor the volume of the outer surface but rather would be somewhere between the two.

As a result, special care must be taken to ensure that no fluid enters the pore space of the rock while it is submerged. This can be accomplished by either (1) coating the surface of the core with a sealing layer of paraffin (wax) or other similar material or (2) filling all the pore space of the core with same the fluid into which it will be immersed prior to submerging the core or (3) use a fluid such as Mercury which will not enter the pore space of the unsealed, dry pore. Use of anyone of these techniques will allow the bulk volume of the rock to be determined accurately by fluid displacement.

For the same reasons, special care must be taken to ensure that no fluid enters the core while determining bulk volume by fluid displacement. The core must be crushed to determine its grain volume by fluid displacement. To achieve an accurate measurement of the grain volume of an intact (not crushed) core, the fluid must be able to spontaneously fill all of the pore space once the core is immersed. Just as in the case of bulk volume determination, a partial filling of the pore space would not give an accurate determination of grain volume.

. - ,_

Due to the complexity of the pore space of a naturally occurring reservoir rock the manner in which the petroleum rock and fluids interact, the spontaneous filling of the entire pore space in the rock by a fluid does not typically occur. Thus, the core is often crushed to accurately determine grain volume. If preservation of the core is desired, grain volume can be estimated based on the weight of the clean, dry core if and only if the density of the rock matrix is known as illustrated in Example 6.2. If the matrix density is not known accurately enough and the core is to be preserved, the porosity must be found using a pore volume det~rmination tech- 111que.

EFFECTIVE POROSITY

Of primary interest to the petroleum engineer is the volume of petroleum residing within the rock which can be recovered. Due to the nature of rocks and the mechanics of petroleum recovery, a distinction is made between the isolated pore space of the rock and the interconnected pore space of the rock. Porosity based on the total space available, including the isolated pores is referred to as the absoit-tie porosity. Absolute porosity is also known as total porosity. Porosity including only the interconnected pore space is referred to as the eJftctive porosity. Because the

44


FOOD FOR THOUGHT

effective porosity more closely approximates that portion of the pore space that is available to fluid flow in reservoirs, it is usually of more interest to the petroleum engineer than the total porosity.

In light of the difference between total and effective porosity, consider the two types of porosity determination methods (pore volume determination or grain volume determination). Inherent in: each type of porosity determination method is the type of porosity which results. In other words, the type of porosity determined is a direct result of the mechanics of the method used. Which type of porosity determination method (pore volume determination or grain volume determination) would result in a total porosity? Which would result in an effective porosity? Based on this which type of determination would be preferred by the petroleum engineer?

SOURCES OF POROSITV

The volume, shape, and degree of interconnection of the pore space within a rock is the direct result of the particular environment in which it was formed. In addition, the subsurface conditions acting on the rock over geologic time can alter the rock and create additional void spaces or reduce the original pore volume. Porosity which is present in the rock at the time of its formation is called primary porosity. Porosity which is attributed to changes in the original structure of the rock is called secondary porosity.

Primary porosity is sometimes referred to as original porosity. It is chiefly the result of void space between the grains Of sediment which constitute the framework of the rock matrix. This particular source of primary porosity is sometimes referred to as the intergranular porosity and is determined by the sizes, shapes, and arrangement of the individual rock grains. In sandstones, primary porosity often provides the majority of pore space in the reservoir.

Secondary porosity is sometimes called induced porosity and can result from fractures and vugs. Fractures are cracks or breaks in the rock matrix and can occur in a va-. riety of rock types, but are more common in brittle rocks. Vugs are cavities created when a portion of the rock matrix dissolves and are generally associated with carbonate rocks such as limestone. Because secondary porosity is most often associated with carbonate reservoirs, it is sometimes referred to as "limestone porosity" or "carbonate porosity". Fractured and/or vuggy carbonate rocks seldom have high porosity.

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Simple Cubic - 48%

Cubic Close - 30.2%

Orthorhombic - 26%


FACTORS AFFECTING POROSITY

The primary porosity exhibited by a rock depends greatly upon the manner in which the rock grains are "stacked" to form the framework of the rock matrix. This characteristic stacking is often referred to as the packing. Packing is one of the most significant factors controlling primary porosity. In turn, packing is largely controlled by the degree of uniformity of the grain size. A rock composed of a variety of grain sizes which range from very large to very small lacks uniformity and will exhibit a different packing arrangement than a rock composed of nearly equally-sized (uniform) grains. The degree of uniformity of grain size is often described by the grain size distribution or sorting of the rock. A rock which is described as poorlY sorted contains a wide variety of grain sizes. Likewise, a rock which is described as well sorted has more uniformly sized grains.

In general, the degree of sorting and the packing arrangement exhibited by a rock is linked to the environmental conditions at the time the sediments were deposited. For example, well sorted sand grains tends to indicate a high energy environment such as a beach whereas a poorly sorted sand tends to indicate a low energy environment such as a stream flowing from a glacier. The energy available in a particular environment also affects the tightness of the packing. Forces created by wave and current action, shake the sediment particles down until the packing is as tight as possible.

The tightness of the packing which may be achieved by a particular set of particles depends upon the sorting and shape of the particles. Consider a rock matrix composed entirely of uniform (equally-sized), spherical grains. If the grains were arranged in rows and columns such that the center of each grain was exactly in line with the centers of all of the other grains in the stack, this would be the loosest and least stable configuration for a grouping of uniform spheres. This arrangement is often referred to as simple cubic packing. Lines connecting the centers of four adjacent uniform grains in a cubic packing arrangement join to form a square. The porosity of a cubic pack of uniform spheres is 47.6 %.

If the same uniform spherical grains were arranged in rows and columns such that each row and column would nest in the column beside it and the row below it, this would be the tightest and most stable configuration for a grouping of uniform spheres. This arrangement is often referred to as rhombic packing or cubic close packing. Lines connecting the centers of four adjacent uniform grains in a cubic close packing arrangement join to form a rhombus (parallelogram). Another partially nested packing arrangement which is also commonly referred to as rhombic exhibits the same porosity as cubic close packing. This partially nested packing arrangement is classified as an orthorhombic arrangement. The porosity of the cubic close packing and the porosity of the orthorhombic packing of uniform spheres are 30.2% and 26.0%.

46


Example 6.5

Show that the void space in a box filled with uniform spheres (of any size) packed in a simple cubic arrangement would equal 47.6% of the box's volume (i.e., porosity = OA 76).

. a l=-

d

. b

J=-

d

k =!}_ d

Solution:

As illustrated in the figure shown on the following page, let the dimensions of the box be designated as a, b, and c, such that each is multiple of the sphere's diameter, d.That is, none of the spheres are cut by the plane of the box and the sides of the spheres are touching the sides of the box. Stated mathematically, the number of spheres in each direction can be deter-

mined as follows: a

The total number, n of spheres in the box is the product of i, j, and k:

c

n =ijk

The volume of the box which is the bulk volume is the product the box dimensions (a, b, c): v;, = abc, By substitution,

Vb = (a)( b) (c) = (id) (jd) (kd) = (ijk) ( d3) = (n) (d3)

Recalling that the volume of a sphere of diameter, d is as-follows:

Then, the total volume occupied by the n spheres in the box may be expressed as follows:

The void space may be found as the difference between box volume and total sphere volume: Vp = v;, - Vg , then the void space as a fraction of the box volume may be determined as follows:

1 3

V V. - V V - xnd 1

_!!_= b g =1-2..=1- 6 3 =1--lT=1-0.5236=0.4764=47.6%

v;, v;, v;, nd 6

Thus, the porosity of a cubic pack of uniform spheres is 47.6%.

47


Example 6.6

Show that the void space in a box filled with uniform spheres (of any size) packed in a cubic close arrangement would equal 26.0 % of the box's volume (i.e. porosity = 0.260).

Solution;

An alternative approach to the one used in Example 6.5 is to define a unit cell for the rhombic pack of uniform spheres as shown. A unit cell is a space-filling shape which represents the elemental structure of the whole structure of interest. The unit cell is chosen such that the entire structure of interest may be re-created by duplicating the unit cell to fill the volume of interest. Analysis of the unit cell is equivalent to analyzing the entire structure as a whole. Due to symmetry, the fraction of void space in the unit cell per bulk volume of the unit cell is exactly equal to the fraction of the total void space in the volume of interest to the bulk volume of interest. In other words, the total volume is an exact multiple of the unit cell volume.

(A)

(D)

(E)

(F)

(B)

(C)

Referring to the series of figures above, consider a grouping of 6 uniform spheres (A) forming a triangle. Place a seventh sphere on top in the center to form a pyramid (B). Duplicate, invert.jind flip the pyramid (B) to form a second pyramid (C). Placing the two pyramids (B & C) together, a cube emerges (D) from which a face-centered cubic unit cell can be extracted (E). The right-most figure (F) is a schematic diagram of the unit cell (E). Each node (circle) drawn represents the center of a sphere.>

One node is centered on each corner of the cube and one node is centered in each face of the cube --- hence, the name "face-centered". Imagine that each of the 8 corner spheres is cut 3 times through the center ---- one cut for each plane forming the cube --- and each of the 6 face-centered spheres are cut once through the center. Thus, the unit cell for this arrangement is a cube with 1 hemisphere at the center of each the 6 faces of the cube, and 1/8 of a sphere at each of the eight inside corners. Thus, the number of , spheres (n) per unit cell is as follows:

1 1

n=(8)g+(6)2 =1+3=4

Then, the volume of spheres within the unit cell is as follows:

48


Now, consider the volume of the unit cell. By inspection, the diagonal of the cell is equal to 2 sphere diameters, 2d. Thus, the length of each side of the cube may be found using trigonometry as follows:

2 3

V -1td

~=1--g ="1_-"'-3-----,_

V; 3d3

b

1t 1--=0.302

9

and the volume of the cube is simply w3, or

Thus, porosity of the unit cell is as follows:

As shown in Examples 6.5 and 6.6, the porosity of a pack of uniform spheres is a constant for both packing arrangements considered. Thus, the porosity of a pack of uniform spheres is independent of the sphere's size. Consequently for a given packing arrangement, the porosity of a box filled with bowling balls is theoretically the same as a box filled with fine spherically-shaped grains of sand. Although these precise arrangements of uniform spherically-shaped sand grains are unlikely, consideration of spherical packing density provides insight about the upper limits of primary, intergranular porosity which can be expected in a naturally occurring rock such as sandstone. In addition, consideration of these ideal packing arrangements also illustrates that porosity is strongly dependent upon packing arrangement.

In nature, the packing arrangement tends to fall somewhere between the two packing extremes discussed above. In addition, naturally occurring rocks are not composed of perfectly sorted (uniform) spheres. The "average" sandstone is composed of a mixture of large and small particles of various shapes. The shaking action of the waves and currents tends to lodge the smaller particles in the spaces among the larger particles. On average, the porosity of sandstone is about 20%. This is a direct result of the natural forces acting during the sedimentary process. Porosity decreases sharply with the addition of fine-grained materials such as silt and clay which tend to fill the "spaces" among the sand grains. Thus, porosity is also strongly dependent on the degree of sorting. Well-sorted rocks, having a more uniform grain size, tend to exhibit a higher porosity than poorly sorted rocks.

Cementation and compaction are two processes which tend to reduce porosity in a rock. These processes may occur at any time in the "life" of the rock, either during or following deposition. Compaction is mainly the result of burial and is

49


driven by the weight of the overlying sediments which is known as overburden. In general, as the depth of burial and overburden increases, so does the compaction. Cementation is the degree to which the rock grains adhere or "stick" to each other. In addition to soluble materials which precipitate to bind the rock grains together as the result of a chemical process, clay may also act like a "sticky" cement or "glue" by filling void space and holding the grains together.

In general, the porosity of sedimentary rocks tends to decrease as (1) depth (and overburden) increases, (2) temperature increases, and (3) age increases. Young, shallow rocks tend to be unconsolidated which implies that the rock is poorlycemented and/or loosely compacted. Older rocks tend to be more consolidated which implies that the rock is well-cemented and/ or highly compacted. In general, the porosity of an unconsolidated rock tends to be higher than the porosity of a consolidated rock.

In summary, the porosity exhibited by hydrocarbon-bearing rocks is the result of the combined effect of many different factors which can vary widely. These factors include packing, sorting, grain size, grain shape, and the type and degree of cementation and compaction. General trends in porosity can be observed due to each of these factors. However, porosity cannot be accurately modeled mathematically due to the complex nature and extreme variation in the porosity of naturally occurring rocks. As a result, porosity must be measured directly in the laboratory or measured indirectly by logging tools in the wellbore. Within a given reservoir, the porosity of the rock can vary widely in all directions. The degree of variation in porosity within a reservoir is also linked to environmental conditions during and after its deposition.

50

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Fluid Saturation

Fluid saturation while not a property 0/ the rock itse(f is an important parameter which relates directlY to the recoverable volume if oil and gas present in the reservoir. The initial distribution iffluids in the reservoir often expressed as fluid saturation can be related to p~sical properties oj the rock.

(7.1)

As discussed in a previous chapter, the pore space of the reservoir rock is never occupied exclusively by petroleum fluids. Some portion of the pore space is almost always occupied by water as a result of the depositional process discussed previously. The pore space is occupied by at least 2 of the 3 fluids associated with petroleum reservoirs --- namely gas, oil, and . water. The relative volume occupied by each of these fluids in the reservoir is quantified by a parameter called saturation. Saturation is of interest to petroleum engineers since it must be known in addition to the porosity to estimate the volume of oil and gas present in the reservoir at any given time.

The fluid saturation is often denoted by the letter S and is defined as the fraction of the pore volume which is occupied by a given fluid. For example, a rock which has 40% of its pore space occupied by gas and 60% occupied by water would have a gas saturation (S~ equal to 40% (0040) and a water saturation (Sw) equal to 60% (0.60). Fluid saturation may be expressed mathematically as follows:

where Vf denotes the volume of a particular fluid located within the total pore volume 0lp) of the reservoir rock. Stated specifically for each of the 3 fluids typically associated with petroleum reservoirs, fluid saturation is as follows:

51

(7.3)


v V =5 V =S ¢ ~
5=____!!::_ ~
w V w w p W
P
S=v" ~ V=SV=S ¢~ (7.2)
o V o 0 p 0
p
V
Sg =__!!_ ~ Vg = Sg Vp = 5g «v,
V
p The total volume of fluid in the reservoir must be equal to the pore volume of the reservoir rock. Therefore, the sum of the fluid saturation values for the 3 possible fluids must be equal to 1. This can be shown as follows:

Vp = Vf = SwVp +SoVp + SgVp Vp = (5w + So + Sg)Vp V .s: = (S + 5 + S ) and

V W 0 g

p

V

___!?__ = 1 . Thus,

r.

Like porosity, saturation is a fractional volume and can be expressed as either a fraction or as a percentage. When included in calculations, saturation values must always be expressed as a fraction unless stated otherwise. The saturation value for a particular fluid can range from 0.0 to 1.0. For example, the water saturation in an aquifer is 100% while the oil and gas saturations are each 0%.

As always, the primary interest of the petroleum engineer is to predict the volume of oil and gas which can be recovered from the reservoir. To do this, the engineer must predict the volume of oil and gas initially in the reservoir prior to production. In addition, the engineer must predict the volume of oil and gas remaining in the reservoir at the end of production. These particular volumes of oil and gas are predicted using particular values of saturation often referred to as endpoint saturation values. One endpoint is the water saturation at which water can no longer flow in the reservoir rock. This is typically the water saturation existing in the reservoir rock before production. The other endpoint saturation is the oil or gas saturation at which oil or gas can no longer flow in the reservoir rock. This is the oil or gas saturation existing in the reservoir when production is no longer possible without expensive special production operations which enhance oil recovery. Knowing these endpoint saturations for a particular reservoir, the petroleum engineer can predict the volume of oil and or gas which can be displaced from the rock and

recovered for sale. .

52


IRREDUCIBLE WATER SATURATION

The water saturation endpoint is given the name irreducible water saturation. The irreducible water saturation is literally the water saturatiori "that cannot be reduced" for a given reservoir rock. The irreducible water saturation may be thought of as the minimum water saturation level in a particular reservoir. At the irreducible water saturation, water is no longer capable of flowing within the pore space of the reservoir. The value of irreducible water saturation for a particular reservoir is a function of both fluid and rock properties and the interaction between the surface of the rock and the fluids. (Some of the mechanisms controlling irreducible water saturation will be discussed in more detail in later chapters.) Irreducible water saturation can range from about 5% up to about 50%.

The initial water saturation found in the reservoir prior to production or the removal of any fluids is commonly referred to as the connate water saturation. The word, connate, literally means "coexisting since the beginning". The term connate water saturation is often used interchangeably with the term irreduiible water saturation since the connate water saturation is often assumed to be equal to the irreducible water saturation. This assumption is not always accurate. Thus, a distinction should be made between these two terms.

RESIDUAL OIL SATURATION

The oil saturation endpoint is given the name residual saturation. As the name implies, the residual saturation is a measure of the volume of oil which remains in the reservoir once the oil is no longer capable of flow within the pore space of the reservoir rock. The same mechanisms and fluid/rock properties which control the value of irreducible water saturation control the value of the residual oil saturation. Residual oil saturation often range from about 20% to 40%. Residual saturation may be thought of as the minimum value for oil saturation which can be achieved using conventional (primary) production techniques.

DISPLACEABLE PORE VOLUME

To estimate the volume of oil which may be recovered, the petroleum engineer often defines a special parameter called displaceable pore volume. This is the fraction of the pore volume within the reservoir rock which contains oil or gas which is capable of flowing or being displaced. That is, it is the specific volume of the oil or gas occupying the reservoir which can be recovered. The displaceable pore volume (VpD) of an oil reservoir with no gas may be expressed as follows:

(7.4)

where the subscript "oi" indicates the initial oil saturation, the subscript "or" indicates the residual oil saturation, and the subscript "we" indicates the connate water

53


saturation. Since no gas is present in this case, the initial oil saturation is (1- SwJ using Equation (7.3).

RECOVERY FACTOR

This displaceable or recoverable volume of oil can also be expressed as a fraction of the original volume of oil in the reservoir. This recovered volume as a fraction of the original volume is often referred to as the recovery factor (r) and may be expressed for an oil reservoir as follows:

(7.5)

Given the initial volume of oil in the reservoir, the volume of oil potentially recovered over the life of the reservoir may be predicted by multiplying the original oil volume by the recovery factor.

INITIAL OIL VOLUME

One way to estimate the volume of oil stored in the reservoir initially (prior to production) is called the volumetric method. Using the volumetric method, the volume of oil in-place in the reservoir prior to production may be determined as follows:

(7.6)

where A is the area within the reservoir, h is the thickness of the reservoir formation, and Vo is the volume of oil at reservoir pressure and temperature. To express the oil in-place volume in tenus of the volume it will occupy at surface conditions, the formation volume factor is used. (Review Chapter 4 for definition of formation volume factor, if needed.) Equation (7.6) may be modified as follows to determine the volume of oil in-place in the reservoir expressed at surface pressure and temperature:

N = Ah¢(1- Swc)

Eo!

(7.7)

where Boi is the formation volume factor at the initial reservoir pressure (and ternperature) and N is now the volume of oil in the reservoir adjusted to the volume it would occupy in the stock (holding) tank once brought to surface conditions. The volume of the oil adjusted to surface conditions is of primary interest since oil is measured and sold at the surface. Any consistent set of units may be used in this equation as shown.

64

©Z003. ALL RI

Compressibility of Rock

Compressibik!J is a properry of the rock which can be used to predict the change in reservoir volume for a given change in reservoir pressure.

As discussed in the previous chapter on 'porosity, the porosity of the reservoir rock can be altered during or after deposition due to geologic processes acting on the rock over time. For example, the porosity of sedimentary rocks is a function of the degree of compaction of the rock. The effect of natural compaction is principally due to the resulting packing arrangement after compaction. Thus, sediments which have been deeply buried, even if subsequently uplifted, exhibit lower porosity values than sediments which have not been buried a great depth.

The porosity of the rock can also be affected by changes in the reservoir which are the direct result of petroleum production. As fluid 1S removed from the reservoir, the pressure within the pore space of the rock will decline unless the produced fluid is replaced by an equal volume of another fluid like water. As the pressure within the reservoir declines, the balance of stresses acting on the reservoir changes. The change in the balance of stresses results in a change in the pore, grain, and bulk volume of the reservoir rock. As discussed in the previous chapter, the pore volume is of primary interest to the petroleum engineer. Changes in the bulk volume of the reservoir would typically only be of interest to the petroleum engineer if the changes were to contribute significantly to subsidence at the surface.

55

The pressure commonly referred to as reservoir pressure is the internal pressure existing in the fluid within the pore spaces of the rock. The entire reservoir rock located in the subsurface is also being subjected to an external pressure which is equal to the overburden pressure created by the weight of the overlying sediments. The overburden pressure remains constant for a given depth below the surface while the internal reservoir pressure typically declines as fluid is removed during production. The net effect of the drop in reservoir pressure is a decrease in bulk volume and a simultaneous increase in the-volume occupied by the solid rock rna-


trix or grain volume. Both of these volume changes act to decrease the porosity of the rock. However, the magnitude of the change is very small. For example, the porosity might change 0.5% (0.005) for a 1000 psi drop in reservoir pressure. However, the change in pore volume per change in reservoir pressure is not a constant. The change in porosity as a function of reservoir pressure fora given rock depends upon the difference between the internal reservoir pressure and the external overburden pressure.

The degree to which a volume is changed by a given change in pressure is indicated by a property called compressibility which is typically denoted by the letter, c and expressed in very general terms as follows:

.1 5V

c=--

~ 5p

(8.1)

where V denotes volume and p denotes pressure. The subscript i denotes the volume existing at the initial pressure condition. Notice that the dimension of compressibility is the inverse of pressure. In the practice of petroleum engineering, compressibility is often reported in psi! or in 1 x 10.6 psi" which is given the name microsip (usip). (1 usip = 1 x 10-6 psi").

The compressibility (c) is constant as a function of pressure when the change in volume with respect to a pressure is constant. In this case, the change in volume can be expressed as follows:

(8.2)

Of the three ordinary states of matter, gas is generally the most compressible. Apart from the effect of compaction on grain arrangement, rocks are also compressible. In general, rock compressibility and its effect on pore volume is relatively small. However, the effect of rock compressibility on pore volume must be considered in some cases. As will be seen later in this course, the compressibility of the reservoir which includes the rock and fluids contained within its pore space affects the flow of fluids within the reservoir as a function of time. Often, the compressibility of the reservoir is handled as an average compressibility which is the volume-weighted . average of the individual compressibilities of the fluids and the pore space of the rock. The average compressibility of the reservoir is determined as follows:

(8.3)

where the subscripts g, 0, w, and f denote the gas, oil, water, and formation (rock), respectively. Cf is the pore volume change per pore volume per psi change. The fluid saturation is denoted by the letter S. .

56


Values for gas compressibility are typically of the order of 160 microsips while oil compressibility is on the order of 16 microsips, Water is the least compressible of these fluids and is on the order of 3 rnicrosips. Values of formation (pore volume) compressibility on a pore volume basis for reservoir rocks lie in the range of 2 to 25 microsips. A typical reservoir rock might have a formation compressibility on the order of 5 micro sips. By inspection of Equation (8.3), a typical reservoir whose pore volume was largely occupied by highly compressible gas would not be greatly affected by the compressibility of the relatively low compressibility of the liquids and the formation (rock). On the other hand, the compressibility of the formation (rock) might make a significant contribution to the average compressibility of the reservoir system if no gas were present. Therefore, in some cases the compressibility of the rock --- no matter how slight ---- must be considered.

Example 8.1

Find the average compressibility of a reservoir containing 80% oil and 20% water with a formation compressibility of 5 usips on a pore volume basis. The porosity of the formation is 20%. The compressibility of the oil is 16 usips and the compressibility of the water is 3 usips.

C"vg = 0 + O.80(16xl 0-6) + O.20(3xl 0-6) + 5xl 0-6

C,ivg =: (0 + 12.8 + 0.6 + 5)xl 0-6 = 18.4xl 0-6 psi" = 18.4Jlsips

Solution:

By definition, the average compressibility can be found using Equation (8.3) as follows:

Note that in this example with no gas present, the rock alone contributes 5/18.4 or 27.2% of the average reservoir compressibility. In this instance, the relative contribution of the formation to the overall reservoir compressibility is significant.

Notice from Equation (8.1) that compressibility is generally defined in terms of a particular volume and a particular pressure. In the case of a reservoir rock, volume can be described in terms of its bulk volume, its grain volume, or its pore volume. Likewise, changes in the volume of a rock may be described on the basis of changes in bulk volume, grain volume, or pore volume. As a consequence, a rock compressibility term can be defined separately on the basis of each. As shown in Equation (8.3), the rock compressibility typically used in reservoir engineering calculations is commonly referred to as the formation compressibility. The formation compressibility is generally expressed as the change in pore volume per unit pore volume per unit change in reservoir pressure.

57


Formation compressibility by definition is actually the compressibility of the pore volume. Thus, it is also known as pore volume compressibility. Formation or pore volume compressibility can be expressed in terms of the original bulk volume as well as the original pore volume. When expressed per unit pore volume, formation compressibility is said to be on a pore vol lime basis. Likewise, pore volume cornpressibility expressed as the change in pore volume per unit bulk volume per unit change in pressure is said to be on a bulk volume bast's. As one might suspect, the value of pore volume compressibility expressed on a pore volume basis is related to the value of pore volume compressibility expressed on a bulk volume basis by a factor equal to the porosity of the rock. Dividing pore volume compressibility given on a bulk volume (BV) basis by the porosity (expressed as a fraction) places it on a pore volume (PV) basis. This relationship can be expressed mathematically as follows:

Formation COmpressibility expressed on a pore volume (PV) basis is required in Equation (8.3) when calculating .average cornpressibility.

C I = cIIBV

I PV ¢

(8.4)

Note that formation compressibility expressed on a pore volume (PV) basis is required in Equation (8.3) when calculating average compressibility. Equation (8.4) must be used when necessary to convert from a bulk volume basis to a pore volume basis prior to substituting the formation compressibility value into Equation

(8.3).

Example 8.2

Find the average compressibility of a reservoir containing 80% gas and 20% water with a formation compressibility of 0.75 usips on a bulk volume basis. The porosity of the formarion is 20%. The compressibility of the gas is 160 usips and the compressibility of the water is 3 usips,

Solution:

First, note that formation compressibility was given on a bulk volume basis. Converting to a pore volume basis for use in equation (8.3), the formation compressibility is as follows:

c I = cIIBv = 0.75 "sips =5 si sl X lo-Opsrl =5xlO-6 srll

I PV ¢ 0.20 Jl P PV Izzsip P PV

Ca,g = 0.80(160xlO-6) + 0 + 0.20(3xl 0-6) + 5xl 0--6

C",g = (128 + 0 + 0.6 + 5)xl 0-6 = 133.6xl 0-6 psi" = 133.6Jisips

By definition, the average compressibility can be found as follows:

58


Note that in this example with a high gas saturation, the gas alone contributes 128/133.6 or 95.8% of the average reservoir compressibility. In this instance, the relative contribution of the liquid and formation to the overall reservoir compressibility is small.

. 1 EVg

c =---

r Vg Epo

(8.5)

Although less commonly used in reservoir engineering, rock compressibility can also be expressed in terms of changes in bulk volume and grain volume. Rock matrix compressibility is defined as the fractional change in volume of the solid rock material per unit change in external pressure. Rock matrix compressibility (cJ expressed as a change in grain volume per unit grain volume per unit change in external pressure can be written mathematically as follows:

where Vg is the volume of crushed rock (grain volume) and Po is the external

pressure applied to the rock matrix material. •

Rock bulk compressibility (expressed as a change in bulk volume per unit bulk volume per unit change in external pressure) is the fractional change in volume of the bulk volume of the intact rock per unit change in external pressure while holding internal pressure constant. Rock bulk compressibility (cb) can be expressed mathematically as follows:

1 EVb

C =~--

b v.;;.

b Po p

(8.6)

where Vb is the bulk 'volume of the rock and Po is the external (overburden) pressure applied to the rock, and p is the internal (pore or reservoir) pressure and the

condition that p is being held constant is denoted by the symbol, Ip'

(8.7)

As eluded to previously, the pore volume compressibility (formation compressibility) is a function of the bulk volume compressibility, the grain volume compressibility, and the difference between the external (overburden) pressure and the internal (pore) pressure. According to a study by Fatt aPT, 1958), the change in bulk volume per unit bulk volume can be expressed as follows:

where ~ is a constant related to the degree to which the rock has been cemented together. For a well-cemented (consolidated) rock, ~ is 0.75. For a looselycemented (unconsolidated) rock, ~ is 1.0. ,

69


Neglecting the change in grain volume since the grain volume compressibility (cr) is much, much less that the bulk volume compressibility and recalling the relationships between bulk, grain, and pore volume defined by Equations (6.1) and (6.2), then the change in bulk volume is equal to the change in pore volume. If the change in grain volume is neglected, Equation (8.7) can be re-written as follows:

(8.8)

80

At reservoir depth, the external pressure is equal to the overburden pressure at that depth and the internal pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure at that depth. The net or resultant or effective pressure acting on the reservoir rock in the subsurface is the difference between the internal and external pressure': This pressure difference, Po - P , is often referred to ~s the net overburden.

Two cases relevant to petroleum engineering exist for which the net overburden can be represented by the term (0 Po - j3 0 p) in Equation (8.8). First, the effect of the actual conditions existing in the reservoir on the porosity value measured on a rock sample at surface conditions. Second, the effect of declining reservoir (internal) pressure on pore volume as fluid is removed from the reservoir over time as production proceeds.

Case 1: Surface to Reservoir Depth

Consider the changes in internal and external pressures acting on the reservoir rock if it were to move from the surface of the earth to the subsurface. At the surface, both the internal pressure and the external pressure acting on reservoir rock are zero. At reservoir depth, the external pressure is equal to the overburden pressure at that depth and the internal pressure is equal to the pore pressure at that. depth. At the surface where both the initial external pressure andthe initial internal pressure are zero, the following is true:

(oPo - j3 op) = Apo - j3 Sp = (Po -0)- j3(p- 0) = Po - j3p

(oPo - j3 op) = Po - P whenj3=l and (8.9)

(oPo - j3 0p) ~ Po - P when j3=0.75

Thus, the effect of the net overburden (Po - p) on the porosity of a rock sample measured at the surface can be estimated based on Equation (8.8). In other


words, the surface measurement of porosity can be adjusted or corrected to ac~ count for actual pressure conditions present in the reservoir in the subsurface.

Case 2: Declining Reservoir Pressure

Consider the changes in internal and external pressures acting on the reservoir rock as a function of time as fluid is produced from the reservoir. Recall that the external pressure (Po) applied to the reservoir in the subsurface is due to the weight of the overlying sediments and is therefore a function of reservoir depth which is constant at a given depth as a function of time. As a result, the external pressure (Po) applied to the reservoir rock is also a constant as a function of time. Since the external pressure is constant, the change in net overburden from time 1 to a later time 2 can be expressed as follows:

(8.1 0)

Like wise, the term (5 P 0 ~ f3 5 p) in this instance can be expresses as follows:

(8.11)

Together Equations (8.10) and (8.11) show that the change in net overburden over time is equivalent to the change in the internal reservoir pressure multiplied by the constanr ji. Substituting the result of Equation (8.11) , back into Equation (8.8), the following simplified expression can be derived:

(8.12)

Notice that Equation (8.12) takes on the form of the definition of compressibility in terms of pore volume. A direct result of Equation (8.12) is that pore volume or formation compressibility (Cf) can be expressed as follows:

(8.13)

which is also consistent with the earlier statement that the net effect on pore volume or porosity when internal pressure declines is determined by the difference between the external and internal pressure. In the case of a subsurface reservoir, this change in net overburden is equal to the change in internal pressure which is equal to the change in reservoir pressure.

61


Shown in Table 8.1 is the effect that the pressure conditions in the subsurface have on the porosity of the rock as a function of formation compressibility and net overburden. Note that the effects of reservoir depth (Case 1), reservoir pressure decline over time (Case 2), and formation compressibility on porosity can be observed in Table 8.1.

TJ\1~LE 8.L EFFECT OF Fore ...... 1ATION COlv]PRESSIBILrIY ON POROSITY

1

Formation Compressibility: 2 ~sips (PV Basis)
Porosity at Surface: 20.00 % 10.00 % 5.00%
Porosity in reservoir with net
overburden of 2,500 psi: 19.92 % 9.95% 4.98%

Formation Compressibility: 10 J,isips (PV Basis)
Porosity at Surface: 20.00 % 10.00 % 5.00%
overburden of 10,000 psi: 18.37 % 9.09 % 4.52% Depth or Time

Depth or Time

First, the effect of the actual conditions existing in the reservoir on the porosity value measured on a rock sample at surface conditions can be seen by comparing the porosity measured at the surface with the porosity in the reservoir since in this case net overburden is a function of depth.

Second, the effect of declining reservoir (internal) pressure on pore volume as fluid is removed from the reservoir can be seen by comparing the porosity in the reservoir at 2,500 psi net overburden to porosity in the reservoir at 10,000 psi net overburden since in this case net overburden is a function of the drop in internal reservoir pressure while overburden remains constant over time.

Third, the effect of formation compressibility on porosity can be seen by comparing differences in porosity in the reservoir observed for the low compressibility (2 usips) rock with the higher compressibility (10 usips) rock. Notice that the greater effects on porosity are observed for the more compressible rock. As shown by Table 8.2, formation compressibility is a function of the degree of cementation and compaction (consolidation). A well-cemented and compacted (wellconsolidated) rock exhibits much lower formation (pore volume) compressibility than a loosely-cemented (unconsolidated) rock.

62

© 2 0 0 3. ALL RIG H T S RES E RV E 0

Tl\BLE 8.2: EFFECT OF CONSOLIDATION ON FORi\li\TION COMPRESS1BIlXIY

Porosity Pore Volume Bulk Volume Porosity
(%) Compressibility Compressibility Curve on
(flsips) (flsips) Figure 8.1
Unconsolidated 33 40 13.60 C
Medium (Friable) 28 15 4.20 B
Well Consolidated 24 3 0.72 A The relative effect of the rock's consolidation on porosity is further illustrated in Figure S.l. Shown is Figure 8.1 is a plot of porosity expressed as a fraction of the surface porosity (atmospheric pressure) versus net overburden for the 3 rocks listed in Table 8.2. In other words, the value plotted on the y-axis is the porosity at the net overburden divided by the porosity of the rock measured at the surface where net overburden is zero. For example the porosity of rock C is about 76.7% of the surface porosity at 7000 psi. Thus at a net overburden of 7000 psi, the porosity of rock C is (0.767)(33) = 25.3%. Porosity is reduced by almost 25 % (of the surface porosity) by a net overburden pressure of about 7000 psi for curve C, which is the unconsolidated rock in Table S.2. Whereas the porosity for curve A, which represents the well-consolidated rock in Table 8.2, is reduced by less than 5 % for the same net overburden.

~ ~:~~ ·~~~~-~~r,~"----l-.-. ------.- ..... - --····.1

o . . --~, . r-- J,.

o 0.90 I - - --- I-=-t=·-

~ ~:~ ~' ~>~-t-:::=__T- ._ - - ----

::J 0.75 --- -- ""

Cf) 0.70 -

'5

c 0.65

:§ 0.60

~ 0.55 +-----+---~---+-- -~ LL 0.50 + ~_---j---+----c---I----f-------1

o

6000

8000 10000

2000

4000

Net Overburden Pressure (psi)

FIGURE 8.1; EFFECT OF CONSOLIDATION ON POROSITI

63


Example 8.3

Using Figure 8.1, determine the porosity of a unconsolidated rock which is under a net overburden pressure of 4000 psi and has a porosity as measured at the surface of 33% (Sample C).

Solution:

As indicated by Table 8.2, the unconsolidated rock is plotted as curve C in Figure 8.1. For an overburden pressure of 4000 psi, the fraction of the original porosity on curve C (as read from Figure 8.1) is equal to 0.8. Thus, the porosity of the rock under a net overburden pressure of 4000 psi is calculated as follows:

In summary, the relative impact of rock compressibility on porosity is generally less significant for consolidated rocks than for unconsolidated rocks. Again, the effect of overburden on porosity is relatively minor for the well-consolidated rock and relatively significant for the unconsolidated rock. In some cases, measurement of the porosity for unconsolidated reservoirs may require that pressure above atmospheric pressure be applied to the rock sample during the measurement of porosity to yield a representative value. The pressure applied during measurement of the porosity should be equivalent to the net overburden existing in the reservoir.

For most consolidated rocks, porosity measured at atmospheric pressure is accurate enough for most engineering purposes. In addition, the relative impact of formation compressibility on the compressibility of the whole reservoir system (including fluids) is generally much less significant in the presence of gas. In reservoirs with significant gas saturations, the contribution of the formation compressibility to the average reservoir compressibility is relatively minor. In the absence of gas, the formation compressibility becomes more significant.

Since the average compressibility of the reservoir as a whole (i.e. rock plus fluids in pore space) is dependent on the compressibility of the fluids in the reservoir, a comment about the compressibility of reservoir fluids is warranted. Water is a slightly compressible fluid and is generally the least compressible component of the reservoir-fluid system. A typical value for water compressibility is about 3 usips, Water compressibility is defined as follows:'

1 b'Vw

c =---

w V;v b'p

(8.14)

64

©"2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

The compressibility of oil varies from slightly compressible upward, depending upon the amount of gas which is in solution. Gas in solution is dissolved in the oil. The amount present depends upon the reservoir temperature and pressure, the composition of the oil, and the amount of gas available in a given reservoir. An undersaturated oil has all of the gas available to it in solution. Therefore, an undersaturated oil reservoir has a gas saturation of zero. The compressibility of an undersaturated oil ranges from about 5 usips to about 100 usips. Where the cornpressibility falls within this range will depend upon the density of the oil, the amount of gas in solution, and the temperature. Oil compressibility increases as density decreases, solution gas increases, and temperature increases. The effect of gas in solution on oil compressibility is taken into account by the oil formation volume factor defined in Chapter 4.

1 1 5z

C =-----

g p z lip

(8.15)

Natural gas is a highly compressible fluid. The compressibility of any gas present in the reservoir varies greatly with pressure and the z-factor of the natural gas. The behavior of the z-factor as a function of temperature and pressure depends upon the composition of the natural gas. Gas compressibility may be determined for a natural gas as follows:

As temperature and pressure approach atmospheric conditions, the z-factor (z) approaches 1.0. Recall from Chapter 4 that a z-factor of 1 implies ideal gas behavtor.

85

Electrical Resistivity of Rock

Resistivity is a pf?ysica! proper!J oj tbe. rock J}Jhich is oj interest to the petroleum engineer since it can be related to the porosity oj the rock and to the water saturation present in the pore space.

Electrical resistivity wa. s the first physical property of rocks measured using logging tools lowered into a well. Because the electrical properties of rock containing hydrocarbons differ from rocks containing only salt water, resistivity is routinely used to screen formations for the presence of hydrocarbons. Furthermore, electrical resistivity not only indicates the presence or absence of hydrocarbons but also the relative volume of hydrocarbons present in the reservoir. In other words, the resistivity of the formation can be used to predict the water saturation which is always of interest to the petroleum engineer.

fusistz'vi!J is a measure of the ability of a material to impede the flow of an electrical current through that substance. The impedance to flow is called the resistance (r) and is related to the resistivity (R) of a material of constant cross-sectional area by the following expression:

RL

r=-

A

(9.1)

where L denotes the length of the material along the direction of flow and A denotes the area of the material perpendicular to the flow.

Resistivity (R) is a physical property of the material through which the electric current is passing. Resistivity is constant at a given temperature. Considering the case of a copper wire, the resistance (r) to flow will increase as the length of the copper wire increases and as the diameter of the wire decreases. The unit of resistivity traditionally used in petroleum engineering, specifically well logging, in the ohm meter 2 per meter or the ohm-m which is denoted by the symbol Q-m.

88

Element Resistivity (R)
(O-m x 10-8)
Aluminum 2.6548
Copper 1.6730
Gold 2.3500
Iron 9.71
Lead 20.6480
Nickel 6.8400
Silver 1.5900
Zinc 5.9160 TABLE 9.1: ELECTIUCAL RESISTIVITY OF SOME COMMON ELEMENTS AT 68 OF.

Listed in Table 9.1 (above) is the resistivity (R) of several common metals. Notice that copper has one of the lowest resistivity values shown. Thus, copper is a very good transmitter or conductor of electricity which-explains why it is commonly used for electrical wiring. Likewise, lead would be a very poor choice. Conductivi!J (C) is the reciprocal of resistivity and is expressed mathematically as follows:

R =]__ C

(9.2)

Example 9.1

Determine the resistance generated by a l-cm cube of copper assuming that the current is flowing perpendicular to one of the faces of the cube. Compare this to the resistance generated by the same mass (volume) of copper drawn into a wire which is 0.10 cm in diameter.

Solution:

As shown in Table 9.1, the resistivity of copper is 1.673 x 10-8 D-m. To calculate the resistance, the length along the direction of flow and the area perpendicular to flow are needed. The length is equal to the width of the cube or 1 cm. The area perpendicular to flow is the area of the cube's face and is 1 em x 1 em = 1 cm-. Converting to a consistent set of units,

R = 1.673(10r8n m X 100 em = 1.673 x 10-60. em

.. 1 m

Using Equation (9.1) with our consistent set of units, the resistance of the cube can be computed as follows:

= 1.673 X 10-60 em (1 em) = 1 673 x 10-60.

reI/be 2 •

1 em .

67

Next, computing the resistance of the same mass of copper as a wire requires the length of the wire. Assuming that the density of the copper is not changed, the wire will occupy the same volume as the original cube. Therefore, the volume of copper is 1 cubic em, Assuming that the copper cube is drawn into a perfect cylinder with a diameter of 0.1 cm, the length and cross-sectional area of the wire may be determined as follows:

VCy/=Jrr2L ---7 L=__!_= V = 4~ = (4)(1cm3) =127.32 em

nr? ;r (d/2)2 ad: ;r(0.1)2 ern"

A = Jrr2=;r (d/2)2 = ;rrd2 = ;rCO.l)2 = 7.854 X 10-3 ern"

cyl 4 4

Again using Equation (9.1), the resistance of the copper wire is determined as follows: r . = 1.673 X 10-6 n em (127.3 em) = 0.0271 n

were 7.854 X 10-3 cnr'

Note that the resistance of a long thin copper wire is significantly greater than a cube formed from the same material,

Reservoir rocks are composed of a variety of elements and provide some degree of resistance to electrical current just as any other material would do. As discussed in the previous chapter regarding petroleum geology, reservoir rocks are generally sedimentary rocks which are often chiefly composed of either sandstone or limestone or dolomite. Sandstone is composed of consolidated (cemented and compacted) fragments of chiefly quartz minerals which are silica-based. Limestones are formed through precipitation and accumulation of organic calcite. Limestone can be further altered chemically into dolomite.

\'\fithin the pore space of sedimentary rocks, water is typically found. Generally, the water contained within sedimentary rocks of interest to petroleum engineers is a brine or salt water. If the sedimentary rock is associated with a petroleum accumulation, oil and/ or gas may also be found in the pore space of the rock. Just as the compressibility of the reservoir as a whole is a function of the compressibility of the rock and the fluids present, the resistivity of the reservoir rock is also a function of the resistivity of the rock matrix and the resistivity of the fluid filling its pore space. Therefore, the resistivity of a clean, dry rock filled with air will be different that the resistivity of a rock filled with water. Likewise, 'the resistivity of the water alone-will be different than the resistivity of the water-filled rock.

A clean, dry rock is a very poor conductor of electricity since the rock matrix (i.e. sand or lime) is an insulator. Likewise, a rock filled with oil and/or natural gas is also an extremely poor conductor. However, a rock filled with brine or salt water is a very good conductor. The degree of conductivity is a function mainly of the concentration of dissolved salts in the water. Fresh water (no dissolved salts) is also an extremely poor conductor whereas water with a high concentration of dissolved salts or electrolYtes is a very good conductor,

88

w

rw

1 1 1

""-+r ; r: r;

FORMATION RESISTIVITY FACTOR

The resistivity of the formation water alone (no rock) is called the water resistivity and is denoted by the symbol Rj, The resistivity of a rock fully saturated with water is denoted by the symbol RD' Because the rock matrices are such poor conductors, the additional conductivity contributed directly by the rock matrix to the rock-water combination is very small. However, the porosity and structure of the pore space within the confines of the rock matrix plays a significant role in resistivity of the rock-water combination and the value of Ro'

Example 9.2

Consider a synthetic rock formed into a cube of width, w. The synthetic rock matrix is an insulator or extremely poor conductor. Centered within the synthetic rock matrix is a single "pore". The pore is a square tube which is half as wide as the rock. The square tube is filled with brine of resistivity Rw. The current will flow along the length of the square tube. Derive an expression for the ratio of the resistivity of the rock with the brine-filled tube, R, to the resistivity of the brine, Rw.

Solution:

The overall resistance of the rock is a combination of the resistance created by the water filling the rock's pore and the resistance created by the rock matrix. The electric current is flowing in parallel through the water and the matrix. The equivalent resistance created by the flow of electric current through 2 materials oriented parallel to the flow direction is related to the resistance created by each individual material as follows:

1 1 1

=-+-

r 0 r"w rw

The resistivity of an insulating material is extremely high and approaches infinity. Since the resistivity of the rock matrix as an insulator approaches infinity, then by Equation (9.1), the resistance created by the rock matrix also approaches infinity. Thus, the resistance of the brine-filled rock is equal to the resistance of the brine. This can be shown mathematically as follows:

1 1 1 1 1

-=-+-=0+-=-

Using Equation (9.1), the resistance created by the water and rock can be related to resistivity as follows:

89

r ~ RwLw = R.vL

W Aw (W/2)2

RwL _RoL

(W/2)2 W2

r =r W 0

Ro L W2
n; ( W/2)2 L
Ro =4
u; Thus, the resistivity of the water-filled synthetic rock (Ra) in this case is 4 times greater the resistivity of the brine (Rw) filling the pore space.

F=!!_ rpm

(9.3)

The ratio of the resistivity of a water-filled rock to the resistivity of the water alone is called the formation resistiv'ity factor. The formation resistivity factor is a dimensionless number which is often denoted by the symbol, F. The formation resistivity factor has been shown experimentally to be related to the porosity of the rock by the following empirical (experimentally derived) relationship:

where a and m are both experimentally determined constants. Research has shown that the values of 'a' and 'm' vary primarily as a function of pore structure or geometry.

One of the variables affecting the structure of the pore space is the degree of compaction and cementation undergone by the rock during its deposition. In particular, the degree of compaction and cementation appears to impact the constant m. As a result, the constant m is often referred to as the cementation exponent. For sandstones, the cementation exponent (m) has been found to range from 1.14 to 2.52. For limestones, the cementation exponent tends to be somewhat higher than the values observed for sandstones and can reach values of 2.9 or higher. On average, a value of 2 is commonly used for sandstone reservoirs and a value of 2.15 is commonly used for limestone reservoirs.

70

The constant 'a' is often referred to as the formation factor coifficient. The formation factor coefficient tends to range from a value of 0.35 to 4.78. A value of 1.0 is

commonly used for the formation factor coefficient in both sandstone and limestone reservoirs.

Example 9.3

Consider the synthetic rock in Example 9.2. Derive an expression for the formation resistivity factor as a function of porosity.

Solution:

Beginning with the expressions derived in Example 9.2, the area of the water tube or "pore" can be expressed in terms of the bulk area of the synthetic rock, Ao which can be simplified as follows when the length of the rock (La) is equal to the length of the water (Lw):

In this case, the formation factor coefficient is equal to 1.0 and the cementation exponent is also equal to 1.0. Furthermore, this relationship does not depend upon the shape of the pore. However, the pore space in naturally occurring rocks is complex and creates a tortuous channel through the rock. Therefore, the length of the water-filled tube would not equal the length of the bulk rock in a naturally occurring rock. The length of the equivalent volume of water drawn out into a winding and complex path through a natural rock would be much greater than the length of the rock. That is, Lw > La in a naturally occurring rock.

, ,

Consider a volume of water which would produce the same resistance as a rock

saturated with an equal volume of the same water. Using Equation (9.1) and relating the volume of the water to the bulk volume of the rock using porosity as shown in Examples 9.2 and 9.3, the following expressions can be derived for naturally occurring rocks:

R "",FR

o w

(9.4)

71

The formation resistivity factor (F) is inversely related to porosity and is a function of the pore structure of the rock.

The formation resistivity index (I) indicates the presence of hydrocarbons when its value is greater than 1.

where L, is the length of the equivalent volume of water and L is the length of the rock sample. The variable r 1S commonly referred to as the tortuosity of the rock. Notice that as the length of the rock approaches the equivalent water length, the value of tortuosity approaches 1. For a tortuosity value of 1, Equation (9.4) simplifies to the expression derived in Example 9.3. Thus, the tortuosity term accounts for the complex, non-linear pore structure in naturally occurring rocks. Furthermore, the mathematically determined Equation (9.4) is consistent with the experimentally determined Equation (9.3). Both expressions show that the formation resistivity factor is inversely related to porosity and is a function of the pore structure of the rock.

FORMATION RESISTIVITV INDEX

As mentioned previously, oil, natural gas and air are each extremely poor conductors of electricity. Just as the resistivity of a rock completely saturated with water is higher than the resistivity of the water, a rock partially saturated with water has a higher resistivity than the same rock completely saturated with water. The resistivity of the rock partially saturated with water is denoted by the symbol. R, The ratio of the resistivity of a rock partially saturated with water ~) to the resistivity of the same rock fully saturated with water 0\) ) is referred to as the resistivity index. The resistivity index is denoted by the letter, I, and is expressed mathematically as follows:

h {I> I if oil &/or gas.is present

were

I = 1 if only water is present

(9.5)

Note that the presence or absence of hydrocarbons in a given rock is indicated by the value of the resistivity index (1), not the resistivity value of the hydrocarbon-

bearing rock CRt).

WATER SATURATION DETERMINATION

The resistance provided by the rock to the flow of electricity is dependent upon the fluid saturation values. A high water saturation within a given rock will produce a much lower resistance than a high oil and or gas saturation. This relative degree of resistance can be used to estimate the water saturation -in the reservoir. The formation resistivity index is a measure of this relative degree of resistance. As one might suspect, a relationship has been shown to exist between the formation resistivity index and the water saturation in a given rock. This non-linear relationship has been determined experimentally to be as follows:

(9.6)

72

(9.7)

where n is referred to a the saturation exponent. The value of n ~~- like the value of a and m before ~~- depends primarily upon the pore structure of the rock. The value of n has been shown experimentally to range from about 1 to 2.5. A value of 2.0 is most commonly used for the saturation exponent. Using a value of 2 for the saturation exponent leads to the following form of Equation (9.6) which is commonly referred to as Archie's Equation:

Applying the same logic as in the derivation of the formation resistivity factor, the following expression for water saturati,on can be determined mathematically:

Sw ~ ~( :)' (9.8)

where 1" is the tortuosity factor for the rock when partially saturated with water. While Equation (9.8) is not practical since the tortuosity factors are too complex to be measured, it doe.s support the relationship established by Archie in Equation (9.7). In both equations, the water saturation is inversely related to the resistivity index.

The practical application of Archie's Equation (9.7) requires knowledge not only of several rock dependent constants but also of the resistivity of the water present in the reservoir and the porosity of the reservoir. Porosity and resistivity are routinely measured using logging tools but water resistivity must be measured in the laboratory using a water samplerecovered from the formation. When measurements of the water resistivity are not available, a graphical technique often referred to as a Pickett Plot can be used to solve for the value of water resistivity and cementation factor simultaneously.

Using Equation(9.6), a general linear relationship can be shown to exist between the log of porosity and the log of formation resistivity as follows:

nlog(Sw) = log(a) -mlog(¢) + log(Rw) -log(Rt)

73

·····-4--~------1

3

2 -j----- __ I

tl 1
C;; 0
.2
-1
-2
-3 -2 0 2

log (Porosity)

1000 100 10

0.1 0.01

0.01 0.1 1

Porosity

log(RI) = log(a)~mlog(¢) + log(Rw)~ nlog(S,J

(9.9)

Assuming a value of 1.0 for the formation resistivity coefficient (a) and a value of 2 for the saturation exponent (n) and a water saturation value of 100% results in the following expression since the expression log(l) is zero .

log(~) = ~m log(¢) + log(Rw)

(9.10)

Note that water saturation was assumed to be 1.0 in order to obtain Equation (9.10). Therefore, this expression is valid only when the water saturation is 100%. Equation (9.10) defines a line with a slope of =m and an intercept of log(Rw) where y is logCRJ and x is log(<j». Thus, a plot of log(RJ measured in a water zone (formation interval with 100% water saturation) plotted versus log($) measured in the same zone should plot as a straight line. This is done using a special plotting scale called a logarithmic or log scale.

.

Once a straight line is drawn through the data on the plot, the intercept and the

slope may be determined. The intercept of the line with the x-axis at a porosity value of 1.0 yields the value of the water resistivity since no rock matrix is present at a porosity value of 1. The slope of the line yields the value of the cementation factor, m. Once these variables are known, Equation (9.7) can be applied to determine the water saturation in the oil zone within the same formation where the presence of hydrocarbons is indicated.

EFFECT OF CLAY IN ROCK

Clay is the name given to sediment with a grain size less than 0.004 or 1/250 mm. Clays are composed of a group of minerals called pl!Jllosilicates. Within this group, the major clay minerals are kaolinite, montmorillonite, clay mica (illite), and chlorite. Each of the various clay minerals are composed of sheets of silicon and oxygen combined with a sheet of aluminum, oxygen, and hydroxyl (OB) arranged in distinctive patterns.

Clays are often associated with reservoir rocks. Studies of reservoir rock samples have shown that the clays can be distributed within the rock matrix in 3 ways. As one might suspect, the manner in which the clays are dispersed depends largely on the depositional process which formed the rock. First, clays may be deposited as thin layers interspersed among the layers of sand. These thin layers of clay are referred to as laminated clqy or shale. Shale is a type of rock which is rich in clay minerals.

Second, the clay minerals result from the chemical alteration of non-quartz particles of sediment in the presence of formation water. Since these clay particles result from sediments laid down with the sand (quartz) grains during deposition, these clay minerals exist as separate clumps, pellets, or clasts and are part of the

74

granular structure of the rock matrix. These are referred to as structural clqys and may be mixed with the sand grains throughout the rock matrix.

Third, the clay minerals may result as a precipitate onto the surface of the sand grains of the rock matrix. These clays are referred to as dispersed clgs. Dispersed clays are due to the precipitation of clay crystals from formation fluids and combine to form thin layers coating the surface of the rock inside the pores.

A sandstone containing little or no clay minerals is often referred to by petroleum engineers as a "clean sand" while a sandstone containing an abundance of clay minerals is referred to as a "dirty sand" or as a "shaly sand". Because shale is a rock type which is rich in clay minerals, the term "shaly" is often used to refer to the presence of clay.

A characteristic of clay minerals which is of primary interest to petroleum engineers is their interaction with water. Some clay minerals swell in the presence of water as the water is absorbed into the molecular structure of the mineral, Other clay minerals affect the conductance of the rock matrix in the presence of an electrolyte. Clays in the presence of an electrolyte increase the conductivity of the rock matrix as compared to clean sands which have essentially no conductance. The experimentally determined relationship between resistivity and water saturation was developed using relatively clean sands. Therefore, Archie's Equation (9.7) does not yield accurate results for shaly or "dirty" sands which contain clay minerals.

Because Archie developed his equation based on measurements in clean formations, the rock matrix did not contribute significantly to the resistance of the rockwater combination. That is, the resistance generated by the rock sample saturated with water was essentially equal to the resistance of an equivalent volume of water. If the rock matrix were to contribute significantly to the overall resistance of the rock-fluid system existing in the formation, Archie's Equation would no longer predict water saturation accurately. This is the case when a significant amount of conductive clay or shale is present in the formation.

In the case of shaly sands, the water saturation predicted by Archie's Equation (9.7) is higher than actually exists in the formation since relative conductance (resistance) is related to water volume. The increased conductance due to the presence of the clay minerals incorrectly translates to an increased water saturation. Thus, the water saturation predicted by Equation (9.7) which assumes a clean formation must be adjusted or "corrected" by a factor which is a function of the relative volume of shale or clay present. The techniques involved in shaly sand interpretation are beyond the scope of this course but will be addressed in future courses on logging interpretation techniques. For now, awareness of the effect that clay and shale content have on water saturation determination is sufficient.

75

©2003. AL

Absolute Permeability

Permeability is a physical property of the rock which is of interest to the petroleum engineer since it is used to predict the rate oil and/or natural gas can be produced

Time is a crucial factor in economic theory. Cash flow is the amount of money gained or lost over a period of time. Cash flow is a primary ingredient when determining the economic viability of a particular project. By predicting the volume of oil or gas flowing from the well per day, the petroleum engineer is able to predict how much oil and gas will be produced and sold per day. Predicting the sales of oil and gas over a period oftime' allows the engineer to predict cash flow for the well or reservoir given the price of oil and gas. Therefore, the engineer must have some means of estimating not only the volume of oil and gas in the reservoir but also the time required to recover it.

The vo!;,metric j70Jv rate is a secondary quantity that can be defined as the volume of fluid passing a given point in space per unit time. Often, a well is characterized or ranked by how many barrels that it can produce per day (bb1/ day). That is, wells are often ranked according to their volumetric flow rate since it corresponds directly to cash flow. One of the primary factors controlling the volumetric flow rate which is commonly referred to as the production rate of a well is a physical property of the rock referred to as permeability.

The permeability of a porous rock is a measure of the rock's ability to transmit fluids. It is analogous to the conductivity in an electric circuit. As such, the inverse of permeability represents the impedance provided by the rock to the flow of fluid. The magnitude of this rock property is related to the number, size, shape, and continuity of the pores within the rock. A rock exhibiting a high permeability will pass fluids with ease relative to a rock of low permeability. As with porosity, permeability is related to the structure of the rock itself. Alterations to the rock . matrix by either natural or artificial means, such as fracturing or chemical dissolution, will change the permeability of the rock.

76

q

o


Permeability is a consequence of an empirical (experimentally determined) law originally formulated by Henry D'Arcy to describe the flow of water through sand-filter beds. Permeability accounts for the tortuous (convoluted or winding) path that fluid must take while flowing through the pore space of a rock without requiring a description of the path followed. As a result of its origins, permeability is a property which must be determined experimentally using a modified form of D'Arcy's original formula commonly referred to as Darcy's Law.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The basic equations for fluid flow in open vessels, such as pipes, were developed in the early part of the nineteenth century. However, these could not accurately predict the flow rate of water through a sand pack used to filter water. Thus, Henry D'Arcy conducted a series of experiments to develop an equation useful for predicting the flow rate of water filtering through a sand pack. In 1856, he published the results of these experimental studies ---- which were destined to lead to the laws of fluid motion in reservoir rocks and other porous and permeable media. D'Arcy's experiments showed that the volumetric flow rate of water (qw) through a vertical sand bed of constant cross sectional area (A) and length (L) was directly proportional to the vertical height (head) the of water (H) above the bottom of the sand bed. Including a proportionality constant (c), the empirical relationship can be expressed as follows:

AH q=c-L

(10.1)

Keep in mind that'this relationship was developed experimentally for using a specific fluid (water) flowing through a very particular medium (vertically-oriented sand pack open at both ends). Thus, Equation (10.1) applies only under those same conditions. That is, Equation (10.1) applies only to the linear flow of water, driven downward by gravity due to the weight of the water column above the sand bed. Since the sand grain size was the only other variable in Darcy's experiments which was not included as a separate term in the equation (i.e., length, area, height), the original proportionality constant (c) in Equation (10.1) is a function of the sand grain size. As sand grain size increases so does the constant, c.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

Keeping in mind that Equation (10.1) was developed from a series of experiments during which the type of fluid was never varied, consider what variable properties other than sand grain size are included in the proportionality constant, c. Consider that the fluid flow is driven by the weight of the overlying water in D'Arcy's experiments. All other things being equal, would you expect a heavier (high density) fluid to flow at the same rate as a lighter (low density) fluid? If not, which type of fluid would you expect to flow faster? Would you expect a very thick fluid like molasses or tar (high viscosity) to flow at the same rate as a very thin fluid like water (low viscosity)? If not, which would flow

77


faster? Answering "no" to either of these questions implies that certain fluid properties also affect the flow rate. Therefore, the properties of the water which influence the flow rate, such as density and viscosity, are also implicitly included in the constant (c) because water was used in every experiment.

DARCY'S LAW EXTENDED

The original constant (c) is a function of the properties of the fluid used as well as properties of the porous medium (sand bed). Embedded in the original proportionality constant (c) are the following terms: (1) the fluid viscosity, a property of the fluid related to ease of flow or stiffness, (2) the fluid density, a property of the fluid related to weight, and (3) the gravitational constant, a property of the Earth's gravitational field equal to the acceleration due to gravity which controls weight. In order to make Darcy's original equation (10.1) useful to petroleum engineers, it must be modified to work for (1) a fluid other. than water and (2) driving forces other than gravity.

First, consider the fluid limitation. Observing that the flow rate is inversely proportional to the fluid viscosity and directly proportional to the fluid's weight (which can be related to its density and the acceleration constant due to gravity), equation (10.1) may be modified as follows:

q =: k ApgH pL

(10.2)

The proportionality constant (k) in Equation (10.2) is now only a function of the porous medium and is a property of the medium known as the permeability. Keep in mind that Darcy'S Law was developed with a single fluid occupying the pore space of the sand bed. As discussed in the earlier chapter on petroleum geology, this is rarely the case in petroleum reservoirs where 2 or 3 fluids typically share the pore space of the reservoir rock. For this reason a distinction is made between the permeability measured with a single fluid occupying all of the pore space and the permeability measured with multiple fluids present in the pore space.

78

The permeability measured when the pore space is occupied by a single fluid is referred to as the specific or absolute permeability and is a property of the rock.

H

q

©2003. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

The permeability measured when the pore space is occupied by a single fluid is referred to as the spedfi: or absolute permeabilt'ty. The permeability measured in the presence of multiple fluids is referred to as the iffective permeability. The effects of the presence of multiple fluids will be addressed hi the following chapter.

While Equation (10.2) is no longer limited to a specific fluid, it is still limited to a porous medium open to the atmosphere at both ends. That is, atmospheric pressure must exist at both the inlet and outlet of the fluid where H is the change in elevation (vertical distance) between the inlet and outlet of the fluid. Thus, flow is still being driven by changes in hydrostatic pressure. Note that the group of

terms, [pgH] , is the hydrostatic pressure existing at the outlet.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

In D'Arcy's experiment, the outlet is the bottom of the sand pack. However, Equation (10.2) is valid even when the outlet is not at the bottom of the sand pack as long as H is the height of the water level abo~e the outlet and as long as atmospheric pressure exists at the surface of the water and at the outlet. Keep in mind that H is the change in elevation and not necessarily distance. Distance is equal to elevation only when the entire flow path is vertical.

If we divide the volumetric flow rate (g) by the cross sectional area (A), the resulting term has the units of velocity but is actually aflux. Flux is defined as the volumetric flow rate per unit of flow area perpendicular to the flow direction. The symbol chosen for volumetric flux is tf and Equation (10.2) becomes:

u=!l..=kPgH

A JiL

(10.3)

Although this particular flux (u) is often called the "Darcy velocity", it does not represent the actual rate of movement of the fluid (velocity) through the porous medium. To obtain an average velocity, the fraction of the cross sectional area (A) that is open to flow must be included. The fraction of the area open to flow through the medium is equal to the porosity. Thus, the average velocity of the fluid can be expressed as follows:

V - q - q - u _ k pgH

-------~- --

Apores rpA rp rpJiL

(10.4)

In flow problems where the volume of flow is the desired quantity, the flux is usually used. Whereas when the travel time required to flow from point to point within the porous medium (reservoir) is desired, the average velocity is used.

79

Take special notice of how the inlet and outlet points have been defined for Equa. tion (10.6).


Second, consider the limitation that the flow is driven solely by gravity. That is, flow is due to the weight of the overlying fluid. Removal of this limitation requires the definition of another new term called flow potential. As mentioned ear-

lier, the variable group, [pgH] , has the dimensions of force per unit area, or pressure. Thus, replacing these terms with an equivalent pressure term to escape the dependence upon a vertical system open to the atmosphere at both ends would seem natural. However, care must be taken here. This replacement cannot be done merely by substituting the difference in pressure at the ends of the flow system for this group of terms. Gravity is a constant body force which is always directed vertically downward while a pressure difference may exist in any direction. The force driving the flow would then be the vector sum of these two. In practice, we obtain this result by introducing a parameter called the flow potential which has the same dimensions as pressure. The conventional symbol for flow potential is ¢, the upper case of the Greek letter "FEE".

The flow potential at any point in a fluid-filled. porous medium is defined as the pressure at that point less the hydrostatic pressure that would be exerted by a column of the fluid extending down to an arbitrarily assigned horizontal plane. This arbitrary horizontal plane is often referred to as the datum. Conventionally, the vertical distance or elevation change (h) is equal to zero at the datum and positive downwards from the datum. Flow potential (cD) may be expressed mathematically as follows:

$= p- pgh

(10.5)

Chousing to place the datum plane at at above the highest point in the flow sy"tern so that the value of h will always be positive is usually most convenient when solving problems. Letting subscript i refer to the inlet point in the porous medium and the subscript 0 refer to the outlet point in the medium, the Equation (10.3) may be written in terms of flow potential as follows:

(10.6)

The original H term in Equation (10.3) defining the elevation change between the inlet and outlet fluid levels has been incorporated into the potential difference term. Take special notice of how the inlet and outlet points have been defined for Equation (10.6). The inlet is the entrance point into the porous medium (sand pack) NOT the surface of the water. Likewise, the outlet is now the exit point from the porous medium (sand pack) NOT the end of the outlet pipe (if any).

The negative sign has entered the equation because the potential drop (or difference) is conventionally expressed as the downstream potential minus the upstream potential. Since flow occurs from high potential (inlet) to low potential (outlet),

80

The potential drop will be equal to the pressure drop only when the flow system is horizontal.


the negative sign is required to obtain a positive flow rate. If .a negative flow rate. is obtained from Equation (10.6), the flow is actually in the direction which is opposite to the direction assumed when setting up the problem. In other words, the point assumed to be the "outlet" is actually the inlet of the system and vice versa. Note that the potential drop will be equal to the pressure drop only when the flow system is horizontal.

Equation (10.6) will give the same result as Equation (10.3) when applied to D'Arcy's experimental setup of vertical sand packs open to the atmosphere at both ends. Both equations will give the same result and both show the following:

(1) the inlet pressure (at the top of the sand) is equal to 1 atmosphere plus [pg (H - L)],

(2) the outlet pressure (at the bottom of the sand) is equal to 1 atmosphere, and

(3) the difference in flow potential (<Ill between the inlet and outlet is equal to -[pg H] for any chosen datum leveL

Equation (10.6) is quite general as long as the fluid density does not change significantly with pressure (i.e., a liquid not a gas) and the flow system is linear (flow in one direction). These last two limitations can be eliminated by going to the differential form of the flow equation. Note that Equation (10.6) would be valid for any incremental length of the porous medium. Therefore, it may be re-written as follows:

(i1<l> )

u=-k--

fl/'t,L

(10.7)

Allowing the incremental length to approach zero, Equation (10.7) becomes the following:

k d<Il

u=----

fl dL

(10.8)

In this form, the potential gradient (d<IljdL) must be measured in the direction of the flow and is always negative.

Equation (10.8) is commonly referred to as Darcy'S Law. Darcy's Law may be considered to represent the fluid flux at a point as long as we remember that it was developed for the laminar (streamline) flow of a fluid in a porous medium large enough to contain a representative collection of matrix grains and connected pores. That is, Darcy's Law does not apply to the flow of the fluid through each individual pore but rather to the rock as a. whole as long as the rock sample is much larger than the individual pore. Darcy's Law may be thought of as a statisti-

81


cal law which predicts the average behavior of a collection of pores within the rock as a whole. Darcy's Law provides the basis for other more specific flow equations for a wide variety of fluids and geometric shapes when the conditions do not change with time (steady state).

THE UNITS OF PERMEABILITY

As derived, the flow equation is dimensionally homogeneous. Therefore, it is valid for use with any consistent set of units (i.e., CGS, etc.). Applying this consistency to one of the above flow equations, shows that the permeability, k, must have the dimensions of an area in order for the equation to be dimensionally coherent (balanced). Choosing the International Standard set of units (S1) permeability would be measured in meters squared while the length would be in meters, the flow rate in cubic meters per second, the area in square meters, the potential in units of Pascal and the viscosity in Pascal seconds. With this set of units, the permeability of even the largest grained sands would have more than ten zeros in the value (i.e.: k < 0.00000000001 meters squared). Permeability values are equally unhandy in any of the other standard sets of units.

The traditional set of units defined the permeability as being one Darcy for a medium where a potential gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter in a one centipoise fluid produced a flux of one centimeter per second. Stated in terms of flow rate rather than flux, a permeability of 1 Darcy will permit a flow rate of 1 cubic centimeter per second of fluid of 1 centipoise viscosity through an area of 1 square centimeter under a pressure gradient of 1 atmosphere per centimeter.

The Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) has adopted a subset of the International standard where the permeability is expressed in micrometers squared. In the SPE preferred units, a permeability of one micrometer squared will permit a flow of 1 cubic meter per second of fluid of 1 Pascal second viscosity through an area of 1 square meter under a potential gradient of 1,000,000,000,000 Pascals per meter. Table 10.1 shows a comparison of the various units used in fluid flow in more detail.

The most commonly used unit in the petroleum industry is the millidarcy (md) which is equivalent to one milli-micrometer squared for all practical purposes. In most cases, conversion constants are added to flow equations to allow the use of convenient sets of units. For instance, Equation (10.7) can be re-written for an inconsistent, preferred set of "field units" as follows:

1.1271kA~<l> q=-----

pM

(10.9)

82


where the permeability is in Darcys and the viscosity is in centipoise (cp) but the potential is in Ibf/in2 (psi), the area is in square feet, the length is in feet and the flow rate is in barrels per day (bbl/ day).

TABLE 10.1: UNITS FOR FLOW EQUATIONS.

Quantity Dimensions Traditional SPE preferred
flow rate L*L*L/T cubic cm./ sec cubic meters/sec
viscosity M/(L*T) centipoise Pascal second
length L centimeter meter
area L*L sq. centimeters sq. meter
pressure M/(L*T*T) atmosphere Pascal
permeability L*L millidarcy, md micrometer squared, J..lm2
1 Darcy ::::: 1000 md 1 Darcy = 0.9869 J..lm2 Example 10.1

A straight piece of pipe containing a sand (permeability = 1 Darcy) is inclined at an angle of 45 degrees from the horizontal, It is part of a flow loop for a brine having a viscosity of 1 centipoise and a density such that the gravity gradient, pg, is 0.001 atm/ ern. The sandfilled pipe is 5 meters long and has a cross section area of 50 square centimeters. An absolute pressure gauge at the top of the pipe reads 2.0 atmosphereswhile a similar gauge at the bottom of the pipe reads 1.4 atmospheres. Find the volumetric flow rate through the pipe and the direction in which it flows.

Solution:

( atm)

<l>/oP = PlOP - pghlop = 2.0 atm- 0.001 em (0) = 2.0 atm

2.0 atrn

DATUM

Choosing the datum plane to be at the top of the sand-filled pipe, convert the inlet and outlet pressures to flow potentials using Equation (10.5) as follows:

, I

J ... _

<l> bot = hot - P ghbot = 1.4 atm-( 0.001 :: )r 500 sine 450)] = 1. 0464 atm

Since the potential at the top of the pipe is larger than the potential at the bottom of the pipe, the flow is moving down and to the right. (The top is the inlet and the bottom is the outlet). Using Equation (10.6) and the definition of the flux, u:

83


q = _ kA( $ 0 -$;) =_ (1.0D)(50em2)(1.0464atm - 2.0atm) = 0.09536 em3 \

JiL (l.Oep)(500em) s

(A negative flow rate would indicate that the inlet and outlet are actually reversed.)

PERMEABILITY IN RESERVOIRS

Generally, the same factors affecting porosity in a reservoir rock also affect permeability. Both the intergranular structure and composition of the rock and secondary changes such as fractures and dissolution or swelling of portions of the rock matrix affect the permeability of the rock. Commercial sandstone reservoirs can vary in permeability from a few millidarcies (md) to several Darcy (D). The commercial permeability range is very wide since the flow rate depends not only on the permeability (k) of the rock but also on the viscosity (u) of the fluid flowing through the rock. Thus, the minimum permeability required to make a gas reservoir commercial is much less than the minimum permeability required for an oil reservoir since gas has a much lower viscosity than oil. Fracturing and vugs tend to dramatically increase permeability. As a consequence, a popular method for increasing the productivity of a "tight" (low permeability) sand is to induce artificial fractures in the reservoir rock locally around the wel1bore.

As discussed in the previous chapter on porosity, the properties measured in a rock sample in the laboratory mayor may not be representative of the reservoir as a whole. Just as with porosity, permeability can also vary drastically within a given reservoir. Often wide variations in permeability are observed in both the horizontal and vertical planes of a reservoir. In some cases, the permeability may change dramatically over a 1 inch interval even though the rock appears quite uniform. As a result, care must be taken when applying permeability measured in the laboratory to the reservoir as a whole. When obtaining an estimate of reservoir permeability using laboratory analysis, many core samples are taken from the well and permeability measurements are handled statistically to obtain a permeability which may more closely represent the reservoir as a whole. Due to the inherent difficulty and expense involved in obtaining an estimate of permeability which represents the reservoir as a whole from cores, average reservoir permeability is often determined analytically by' conducting special well tests where the rate of the well is controlled while the pressure in the well is monitored and recorded.

EFFECT OF NET OVERBURDEN

Permeability is also reduced by increases in net overburden pressure. (Recall that net overburden can either be increased by going from surface conditions to reservoir conditions or by decreasing the internal reservoir pressure while holding external overburden pressure constant.) Just as for porosity, the magnitude of the

84


reduction depends upon the degree of consolidation of the rock and the magni~ tude of the increase in net overburden. While the reduction for some wellcemented rocks can be slight, the reduction in permeability for unconsolidated rocks can be quite significant. Experimental measurements have shown that the permeability of an unconsolidated rock can be reduced to about 23% of the surface permeability at a net overburden of about 9,000 psi. At the same net overburden, the permeability of a well-cemented rock might range between 63% and 97% of the permeability measured at the surface. Thus, the effect of net overburden and formation compressibility on permeability tends to be much more significant than on porosity, especially for unconsolidated rocks.

RELATIONSHIP TO RESISTIVITY

Logging tools are routinely used which can measure physical properties of the rock and fluids within the reservoir in close proximity to the wellbore. As shown in the previous chapter, resistivity is one of these routinely measured properties which can be related to the porosity and water saturation of the reservoir. Thus, water saturation and porosity are routinely estimated in the reservoir using logging tools. While permeability cannot be estimated directly by logging tools at this time, a relationship does exist between permeability and the resistivity formation factor. Recall that the formation resistivity factor can be shown to be related to tortuosity and porosity. As one might expect, the permeability of a rock is also related to its tortuosity. Therefore, a relationship also exists between the formation resistivity factor and permeability: Finally, a relationship between permeability and porosity can be derived through their common connection to the formation resistivity factor. Experimental study has confirmed that a relationship does exist between the formation resistivity factor and perrrieability. The relationship is of the following form:

(10.10)

Combining Equation (10.10) with Equation (9.3), an expression relating porosity and permeability directly can be derived as follows:

-B a

F=Ak and F=- then, (pm

Ak~B =.!!_ (pm

= (_a )Ynl = (:!...)Yn. (_1 )Y"l

¢ Ak-B A k-B

85

which may be simplified by grouping constants into the following form:


(10.11)

where A, B, C, and D are constants for a given reservoir rock. Attempts to reliably predict these constants as a function of rock type or composition have been unsuccessful. Therefore, the value of these constants must be determined specifically for each formation. Determination of these constants requires laboratory measurements on a set of core samples or a combination of laboratory core measurements and logging tool measurements. While resistivity and porosity can be measured either in the laboratory or in the well using logging tools, permeability must be measured using core samples in the laboratory.

Knowing either the constants A and B or the constants C and D for a particular formation allows the petroleum engineer to predict permeability in a reservoir known to be in the same rock formation without need of core samples. Once the relationship has been defined for a particular formation, permeability can be predicted using resistivity and/ or porosity values obtained strictly from logging tools. While these relationships have a high degree of' uncertainty, they are useful in the absence of other more reliable data.

Often these porosity-permeability relationships are used when evaluating whether or not an undeveloped reservoir will be commercial. A reservoir is not commercial if either the volume of hydrocarbons present is too low or the absolute permeability which controls the ultimate production rate is too low. Knowing the porosity which is more likely to correspond to the desired minimum commercial permeability, the reservoir can be evaluated in the absence of permeability measurements based on ,a series of resistivity and porosity logging measurements.

EFFECT OF CLAY DISTRIBUTION

Just as the presence of clay in the rock matrix affects the resistivity of the formation, it also has significant effects on the permeability of the formation. As discussed in the previous chapter on resistivity, the clay in the formation can be laminated, structural, or dispersed. In addition, some clay minerals tend to swell markedly in the presence of water. Another characteristic of clay or shale that is of interest to petroleum engineers is its lack of permeability. Clay and shale are porous but not generally permeable, so they tend to act as a barrier to flO\~·.

Laminated clay or shale present in the formation does not generally alter the porosity or the permeability of the sandstone (or limestone) layers between them. However, the layers of clay or shale do act as barriers to flow. Therefore, the oil and/ or gas can only flow along the layers of day or shale not across them. Flow can still occur but it is more restricted overall than in a clean formation.

Dispersed clays can drastically reduce the permeability of a formation relative to a comparable clean formation. The crystals of dispersed days, which precipitate

86


from the formation fluids, combine to form thin layers !liong the inner surface of the pore space. This has the effect of reducing some of the larger pores and completely blocking a portion of the smaller pores.

The presence of day and shale in the formation can also lead to formation damage during the drilling process. Formation damage is a term which refers to a reduction in permeability locally around the wellbore caused by drilling, completion, or production operations. A common source of formation damage is the swelling of clay and/or shale present in the formation due to the infiltration of fresh water from the drilling process. As the water from the wellbore contacts certain clay minerals, the water becomes chemically incorporated with the clay crystals. The degree of swelling is a function of the salinity of the water and the particular clay mineral(s) present. The degree of formation damage (permeability reduction) is a function of the degree of swelling and the arrangement of the clay minerals in the rock matrix. A more detailed discussion of clay mineralogy and the chemical processes driving the interaction between clay minerals and water are beyond the scope of this course and is left for future courses. For now, awareness of the effect that clay and shale swelling can have on formation permeability is sufficient.

87

Linear Flow

(a) (b)

Radial Flow - (a) horizontal plane, (b) vertical plane

q

Application of Darcy's Law

Darcy': law forms the basis for predicting the flow of fluids through porous media such as reservoir rocks.

The differential form of Darcy's Law and the basic principle of the conservation of mass can be used to solve fluid flow problems for simple flow geometries and constant boundary conditions. One of the simplest types of flow to model is referred to as steatfy state. As the name implies, the state of or conditions in the system do not change as a function of time. In other words, the derivative with respect to time of any reservoir condition (such as pressure, potential, or temperature) will be zero in steady state flow. Remember Darcy's law is valid wherever the flow is considered to move along streamlines. Therefore, any solutions found based on Darcy's law are also limited to laminar or streamline flow. Most flow in the reservoir Is laminar or streamline flow so this limitation will not be a problem.

Fluid flowing in streamline or laminar flow within the pores of the petroleum reservoir can usually be approximated by either linear or radial flow. In linear flow, the flow lines (streamlines) are parallel and the cross-sectional area perp endicular to the direction of flow is constant. In radial flow, the flow lines are directed along radii and converge or diverge away from a common central axis (such as a well). In radial flow, the cross-sectional area perpendicular to flow is a function of radius and decreases as radius decreases. In reality, the fluid flows along a tortuous path as it weaves its way through a maze of interconnecting pores in the rock. However, the average overall behavior of the fluid's flow througH the rock follows Darcy's Law which relates the flow rate to the potential gradient and dimensions of the bulk rock rather than the exact flow path and geometry. Therefore, fluid flow may be represented conceptually as straight lines directed along the potential gradient.

LINEAR FLOW

Consider a uniform porous medium of constant cross section (A), permeability (k) and length (L). The flow potential at the, inlet (l = 0) is denoted as <1>0 and the

88

flow potential at the outlet (C = L) is 11\ . The incompressible nature of the fluid means that the volumetric flow rate of the fluid is constant with respect to C or potential and that the viscosity is equally constant. From the differential form of Darcy's Law developed in the previous chapter (10.8), an expression for the flux in this case can be written as follows:

q k d(J)

U=-=~--

A Jl .u

(11.1 )

Separating variables ((J) and e ) and integrating along the length, e where q, A, k and u are constant for an incompressible liquid, the following expression may be derived for flow rate of an incompressible liquid in one dimension, L:

!l.d.e = ~!_d(J)

A Jl

q L k <l>L •

- fd.e = -~ f d<D

A a Jl <1>0

!l_ (L - 0) = .i ((J) L - (J) 0)

A Jl

(11.2)

Equation (11.2) is the one most often used when determining the permeability of liquid-saturated rock samples in the laboratory. By measuring the flow rate (q) of a liquid of known viscosity (u) through a core of known length (L) and crosssectional area (A) over a known change in potential, the absolute permeability (k) of the rock sample can be determined using Equation (11.2).

RADIAL FLOW

Radial flow equations are often used to describe the flow around awellbore as well as flow in some core analysis methods. The geometric shape of the medium for steady state radial flow is shown in the figure to the left. The flow will be considered to go from the inner cylindrical wall (radius, r = rw and height, h) to the outer cylinder wall (radius. = r, and height, h) along lines that are radii of the concentric circles. For convenience, the' distance of fluid movement will be expressed in terms of a given radius, r (rather than e as before);

q k deD

u=-=----

A Jl dr

(11.3)

89

o 1 2 ..... n

The potential at the inner radius (rw) is cDw and the potential at the outer radius (re) is cDe. The variables q, k and Il are constants due to the incompressible nature of the fluid but the area through which the flow will pass is a function of the radius, r. This area (A) is the outer surface of any cylinder having a radius, r between the inner and outer surfaces and will be equal to 2mh. Substituting this expression for A into Equation (11.3), separating variables and integrating from the inner radius to the outer radius, the following expression may be derived:

(11.4)

Equation (11.4) or its equivalent for slightly compressible fluids is the one usually referred to as the radial flow equation in reservoir engineering. This equation is sufficiently accurate for engineering purposes when flow potential as a function of radius does not change with respect to time. Thls condition would not be satisfied if reservoir pressure declined over time as the oil were produced. However, the flow potential would remain constant over time if the volume of oil removed from the reservoir were replaced by an equal volume of formation water flowing across the reservoir's outer boundary. In this instance, the potential (cDc) at the external boundary of the reservoir (re) would equal to the initial pressure in the reservoir as long as the volume balance was maintained.

This pressure maintenance condition can occur as a natural water drive reservoir or can be artificially induced by injecting water using a non-producing well. A more detailed discussion of fluid flow in reservoirs is beyond the scope of this course and is left for future courses in reservoir engineering. For now, awareness that Darcy's Law may be applied to predict reservoir flow in real world reservoir situations is sufficient.

ApPARENT PERMEABILITY IN SERIES

Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid through a linear flow system made up of a number of segments placed as shown to the left. Notice that the segments are stacked in the direction of flow such that the flow passes through each in turn. This stacking oriented along the direction of flow is referred to as flow in series. Each of the segments may have differing lengths and values of permeability, but the area perpendicular to the flow is the same for each segment. Since the entire flow must pass through each segment in turn, the volumetric flow rate is constant. Since the volumetric flow rate and the flow area are both constant, the volumetric flux is constant throughout the system. The flow rate through each segment in the linear flow system can be determined using Equation (11.1) as follows:

90

q k d(fl

------------.~

A Jt .u

(11.5)

where the subscript, i denotes the segment face number. The permeability must remain inside the integral since it is a function of length. All other terms are constant as a function of length and, as such, may be removed from the integral as shown. Breaking the system into a series of constant permeability segments of variable length, the left-hand integral may be approximated by a series and the right-hand integral may be integrated as usual. The flow rate may then be determined as follows:

(11.6)

While Equation (11.6) accurately represents the behavior of the system, it is difficult to grasp the flow capability of the composite system. The question arises, "does this system behave with an overall permeability that is relatively high or low?" This need to rank the flow capability of a composite system in terms of an equivalent, single, uniform permeability for the system as a whole brings about the concept of apparent permeability. Apparent permeability is the fictitious value of permeability which would produce the equivalent behavior (flow rate) in a system of the same total length (L) under the same total drop in potential. Thus,

(11.7)

where k, is the apparent permeability of the system. Since the flow rate expressed by Equation (11.7) must equal the flow rate expressed by Equation (11.6) in order for the behavior of the real system and the fictitious system to be equivalent, the following expression for apparent permeability can be obtained:

91

(11.8)

Notice that the apparent permeability of a composite linear flow system is only a function of the permeability and length of each segment and the total length of the system. Once the apparent permeability of the composite system is determined, it can be used in conjunction with Equation (11.2) to model the flow behavior of the system. In addition, it can also be used as a basis of comparison to other flow systems.

ApPARENT PERMEABILITY IN PARALLEL

Many reservoirs are composed of several rock layers each exhibiting a different thickness (height) and permeability. If all of these different layers are part of the same reservoir and flow from each layer is ent~ring the same wellbore under the same potential gradient, the apparent permeability concept becomes very useful. Expressing the permeability of these separate layers as a single uniform apparent reservoir permeability is more convenient that keeping tract of permeability and thickness of each layer separately.

Flow along the bedding planes of a sedimentary formation composed of a group of vertically stacked layers is flow in parallel. For this development we will use a radial flow system and an incompressible fluid. In any parallel flow system, each segment must have the same inlet and outlet potential, and the total flow rate of the system will be the sum of all of the individual flow rates contributed by each layer as follows:

n

qtotal = Lq; = L i=l

(11.9)

The total flow rate of the system is also related to the apparent permeability of the composite system according to the radial flow equation as follows:

qlolal =

(11.10)

where H is the total height of the system and is equal to the summation of the height of each layer. Setting Equation (11)0) equal to Equation (11.9)~ the appar-

82

H

(11.11)

ent permeability of a composite radial system flowing an incompressible fluid in parallel can be determined as follows:

..:.i=--"I i=1

As before, the fluid properties do not influence the apparent permeability. These same relationships for apparent permeability can be derived for compressible fluids as well using the same logic and starting with the appropriate flow equation developed from Darcy's Law for a compressible fluid.

DIRECTIONAL NATURE OF PERMEABILITY

Up to this point we have been treating the permeability of a porous medium as if it were completely independent of the direction of flow. However, this is not usually true for the naturally occurring porous media. Permeability to flow directed perpendicular to the rock's bedding plane is often much less than the permeability to flow directed parallel to the rock's bedding plane. Often, the bedding planes of sedimentary rock were originally horizontal, so the permeability to flow directed along the bedding plane is typically referred to as the horizontal permeabilz!J. Likewise, the permeability to flow directed perpendicular to the bedding plane is typically referred to as the vertical permeability. Keep in mind that the direction (horizontal or vertical) refers to the direction of the flow through the rock with respect to its bedding plane. Permeability is a property of the rock which acts as a proportionality constant relating flux and potential gradient. While the flux and potential gradient have magnitude and direction and as such are vector quantities, permeability is not a vector.

In many reservoir rocks, the vertical permeability is often much less than the horizontal permeability. One common reason for this is the presence of thin layers or "streaks" of less permeable materials within the reservoir rock. For example, laminated clay or shale present in the formation does not generally alter the porosity or the permeability of the sandstone (or limestone) layers between them. However, the layers of clay or shale do act as barriers to £low. Therefore, the oil and/or gas can flow along the layers of clay or shale but not across them. Since the layers of shale or clay are typically parallel to the bedding plane of the reservoir rock, the horizontal permeability in this ca;:;e is riot affected by the clay I shale, but the vertical permeability is severely restricted.

93

z

y

u

x

be p

I

(11.12)

A reservoir rock for which permeability is totally independent of flow direction is often referred to as isotropic. A reservoir rock for which permeability depends upon the flow direction is calledoanisotrrpic. To apply Darcy's law to anisotropic reservoirs, the more complex directional nature of the permeability constant must be considered. Consider flow in a three dimensional coordinate system (Cartesian). In such a flow system, the potential gradient at any point will have a direction as well as a magnitude. The same will be true of the flow rate or flux. Both of these are vector quantities and may be expressed in terms of their 3 vector components in Cartesian space.

Recall from vector math that the following relationships exists between any vector (u) and its 3 components (u", lly, Uz ) projected along the x, y, and z-axes, respectively:

( ) », (fJ) =- () ».

cos a =R: cos =~: cos r =~

(11.13)

(11.14)

Experience has shown that the volumetric flux is always directly proportional to the potential gradient. This is true even though the value of the apparent proportionality constant (permeability) may be a function of the direction of flow. Thus, the most general manner in which the flow of a fluid can be described in a three dimensional matrix is by using three equations to describe the flux vector (u) as follows:

u = __ .1 (K aD! +K aD/ +K aD! )

x f1 xr / ox .ry /oy xz! i3z

(11.15)

(11.16)

(11.17)

The nine proportionality constants, kij, are necessary to express the possible dependence of flow on all of the gradient vector components. Taken together they form a tensor, - which will be referred to as the permeabzlity tensor. Individually, these nine elements have no physical meaning.

94

Kxzi

Kyz. (permeability tensor)

K .

zz

Using the permeability tensor written in matrix notation Equations (11.15), (11.16) , and (11.17) may be expressed as follows:

(11.18)

The assumption that ~"X equals I<:"y and I<:,x equals I<Xz and Kzy equals I~z is usually made to simplify the permeability matrix. Once this assumption is made, the permeability tensor becomes a symmetric matrix,

«: ~ ~

IKyxf Kyy IKyz I (symmetric permeability tensor)

IKzxl IK:r «.

r kx

permeability tensor = l ~

ol

o JI (called a diagonal matrix) kz

One property of a symmetric matrix is that the symmetry is retained during the rotation and translation of the coordinate axes. Thus, a particular set of axes may always be found where: all of the elements not on the main di8:gonal ate equal to zero. That is:

For the permeability tensor to be a diagonal matrix, the following conditions must be satisfied:

1. the axes must be orthogonal,

2. the ,axes must be the principal permeability axes, and

3. the three quantities ~, ~ and k, are the true permeability constants when the potential gradient is directed along the x, y and z axes, respectively.

95

By experience, the diagonal matrix permeability tensor appears to represent flow in naturally occurring reservoir rocks which are least permeable to flow directed perpendinilar to the bedding planes and most permeable to flow directed parallel to these planes. In other words, the diagonal matrix assumption is sufficiently accurate for reservoirs in which the vertical permeability value (kJ is the minimum and the horizontal permeability values Cls and k" ) are the maximum. This condition is usually satisfied by directing the z-axis perpendicular to the bedding plane of the reservoir. The equations for the flux vector components for an anisotropic reservoir are then simplified as follows:

k, a<D

U =---

x Il ax'

k , act>

U =---

Y Il fJy'

kz act>

U =----

Z Il az

(11.19)

Example 11.1"

A porous medium is anisotropic (k, :::: 100 md, ky =50 md and k, = 10 md). It is saturated with an incompressible fluid with a viscosity of 0.8 cp, and the potential gradient is -Q.25 atm/ em directed at angles of 85 and 60 degrees with respect to the x and y axes, respectively. Find the magnitude and direction angles of the resulting volumetric flux.

Solution:

cosy = ~1- cos2(85) - cos2( 60) = 0.8616 (=> Y = 30.5) a%x = (~~) coso. = (-0.25)(cos(85)) ~ -0.0218

arfJy = ( :) cos f3 = (-0.25)( eos( 60)) = -0.125 (oPo-fJ op)

ux = -.!s_(ao/ax);::: -.Q:!.(-0.0218) = 2.724x10-4 em/ see

Il M .

uy = - ky (a<D~J = - 0.05 (-0.125) = 7.8125 x 10-3 em I see

Il /a 0.8 .

u = _.!s_(atDl ) = - 0.01 (-0.2154) = 2.6925x10-3 em/ sec

z Il laz 0.8

Magnitude of Volumetric Flux:

96

lui = ~u~ + u~ + u~ = 8.2679 xl 0-3 ern / see Angle of flux with respect to the x-axis:

a' ~ arcco{ ;~) ~ 88.1 degrees

Angle of flux with respect to the y-axis:

·W ~ arcco{ ~) ~19.l degrees

Angle of flux with respect to the z-axis: y' ~ arcco{ ~) ~ 7.ldegrees

Notice, in the example, that the direction of th~ volumetric flux is different from the direction of the potential gradient. This will always be true in anisotropic media except when the potential gradient is parallel to one of the coordinate axes.

97

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