Cells and tissues

the structure of living organisms is complex and Becouse of that, anatomy is organaized by levels, from the
smallest components of cells to the largest organs and their relationships to other organs.
Gross anatomy is the study of of the body’s organs as seen with the naked eye. Cellular anatomy is the study of
cellls and their components, which require special instruments and microscopes- special techniques for
observation.
A cell is made up of many even smaller parts, each with its own functions. The largest cell in human body is
fertilized egg, but it is still so small that it’s impossible to be seen with naked eye.
All cells contain a gelatinous substance composed of water , protein, sugar, acids, fats an various minerals. This
substance is called protoplasm.
Human cells have a membrane that holds the content together, is also surrounds an protects the internal
enviroment of the cell, determining what passes In and out of the cell.
Within the cell membrane there are two major components, the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
Cytoplasm is the protoplasmic materiasl outside the nucleus. It contains structure that consume and transform
energy and carry out the cell’s functions.
The cytoplasm contains mitochondria-small bodies which products energy in the cell by burning food, this
process is called catabolism. During catabolism complex structures are broken down into simper substances
and energy is released.
It also contains reticulum, a canal like structure in the cell. Some canals contain small bodies called ribosomes
and it helps to make proteins.
The synthezing process is called anabolism. Anabolism an catabolism together make total metabolism of the cll
The nucleus of the cell is a rounded or elongated structure usually in the center of the cell. It contains genetic
material and structure that control cell devision and reproduction. 23 pairs of chromosomes are located within
the mucleus.
The body is composed of may different types of cells, each with it’s own structure and function. Such as white
blood cells, move freely unattached to other cells. Others such as muscule cells are attached one to another.
Some cells, such as skin cells, divide and reproduce quikly;
nerve cells, on the other hand, don’t reproducee at all. Some cells, especially glandular cells have as their
primary function the reproduction of complex substance, such as hormones and enzyme, for example cells in
the breast produce milk, those in the mouth produce saliva.
Nerve cells conduct electrical impulsis allowing comminication between the central nervous system brain and
spinal cord and the rest or the body.
Related cells joind together are referred to as a tissue. Humen body is composed of 4 main types of tissues:
1) Epithelial tissue lines the body internally and covers it externally. It is located in glands, skin, the
digestive and urinary tracts. It is necessary for protection, lining tubes and secretion.
2) Muscule tissue. Voluntary muscle is found in parts of body where movemnt is voluntary, while
involuntary muscule is found in the heart and internal organs or systems.
3) Connective tissue can be fat, cartilage. Bone or blood
4) Nerve tssue conducts impulses all over the body.
 Q&A
1) What compartment of the organism is regarded as the smallest unit of living matter?
-the smallest unit of living matter is a cell
2) What main points of resemblance are observed in the structure of the cell?
-all cells contain a gekatinous substance- protoplasm and they have a membrane.
3) What does the sentence “The membrane is not just a sac” mean?
- This structure surrounds and protects the internal environment of the cell, determining what passes in and out of the
cell.
4) What parts of the cell are responsible for the production of energy?
- mitochondria
5) Does oxygen take part in catabolic processes?
-it does
6) What is the function of endoplasmic reticulum?
-it takes part of anabolism reactions and it makes proteins, lipids, carbohydrates
7) In what respect given in the text do white blood cells and muscle cells differ from each other?
-white blood cell move freely, they aren’t attached to other cells, but muscule cells are firmly attached to each other.
8) What cells are responsible for the production of hormones?
-glandular cells
9) What is the main peculiarity of nerve cells?
- Nerve cells conduct electrical impulses allowing communication between the central nervous system 6 (brain and spinal
cord) and the rest of the body
10) What main types of tissues are observed in the human body?
- epithelical, muscle, connective, nerve tissues

New words
1. a cell-უჯრედი
2. an egg-კვერცხუჯრედი
3. fertilization-განაყოფიერება
4. content-შიგთავსი
5. consume-შთანთქმა
6. saliva-ნერწყვი
7. spinal cord-ზურგისტვინი
8. dissection-გაკვეთა
9. lining-ამომფენი გარსი
10. mucus-ლორწო
11. heredity-მემკვიდრეობითი
12. region-ადგილი
13. relationship-კავშირი
14. gland-ჯირკვალი
15. enviroment-გარემო
16. division-დაყოფა
17. substance-ნივთიერება
18. observation-შესწავლა
19. contraction-შეკუმშვა
20. make up-შემადგენლობა
21. production-წარმოება
 Organs and organ systems
The body’s functions are coducted by organs. Each organ is recognizable structure that performs specific functions. An
organ is made of several types of tissue and several types of cells. for example, the heart contains muscule tissue that
contracts to pump blood,fibrous tissue that makes up the heart valves and others.

Although an organs has specific function, organs also function as part of a group and they are called organ systems.

An example of an organ system I the cardiovascular system, which includes the heart and blood vessels. It is responsible
for blood circulation. The other example is the digestive suystem, which is responsible for digesting food and excreting
waste. This system includes stomach, intestines, pancreas, liver and gallbleader, which produce digestive enzymes and
remove toxins.

Another one is muculo-skeletal system, which includes bones, muscules, tendons and joints. This system support and
move the body

Organs do not function in isolation. After a large meal, digestive system needs help from cardiovascular system, to
support this system with more blood, as well as the nervous system.

Nerve impulses are sent to the brain, notyfing it of increased work. The digestive system even directly stimulates the
heart though nerve impulses and chemicals, which are released into the bloodsteam

The heart responds by pumping more blood. Brain, on the other hand, responds by perciving less hunger.

Communicaton between organs and organ systems is vital. Communication allows the body to adjust the function of each
organ according to the needs of the whole body.

The heart must know when the body is resting so that it can slow down. The kidneys in need must excrete more urine and
when the body is dehydrated they conserve water.

Through communication, the body keeps itself in balnce - a concept called homeostasis.

Communication to maintain homeostasis can occur through the nervous system or chemical stimulation. Chemicals used
to communicate are called transmitters and they are produced by one organ and travel to other organ. They are also
called hormones.

Transmitters that are messages between parts of nervous system are called neurotransmitters

One of the best known transmitter is the hormone epinephrine- adrenaline.

When person is suddenly stressed or frightened, the brain sends a message to the adrenal gland, which quikly release
epinephrine. Within moments, body respons to it . the heart beats more rapidly and powerfully, the eyes dilate to allow
more light in and breath becomes quiklier. The effect is rapid and intens.

Other chemical communications are less dramatic but effective.

For example, when the body becomes dehydrated the blood circulation decreases, this is percived by the receptors in the
arteries in the neck. They send impulses through nerves to pituitary glands, which then produces antidiuretic hormones
and they inform kidneys to produce less urine. Simultaneously the brain senses thirst and a person drinks water.

The body has also the endocrine system, which produces hormones that regulate the functions of other organs.

Thyroid glandproduces thyroid hormone, which controls the metabolic rate.

The pancreas produces inulin, which controls sugar’

The adrenal produces epinephrine, which stimulates many organs to prepare the body for stress.

New words
 1. fibrous-ბოჭკოვანი
2. valva-სარქველი
3. blood vessels-სისხლძრღვები
4. waste-უვარგისინივთიერებები, დაშლისპროდუქტები
5. gallblader-ნაღვლისბუშტი
6. notify-შეტყობინება
7. vigorous-ძლიერი,ენერგიული
8. ligament-იოგი
9. tendon-მყესი
10. joint-სახსარი
11. transmitters-მედიატორი,გადამტანი
12. pituitary gland-ჰიპოფიზი
13. antidiuretic-შარდისშემაკავებელი
14. thyroid gland-ფარისებრი
15. dehydrate-გაუწყლოება
16. intestine-ნაწლავი
17. digestive enzymes-საჭმლის მომნელებელი ფერმენტები
18. associated organ-დამხმარეორგანოები
19. adjust functions-ფუნქციისმოწესრიგება
20. vigorous activity-ენერგიული მოქმედება
21. overproduce-ნორმაზე მეტის გამომუშავება
22. .underproduce-ნორმაზე ნაკლების გამომუშავება
23. Noticeble indication-აშკარა სიმპტომი
24. On alert-ფხიზლადყოფნა განგაში

Anatomy and Disease

The human body is remarkably well designed. Even after the demage most or the organs can still function adequately. For
example, more than two third of the liver must be destroyed before serious consequences occur, and a person can
survive after an entire lung is surgically removed as long as the other lung is functioning normally. However, Other organs
can tolerate little damage before they malfunction. if a stroke destroys a small amount of vital brain tissue, a person may
be unable to speak, move a limb, or maintain balance. The other example is a heart. A heart attack, which destroys heart
tissue, may slightly impair the hearts ability to pump blood, or it may result in death

Disease affect anatomy, and changes in anatomy can cause disease. Abnormal growth, such as cancer, can directly
destroy normal tissue or produce pressure that ultimately destroys it

Because of the relationship between disease and anatomy, methods of seeing into the body have become a mainstay of
the diagnosis and treatment of disease. The first breakthrough came with X-rays, which enabled doctors to see into the
body and examine organs without surgery.

Other methods of producing images of internal structures include MRI and CT.

A CT scan produces detailed , two-dimensional images of the body’s interior.

These are noninvasive ways to see into the body, in contrast to surgery, which is an invasive procedure.

The Musculoskeletal System

The human skeleton consists of 206 bones. Vital organs are protected by the skeletal system. The brain is protected by
the surrounding skull as the heart and lungs are encased by sternum and rib cage.
Bodily movements are carried out by interaction of the muscular and skeletal systems. For thus reason, they are often
grouped together as the musculoskeletal system. Muscles are connected to the bones by tendons. Bones are connected
to each other by ligaments. Where bones meet one another is typically called joint and there are many different types of
joints.

Blood cells are produced by the bone marrow located in some bones. An average of 2.6 million red blood cells are
produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those worn out or destroyed by the liver.

Bones also serve as a storage area for minerals. When the supply of these minerals within the blood is low, it will be
withdrawn from the bones to replenish the supply

The bones of the body fall into four general categories: long bones, short bones, flat bones and irregular bones. The
bones of the upper and lower limbs are long bones. Short bones are short, cube shaped and found in the wrist and ankles.
Flat bones have broad surfaces for protection of organs and attachment of muscles. Irregular bones have varied shapes,
sizes, and surfaces features and include the bones of the vertebrae and a few in the skull.

Bones are composed of tissue that may take one of two forms. Compact, or dense bone and spongy, or cancellous, bone.
Most bones contain both types. Compact bone is dense, hard, and forms the protective exterior portion of all bones.
Spongy bones occur in most bones.

The human skeleton is divided into two distinct parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton
consists of the skull, vertebral column and rib cage. The appendicular skeleton contains the bones of the appendages
(limbs) and the shoulder and pelvic girdles.

The vertebral column has 33 individual vertebrae separated from each other by a cartilage disk. These disks allow a
certain flexibility to the spinal column. The sternum or the breastbone is connected to all the ribs except the lower pair.

The limbs or arms and legs are part of the appendicular skeleton. The upper bones of the limbs are single: bone of the
upper arm (humerus) and thigh-bone(femur). Below a joint(elbow or knee), both limbs have a pair of bones(radius and
ulna in the arms; tibia and fibula in legs)that connect to another joint(wrist or ankle).

Limbs are connected to the rest of the skeleton by collection of bones known as girdles. The humerus is joined to the
shoulder girdle at a joint and held in place by muscles and ligaments. The pelvic girdle consists of two hipbones that form
a hollow cavity, the pelvis.The vertebral column attaches to the top of the pelvis; the femur of each leg attaches to the
bottom.

New words
1. sternum-მკერდის ძვალი
2. tendon-მყესი
3. hinged joint-ჭაღისებური სახსარი
4. ball-and-socket joint-კაკლისებური სახსარი
5. bone marrow-ძვლის ტვინი
6. replenish-შევსება
7. lever-ბერკეტი
8. axial skeleton-ტორსისჩონჩხი
9. appendicular skeleton-თავისუფალიჩონჩხი
10. appendages-დანამატი
11. girdle-სარტყელი
12. fontannelle-ყიფლიბანდი
13. immovable joint-უძრავი სახსარი
14. cartilage disk-ხრტილოვანი დისკი
15. wrist joint-მაჯის სახსარი
 16. pelvic girdle-მენჯის სარტყელი
17. collar bone-ლავიწი
18. tighty fitted-მჭიდროდ მორგებული

Muscular System

A mass of muscle cells form the muscle tissue. In the body there are three kinds of muscle tissue that are identified and
classified on the basis of structure and function: cross-striated skeletal muscle tissue, smooth or non-striped and cardiac
muscle.

Skeletal muscle tissue, which is named for its location, is attached primarily to bones and moves the skeleton. Skeletal
muscle tissue is striated because alternating dark and light bandlike structures are visible when the tissue is examined
under a microscope. It is a voluntary muscle tissue because it can be made to contract and relax under conscious control.

Smooth muscle tissue contracts without conscious control, and has the form of thin layers or sheets. It is made up of
spindle-shaped, unstriated cells with single nuclei and found in the walls of the internal organs, such as the stomach,
intestine, bladder, and blood vessels, excluding the heart. It is involved in internal processes related to maintain internal
environment.

Cardiac muscle tissue forms the bulk of the wall of the heart. It is striated at the microscopic level and involuntary;
Cardiac muscle has its own built-in rhythm (autorhythmicity) that causes the heart to beat about 75 times a minute.
Faster or slower rates are possible because heart rate is also influenced by involuntary nerves and certain hormones.

In addition to the movement function, muscle tissue also enables the body to maintain posture. The contraction of
skeletal muscles holds the body in stationary positions such as standing and sitting. The third function of muscle tissue is
heat production. Skeletal muscle contractions produce most of the heat generated in the body and are therefore
important in maintaining normal body temperature. It has been estimated that as much as 85 percent of all body heat is
generated by muscle contractions.

New words
1. rely on-ნდობა
2. primerily-ძირითადად
3. smooth-გლუვი
4. enviroment-გარემო
5. cross-striated-განივზოლიანი
6. bandlike-სალტისებრი
7. visible-ხილვადი
8. voluntary-ნებითი
9. conscious control-ნებითი კონტროლი
10. bulk-მასა
11. spindle-shaped-თითისტარა
12. integrated-გაერთიანებული
13. to expel-გამოდევნა
14. to maintain-შენარჩუნება
15. to estimate-შეფასება
16. the surface of the bone-ძვლის ზედაპირი
17. connective tissue-შემ. ქსოვილი
18. the bonds of muscular fibres-კუნთოვანი ოჭოს კონები
 19. cervical vertebrae-კისრის მალებ
20. an artificial joint-ხელოვნური სახსარი
21. the point of origin-უშუალო შეერთება
22. specificity-სპეციფიურობა
23. located-ადგილმდებარეობა
24. relaxed-მოდუნებული
25. cotraction-კუმშვადობა

Musculoskeletal Disorders

Disorders of the musculoskeletal system are major causes of chronic pain and physical disability. Injuries to bones and
joints are very common. Although these injuries are painful and may lead to long-term complications, most of them heal
completely.

Inflammation is a natural response to tissue irritation or damage; it causes swelling, redness, heat, and loss of function.
Inflammation of a joint is called arthritis; inflammation of a tendon tendinitis. An inflammation can become chronic and
persistent, sometimes because of continuous movement and mechanical stresses and sometimes because of infections,
or deposits of abnormal materials.

Bones and joint infections can be crippling. Immediate treatment can prevent permanent joint damage. Benign tumors
and cancers can originate in bone, and cancers can spread to bone from other locations in the body. Metabolic or
hormonal imbalances can also affect bones and joints. An example is osteoporosis – a thinning of bone resulting from the
excessive loss of minerals in bone.

Laboratory tests may provide helpful information regarding some musculoskeletal disorders. X-rays are taken to evaluate
areas of bone pain because often they can detect fractures, tumors ,injuries, infections and deformities. Computed
tomography(CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging(MRI) may be performed to determine the extent and exact
location of the damage.

Treatment depends on the type of musculoskeletal disorder. Injuries are often treated with rest, warm or cold
compresses, perhaps analgesics, and immobilization with splints or bandages. Diseases affecting several joints
simultaneously are often treated with drugs to reduce the 31 inflammation and suppress the body’s immune response;
however, most chronically damaged joints can’t be healed with drugs. Some severely damaged joints can be replaced
with artificial ones. Often treatment requires the combined efforts of doctors and physiotherapist.

New words
1. a response to-საპასუხორეაქცია
2. irritation-გაღიზიანება
3. swellingშეშუპება,შესიება
4. persistent-შეუპოვარი,მტკიცე
5. bening tumor-კეთილთვისებიანი სიმსივნე
6. excessive-ჭარბი.ზედმეტი
7. to evaluate-შეფასება, ციფრებითგამოხატვა
8. imaging-გამოსახულება
9. splint-არტაშანი
10. to suppress-ჩახშობა,დათრგუნვა
11. sampe-ნიმუში,სინჯი
 Musculoskeletal disorders
1.What are the major causes of chronic pain and physical disability?
- Disorders of the musculoskeletal system
2. What is a natural response to tissue irritation or damage?
- Inflammation is a natural response to tissue irritation or damage;(it causes swelling, redness, heat, and loss of function)
3.What condition makes inflammation chronic and persistent?
- An inflammation can become chronic and persistent, sometimes because of continuous movement and mechanical
stresses and sometimes because of infections, or deposits of abnormal materials
4.What are the CT and MRI used for?
- Computed tomography(CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging(MRI) may be performed to determine the extent and
exact location of the damage
5.How are the musculoskeletal disorders often treated?
- Treatment depends on the type of musculoskeletal disorder. Injuries are often treated with rest, warm or cold
compresses, perhaps analgesics, and immobilization with splints or bandages

BLOOD
The average adult has about 5 liters of blood living inside of their body. Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from
the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs. Blood is a combination of liquid, cells and cell-
like particles that courses through the arteries, capillaries and veins, delivering oxygen and essential nutrients to tissues
and carrying away carbon dioxide and other waste products.

Liquid Components

More than half of the blood consists of a liquid (plasma), which is mostly water containing dissolved salts and proteins.
The major protein in plasma is albumin. Others are antibodies (immunoglobulins) and clotting proteins. Plasma also
contains hormones, electrolytes, fats, sugars, minerals and vitamins. Plasma does much more than transport blood cells.
It provides a reservoir of water for the body, prevents blood vessels from collapsing and clogging, and helps maintain
blood pressure and circulation throughout the body. Besides transporting hormones and regulating their effects, plasma
cools and warms the body as needed.

Cellular Components

The cellular components of blood are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, all of which are suspended in the
plasma.

Red blood cells (erythrocytes), the most numerous, normally make up almost half of the blood’s volume. Mature
erythrocytes lack nuclei and have the shape of biconcave lens. These cells are filled with hemoglobin, which enables them
to carry oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to all body tissues.

White blood cells (leukocytes) are fewer in number. They are responsible for the defense of the organism. Leukocytes
divide in two categories: granulocytes and lymphoid cells or agranulocytes. Granulocytes are divided into three types of
cells: neutrophils, eosinophils (or acidophils) and basophils. Agranulocytes are divided into two types of cells: monocytes
and lymphocytes. Neutrophils, also called granulocytes , are the most prevalent white blood cell type. They help protect
the body against bacterial and fungal infections and ingest foreign debris. They consist of two types: band (immature) and
segmented (mature) neutrophils. Lymphocytes consist of two main types: T lymphocytes, which help protect against viral
infections and can detect and destroy some cancer cells, and B lymphocytes, which develop into cells that produce
antibodies (plasma cells).

Platelets (thrombocytes) are cell-like particles smaller than red or white blood cells. As part of the blood’s protective
mechanisms for stopping bleeding, they gather at a bleeding site, where they are activated. Once activated, they become
sticky and clump together to form a plug that helps seal 35 the blood vessel and stop the bleeding. At the same time, they
release substances that help promote clotting.
Blood Cell Formation

Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are produced in the bone marrow. In addition, lymphocytes are also
produced in the lymph nodes, spleen, and T lymphocytes are produced and mature in the thymus, a small gland located
near the heart ( in the mediastinum ).

Within the bone marrow, all blood cells originate from a single type of cell called a stem cell. When a stem cell divides, it
first becomes an immature red blood cell, white blood cell, or platelet-producing cell (megakaryocyte). Then the
immature cell divides, matures further, and ultimately becomes a red blood cell, white blood cell, or platelet.

Blood Transfusion

Transfusions are given to increase the blood’s ability to carry oxygen, restore the body’s blood volume, improve
immunity, and correct clotting problems. A blood transfusion is the transfer of blood or a blood component from a donor
to a recipient.

Depending on the reason for the transfusion, a doctor may order whole blood or a blood component – such as red blood
cells, platelets, blood clotting factors, fresh frozen plasma (the liquid part of blood), or white blood cells.

There are 4 types of blood groups: type A blood group, type B blood group, type AB blood group, type O blood group.
Blood groups are named for the presence of a specific substance (called an isoantigen or agglutinogen ) which is found on
the blood cells of an individual of that particular group. Agglutinins are protein substances (antibodies) formed in the
body or present at birth.

New words

1. nutrient-საკვები ნივთიერება
2. protein-ცილა
3. clotting-შედედება
4. platelet-თრომბოციტი (სისხლის ფირფიტა)
5. stem cell-ღეროვანი უჯრედი
6. fluid-სითხე
7. defence-დაცვა

Blood
1. What is blood?
- Blood is a combination of liquid, cells and cell-like particles that courses through the arteries, capillaries and veins,
delivering oxygen and essential nutrients to tissues and carrying away carbon dioxide and other waste products
2. What is the composition of blood?
- More than half of the blood consists of a liquid (plasma), Plasma contains hormones, electrolytes, fats, sugars, minerals
and vitamins
3. What does plasma contain? What is the major protein in plasma?
- plasma is mostly water containing dissolved salts and proteins. The major protein in plasma is albumin.
4. What is the function of plasma?
-plasma is a reservoir of water for the body, prevents blood vessels from collapsing and clogging, and helps maintain
blood pressure and circulation throughout the body. Besides transporting hormones and regulating their effects, plasma
cools and warms the body as needed.
5. What are the cellular components of blood?
- The cellular components of blood are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
6. What are the functions of blood?
- its main functions are delivering oxygen and essential nutrients to tissues and carrying away carbon dioxide and other
waste products.
7. What is the chief function of red blood cells?
- to carry oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to all body tissues.
8. How many types of white blood cells does blood contain?
- Leukocytes divide in two categories: granulocytes and lymphoid cells or agranulocytes.
9. What are the white blood cells responsible for?
-They are responsible for the defense of the organism
10. Granulocytes are divided into 3 types of cells, aren’t they? Give the names of them?
- neutrophils, eosinophils (or acidophils) and basophils.
11. What groups are agranulocytes divided into?
- Agranulocytes are divided into two types of cells: monocytes and lymphocytes
12. What are the functions of neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils?
- Neutrophils, also called granulocytes. They help protect the body against bacterial and fungal infections and ingest
foreign debris.
- Lymphocytes consist of two main types: T lymphocytes, which help protect against viral infections and can detect and
destroy some cancer cells, and B lymphocytes, which develop into cells that produce antibodies (plasma cells).
-Monocytes ingest dead ot damaged cells and provide immunologic defenses against many infective organisms.
-Eosinophils kill parasites, destroy cancer cells, and are involved in allergic responses.
-Basophils participate in allergic responses.
13. What are platelets? What is the function of platelets in blood?
- Platelets (thrombocytes) are part of the blood’s protective mechanisms for stopping bleeding, they gather at a bleeding
site, where they are activated, they release substances that help promote clotting.
14. Where are red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets produced?
- Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are produced in the bone marrow
15. What type of cell do all blood cells originate from?
- a stem cell
16. What is a blood transfusion?
- A blood transfusion is the transfer of blood or a blood component from a donor to a recipient.
17. How many blood groups are known?
- There are 4 types of blood groups: type A blood group, type B blood group, type AB blood group, type O blood group