Physics

Electromagnetic Waves

 Electromagnetic waves, or electromagnetic radiations, are produced by oscillating electric charges with the electric filed and magnetic
field vibrating perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation.
 Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
 The electric field and the magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of motion of the
wave
 In 1862, the Scottish physicist, James Clerk Maxwell predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves. But it was only in 1887, through
the efforts of Heinrich Hertz, a German Physicist, that those waves (other than light) were observed to exist
 Electromagnetic waves follow the basic wave equation that relates to the speed of propagation (v), frequency (f) and wavelength (λ)
V = fλ
 In a vacuum or air, all electromagnetic waves travel at a common speed equal to 3x 108 m/s.
 Electromagnetic waves are a form of energy waves that have both an electric and magnetic field. Electromagnetic waves are different
from mechanical waves in that they can transmit energy and travel through a vacuum.

Electromagnetic waves are classified according to their frequency. The different types of waves have different uses and functions in our
everyday lives. The most important of these is visible light, which enables us to see.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all types of EM radiation. Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out as it goes – the visible
light that comes from a lamp in your house and the radio waves that come from a radio station are two types of electromagnetic radiation. The
other types of EM radiation that make up the electromagnetic spectrum are microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma-rays.

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the continuous range of electromagnetic waves arranged in order of frequency or wavelength.

You know more about the electromagnetic spectrum than you may think. The image below shows where you might encounter each portion of
the EM spectrum in your day-to-day life.
 Types of Electromagnetic Waves
Radio Waves

Radio waves have the longest wavelengths of all the electromagnetic waves. They range from around a foot long to several miles long. Radio waves
are often used to transmit data and have been used for all sorts of applications including radio, satellites, radar, and computer networks.
Radio waves were discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887.
Radio: Your radio captures radio waves emitted by radio stations, bringing your favorite tunes. Radio waves are also emitted by stars and gases in
space.

Microwaves

Microwaves are shorter than radio waves with wavelengths measured in centimeters. We use microwaves to cook food, transmit information, and
in radar that helps to predict the weather. Microwaves are useful in communication because they can penetrate clouds, smoke, and light rain. The
universe is filled with cosmic microwave background radiation that scientists believe are clues to the origin of the universe they call the Big Bang.
James Clerk Maxwell is credited for discovering microwaves in 1864.
Microwave: Microwave radiation will cook your popcorn in just a few minutes, but is also used by astronomers to learn about the structure of
nearby galaxies.

Infrared

Between microwaves and visible light are infrared waves. Infrared waves are sometimes classified as "near" infrared and "far" infrared. Near
infrared waves are the waves that are closer to visible light in wavelength. These are the infrared waves that are used in your TV remote to change
channels. Far infrared waves are further away from visible light in wavelength. Far infrared waves are thermal and give off heat. Anything that gives
off heat radiates infrared waves. This includes the human body! Sir William Herschel, a British astronomer, discovered these rays in 1800.
Infrared: Night vision goggles pick up the infrared light emitted by our skin and objects with heat. In space, infrared light helps us map
the dust between stars.

Visible light

The visible light spectrum covers the wavelengths that can be seen by the human eye. This is the range of wavelengths from 390 to 700 nm which
corresponds to the frequencies 430-790 THz. You can go here to learn more about the visible spectrum.
Visible: Our eyes detect visible light. Fireflies, light bulbs, and stars all emit visible light.
Wavelengths of the colors of light

Color Wavelength

Red 760 nm

Orange 610 nm

Yellow 590 nm

Green 550 nm

Blue 470 nm
Violet 410 nm

Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet waves have the next shortest wavelength after visible light. It is ultraviolet rays from the Sun that cause sunburns. We are protected
from the Sun's ultraviolet rays by the ozone layer. Some insects, such as bumblebees, can see ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet light is used by powerful
telescopes like the Hubble Space Telescope to see far away stars. The German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter discovered UV.
Ultraviolet: Ultraviolet radiation is emitted by the Sun and are the reason skin tans and burns. "Hot" objects in space emit UV radiation as well.

X-rays

X-rays have even shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet rays. At this point in the electromagnetic spectrum, scientists begin to think of these rays
more as particles than waves. X-rays were discovered by German scientist Wilhelm Roentgen. They can penetrate soft tissue like skin and muscle
and are used to take X-ray pictures of bones in medicine.
X-ray: A dentist uses X-rays to image your teeth, and airport security uses them to see through your bag. Hot gases in the Universe also emit X-rays.

Gamma rays

As the wavelengths of electromagnetic waves get shorter, their energy increases. Gamma rays are the shortest waves in the spectrum and, as a
result, have the most energy. Gamma rays are sometimes used in treating cancer and in taking detailed images for diagnostic medicine. Gamma
rays are produced in high energy nuclear explosions and supernovas.
Gamma ray: Doctors use gamma-ray imaging to see inside your body. The biggest gamma-ray generator of all is the Universe.
Effects of Electromagnetic Radiation
 We use electromagnetic waves a lot. We see because of light waves. Information is sent from place to place by means of radio waves. We
forecast the weather using microwaves. Waves even invade our kitchen when food is cooked in a microwave oven. X-rays and gamma
rays are now used in medical diagnosis and treatment. Ultraviolet rays are used as medical sterilizing agent.
 The technologies we use today emit the electromagnetic radiation. These radiations can penetrate and affects us, seriously compromising
our health and disturbing our environment. This is the dark side of technology, the price we pay for modernization and convenience.
 Just like their uses, the hazards brought about by electromagnetic waves depend on their frequency. The energy of electromagnetic
radiation is dependent on its frequency. The higher the frequency, the greater the energy of the radiation. Specifically, the energy (E) of a
wave is related to its frequency (f) by the following equation, E=hf, where h is Planck’s constant and is equal to 6.63x 10−34 /s.

Sample Problem
The wavelength of the red part of visible light is 760 nm. What is the energy of red light?
Given: λ = 760 nm = 760x10−9m
Solution: we need to solve first for the frequency corresponding to the red light. Using the basic wave equation.

c
F= E=hf
λ
3 x 10 8 m/ s
= = (6.63x10−34 J s ) (3.95x1014 Hz)
760× 10−9 m
14 −19
=3.95x10 Hz = 2.6x10 J
Sample Problem
A radar in an airport detects that an airplane is 30.0 km away from it. How long will it take a pulse of radio waves to reach the plane and
return to the radar?
Given: (distance) d = 30 km = 3x104 m
Solution: Solve for the radio pulse to reach the plane, using the formula

d
T=
v
3× 104
=
3 ×108
−4
=1x10 s
Therefore total travel t=2x10−4 s.

 Electromagnetic radiation may be ionizing or non-ionizing based on its energy

 An ionizing radiation has sufficient energy to induce ionization. Ionization is the process of removing electrons from atoms.
Exposure to high-level ionizing radiation may cause either an effect on DNA. Delayed affects can be cancer or mutation. Ionizing
radiations include X-rays as well as gamma radiation.
 Non-ionizing radiation includes the other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Although considered less dangerous than
ionizing radiation, non-ionizing radiation still poses some health issues.
 Radio waves and microwaves can interfere with pacemakers. Microwaves are known to cause cataracts. Overexposure to
infrared waves can lead to burns and pain. Exposure to sudden bursts of intense light, such as those from flash bulbs in
cameras, can lead to flash blindness. Too much exposure to UV rays burns skin and produces the so-called sun tan. UV rays can
also cause skin cancer. These are some of the negative effects on us depending on how much radiation we are exposed to and
for how long.
 The greenhouse effect resulting from the increased concentration of greenhouse gases as a result of human activity is called
enhanced effect. It is also known as the anthropogenic greenhouse effect.
 With the thinning of the ozone layer, high levels UV rays can penetrate the Earth. It can also disrupt the organisms that depend
on them. Plankton sinks deeper into the water when exposed to too to much UV. This decreases the amount of visible light
plankton receives, thereby hindering photosynthesis and growth. Interference from the electronics and AM radio signals can
disrupt the internal magnetic compasses if migratory birds.
 Ionizing radiation that occurs from the nuclear material my result in weakening of seeds and frequent mutations.

Radio waves have photons with low energies, microwave photons have a little more energy than radio waves, infrared photons have still more,
then visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, and, the most energetic of all, gamma-rays.

They all have things in common. Speed in Vacuum, In a vacuum, they all travel at the same speed - the speed of light - which is 3 × 108 m/s.
They are all transverse waves, with the oscillations being electric and magnetic fields. Like all waves, they can be reflected, refracted and
diffracted.

We are told that the ray of light leaves the surface at 45° to the normal to the surface, so the angle of reflection is 45°. Since the angle of
reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, the angle of incidence is also 15°

For a rough surface, reflected light rays scatter in all directions. This is called diffuse reflection. Diffuse reflection is when light hits an object and
reflects in lots of different directions. This happens when the surface is rough.

Finding the focal length of a concave mirror

 r
f=
2

fiber optics makes use of total internal reflection.

frequency of 20 mm microwaves is 15GHz

Midway between the vertex and the center of curvature is a point known as the focal point; the focal point is denoted by the letter F in the
diagram below. The distance from the vertex to the center of curvature is known as the radius of curvature (represented by R).

Weber, unit of magnetic flux in the International System of Units (SI), defined as the amount of flux that, linking an electrical circuit of one turn
(one loop of wire), produces in it an electromotive force of one volt as the flux is reduced to zero at a uniform rate in one second.

Lenz's law states that the direction of the current induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is such that the magnetic field created by
the induced current opposes the initial changing magnetic field which produced it. Lenz's Law is named after the German scientist H. F. E. Lenz in
1834.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/25-6-image-formation-by-lenses/

Mirages happen when the ground is very hot and the air is cool. The hot ground warms a layer of air just above the ground. When the light moves
through the cold air and into the layer of hot air it is refracted (bent). A layer of very warm air near the ground refracts the light from the sky nearly
into a U-shaped bend.

Most scintillation effects are caused by anomalous atmospheric refraction caused by small-scale fluctuations in air density usually related to
temperature gradients. ... While light from stars and other astronomical objects are likely to twinkle, twinkling usually does not cause images of
planets to flicker appreciably.

Diamonds get their brilliance from three things: reflection, refraction and dispersion. ... This is the refraction. In essence, diamonds are tiny,
complicated prisms; the light enters through the top, and then is angled around the inside of the diamond before being aimed back towards the
top and out through the surface.

What Are The Two Laws Of Refraction Of Light?

Refraction is the bending of a wave when it passes from one medium to another. The bending is caused due to the differences in density between
the two substances. Refraction is the change in the direction of a wave passing from one medium to another. Refraction of light is one of the most
commonly observed phenomena, but other waves like sound waves and water waves also experience refraction.
Laws of refraction
When a beam of light passes through two different media via an interface, its behaviour is governed by the laws of refraction of light. These laws
are also known as Snell’s law.
Two laws of refraction
The two laws followed by a beam of light traversing through two media are:
 The incident ray refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two media at the point of incidence all lie on the same plane.
 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant. This is also known as Snell’s law of
refraction.
sin i / sin r = n whereby n is the refractive index of the denser medium.
Examples
 Twinkling of stars is due to refraction of light.
 Mirage and looming are optical illusions which are a result of refraction of light.
 A swimming pool always looks shallower than it really is because the light coming from the bottom of the pool bends at the surface due
to refraction of light.
The higher frequencies of EM radiation, consisting of x-rays and gamma rays, are types of ionizing radiation. Lower frequency radiation,
consisting of ultraviolet (UV), infrared (IR), microwave (MW), Radio Frequency (RF), and extremely low frequency (ELF) are types of non-ionizing
radiation.

The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another is called refraction. The angle and wavelength at which the light enters a substance
and the density of that substance determine how much the light is refracted.

REFRACTION REFLECTION
 - reflecting

- bending

Frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional to each other. The wave with the greatest frequency has the shortest wavelength. Twice
the frequency means one-half the wavelength. For this reason, the wavelength ratio is the inverse of the frequency ratio.
Inversely Proportional: when one value decreases at the same rate that the other increases.

The amount of energy is directly proportional to the photon's electromagnetic frequency and thus, equivalently, is inversely proportional to
the wavelength. The higher the photon's frequency, the higher its energy. Equivalently, the longer the photon's wavelength, the lower its energy.
Directly proportional: as one amount increases, another amount increases at the same rate.

The photon is a type of elementary particle. It is the quantum of the electromagnetic field including electromagnetic radiation such as light and
radio waves, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. Photons are massless, so they always move at the speed of light in vacuum,
299792458 m/s.

Just as wavelength and frequency are related to light, they are also related to energy. The shorter the wavelengths and higher
the frequency corresponds with greater energy. So the longer the wavelengths and lower the frequency results in lower energy.

Electric Generators
Electric generators induce an emf by rotating a coil in a magnetic field, as briefly discussed in Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux. We will now explore
generators in more detail. Consider the following example.

EXAMPLE 1. CALCULATING THE EMF INDUCED IN A GENERATOR COIL

The generator coil shown in Figure 1 is rotated through one-fourth of a revolution (from θ = 0º to θ = 90º ) in 15.0 ms. The 200-turn circular coil has
a 5.00 cm radius and is in a uniform 1.25 T magnetic field. What is the average emf induced?

Figure 1. When this generator coil is rotated through one-fourth of a revolution, the magnetic flux Φ changes from its maximum to zero, inducing
an emf.

Strategy
We use Faraday’s law of induction to find the average emf induced over a time Δt:
emf=−NΔΦΔtemf=−NΔΦΔt.
We know that N = 200 and Δt = 15.0 ms, and so we must determine the change in flux ΔΦ to find emf.

Solution
Since the area of the loop and the magnetic field strength are constant, we see that
ΔΦ=Δ(BAcosθ)=ABΔ(cosθ)ΔΦ=Δ(BAcos⁡θ)=ABΔ(cos⁡θ).
Now, Δ (cos θ) = −1.0, since it was given that θ goes from 0º to 90º . Thus ΔΦ = −AB, and
emf=NABΔtemf=NABΔt.
The area of the loop is A = πr2 = (3.14…)(0.0500m)2 = 7.85 × 10−3 m2. Entering this value gives
emf=200(7.85×10−3 m2)(1.25 T)15.0×10−3 s=131 Vemf=200(7.85×10−3 m2)(1.25 T)15.0×10−3 s=131 V.

Discussion
This is a practical average value, similar to the 120 V used in household power.
The emf calculated in Example 1 above is the average over one-fourth of a revolution. What is the emf at any given instant? It varies with the angle
between the magnetic field and a perpendicular to the coil. We can get an expression for emf as a function of time by considering the motional emf
on a rotating rectangular coil of width w and height ℓ in a uniform magnetic field, as illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2. A generator with a single rectangular coil rotated at constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field produces an emf that varies
sinusoidally in time. Note the generator is similar to a motor, except the shaft is rotated to produce a current rather than the other way around.
Charges in the wires of the loop experience the magnetic force, because they are moving in a magnetic field. Charges in the vertical wires
experience forces parallel to the wire, causing currents. But those in the top and bottom segments feel a force perpendicular to the wire, which
does not cause a current. We can thus find the induced emf by considering only the side wires. Motional emf is given to be emf = Bℓv, where the
velocity v is perpendicular to the magnetic field B. Here the velocity is at an angle θ with B, so that its component perpendicular to B is v sin θ (see
Figure 2). Thus in this case the emf induced on each side is emf = Bℓv sin θ, and they are in the same direction. The total emf around the loop is
then
emf=2Bℓvsinθemf=2Bℓvsin⁡θ.
This expression is valid, but it does not give emf as a function of time. To find the time dependence of emf, we assume the coil rotates at a constant
angular velocity ω. The angle θ is related to angular velocity by θ = ωt, so that
emf=2Bℓvsinωtemf=2Bℓvsin⁡ωt.
Now, linear velocity v is related to angular velocity ω by v = rω. Here r = w/2, so that v = (w/2)ω, and
emf=2Bℓw2ωsinωt=(ℓw)Bωsinωtemf=2Bℓw2ωsin⁡ωt=(ℓw)Bωsin⁡ωt.
Noting that the area of the loop is A = ℓw, and allowing for N loops, we find that
emf=NABωsinωtemf=NABωsin⁡ωt
is the emf induced in a generator coil of N turns and area A rotating at a constant angular velocity ω in a uniform magnetic field B. This can also be
expressed as
emf=emf0sinωtemf=emf0sin⁡ωt,
where
emf0=NABωemf0=NABω
is the maximum (peak) emf. Note that the frequency of the oscillation is f = ω/2π, and the period is T = 1/f = 2π/ω. Figure 3 shows a graph of emf
as a function of time, and it now seems reasonable that AC voltage is sinusoidal.

Figure 3. The emf of a generator is sent to a light bulb with the system of rings and brushes shown. The graph gives the emf of the generator as a
function of time. emf0 is the peak emf. The period is T = 1/f = 2π/ω, where f is the frequency. Note that the script E stands for emf.
The fact that the peak emf, emf0 = NABω, makes good sense. The greater the number of coils, the larger their area, and the stronger the field, the
greater the output voltage. It is interesting that the faster the generator is spun (greater ω), the greater the emf. This is noticeable on bicycle
generators—at least the cheaper varieties. One of the authors as a juvenile found it amusing to ride his bicycle fast enough to burn out his lights,
until he had to ride home lightless one dark night. Figure 4 shows a scheme by which a generator can be made to produce pulsed DC. More
elaborate arrangements of multiple coils and split rings can produce smoother DC, although electronic rather than mechanical means are usually
used to make ripple-free DC.

Figure 4. Split rings, called commutators, produce a pulsed DC emf output in this configuration.

EXAMPLE 2. CALCULATING THE MAXIMUM EMF OF A GENERATOR

Calculate the maximum emf, emf0, of the generator that was the subject of Example 1.

Strategy
Once ω, the angular velocity, is determined, emf0 = NABω can be used to find emf0. All other quantities are known.
Solution
Angular velocity is defined to be the change in angle per unit time:
ω=ΔθΔtω=ΔθΔt.
One-fourth of a revolution is π/2 radians, and the time is 0.0150 s; thus,
ω=π/2 rad0.0150 s=104.7 rad/sω=π/2 rad0.0150 s=104.7 rad/s.
104.7 rad/s is exactly 1000 rpm. We substitute this value for ω and the information from the previous example into emf0 = NABω, yielding
emf0=NABω=200(7.85×10−3 m2)(1.25 T)(104.7 rad/s)=206 Vemf0=NABω=200(7.85×10−3 m2)(1.25 T)(104.7 rad/s)=206 V.

Discussion
The maximum emf is greater than the average emf of 131 V found in the previous example, as it should be.
In real life, electric generators look a lot different than the figures in this section, but the principles are the same. The source of mechanical energy
that turns the coil can be falling water (hydropower), steam produced by the burning of fossil fuels, or the kinetic energy of wind. Figure 5 shows a
cutaway view of a steam turbine; steam moves over the blades connected to the shaft, which rotates the coil within the generator.

Figure 5. Steam turbine/generator. The steam produced by burning coal impacts the turbine blades, turning the shaft which is connected to the
generator. (credit: Nabonaco, Wikimedia Commons)
Generators illustrated in this section look very much like the motors illustrated previously. This is not coincidental. In fact, a motor becomes a
generator when its shaft rotates. Certain early automobiles used their starter motor as a generator. In Back Emf, we shall further explore the action
of a motor as a generator.

Section Summary
 An electric generator rotates a coil in a magnetic field, inducing an emf given as a function of time by
emf=2Bℓvsinωtemf=2Bℓvsin⁡ωt,
where A is the area of an N-turn coil rotated at a constant angular velocity ω in a uniform magnetic field B.
 The peak emf emf0 of a generator is
emf0 = NABω

Glossary
electric generator:
a device for converting mechanical work into electric energy; it induces an emf by rotating a coil in a magnetic field
emf induced in a generator coil:
emf = NABω sin ωt, where A is the area of an N-turn coil rotated at a constant angular velocity ω in a uniform magnetic field B, over a
period of time t
peak emf:
emf0 = NABω
 C=λf λ - wavelength (m)
1
C = 3x10 m/s 8
F - s or Hz (Hertz)

c
F= λ

Constant Speed of Light

Faraday’s Law of Induction

Faraday’s Law of Induction describes how an electric current produces a magnetic field and, conversely, how a changing magnetic field generates
an electric current in a conductor. English physicist Michael Faraday gets the credit for discovering magnetic induction in 1830; however, an
American physicist, Joseph Henry, independently made the same discovery about the same time, according to the University of Texas. 
It is impossible to overstate the significance of Faraday’s discovery. Magnetic induction makes possible the electric motors, generators and
transformers that form the foundation of modern technology. By understanding and using induction, we have an electric power grid and many of
the things we plug into it.

Faraday's law was later incorporated into the more comprehensive Maxwell’s equations, according to Michael Dubson, a professor of physics at the
University of Colorado Boulder. Maxwell’s equations were developed by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell to explain the relationship between
electricity and magnetism, essentially uniting them into a single electromagnet force and describing electromagnetic waves that make up radio
waves, visible light, and X-rays. 
Electricity
Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter, according to the Rochester Institute of Technology. Although it is difficult to describe what it
actually is, we are quite familiar with how it behaves and interacts with other charges and fields. The electric field from a localized point charge is
relatively simple, according to Serif Uran, a professor of physics at Pittsburg State University. He describes it as radiating out equally in all
directions, like light from a bare light bulb, and decreasing in strength as the inverse square of the distance (1/r2), in accordance with Coulomb’s
Law. When you move twice as far away, the field strength decreases to one-fourth, and when you move three times farther away, it decreases to
one-ninth. 
Protons have positive charge, while electrons have negative charge. However, protons are mostly immobilized inside atomic nuclei, so the job of
carrying charge from one place to another is handled by electrons. Electrons in a conducting material such as a metal are largely free to move from
one atom to another along their conduction bands, which are the highest electron orbits. A sufficient electromotive force (emf), or voltage,
produces a charge imbalance that can cause electrons move through a conductor from a region of more negative charge to a region of more
positive charge. This movement is what we recognize as an electric current. 

Magnetism
In order to understand Faraday’s Law of Induction, it is important to have a basic understanding of magnetic fields. Compared to the electric field,
the magnetic field is more complex. While positive and negative electric charges can exist separately, magnetic poles always come in pairs — one
north and one south, according to San Jose State University. Typically, magnets of all sizes — from sub-atomic particles to industrial-size magnets
to planets and stars — are dipoles, meaning they each have two poles. We call these poles north and south after the direction in which compass
needles point. Interestingly, since opposite poles attract, and like poles repel, the magnetic north pole of the Earth is actually a south magnetic pole
because it attracts the north poles of compass needles. 

A magnetic field is often depicted as lines of magnetic flux. In the case of a bar magnet, the flux lines exit from the north pole and curve around to
reenter at the south pole. In this model, the number of flux lines passing through a given surface in space represents the flux density, or the
strength of the field. However, it should be noted that this is only a model. A magnetic field is smooth and continuous and does not actually consist
of discrete lines. 

Magnetic field lines from a bar magnet. (Image credit: snapgalleria Shutterstock)

Earth’s magnetic field produces a tremendous amount of magnetic flux, but it is dispersed over a huge volume of space. Therefore, only a small
amount of flux passes through a given area, resulting in a relatively weak field. By comparison, the flux from a refrigerator magnet is tiny compared
to that of the Earth, but its field strength is many times stronger at close range where its flux lines are much more densely packed. However, the
field quickly becomes much weaker as you move away. 

Induction
If we run an electric current through a wire, it will produce a magnetic field around the wire. The direction of this magnetic field can be determined
by the right-hand rule. According to the physics department at Buffalo State University of New York, if you extend your thumb and curl the fingers
of your right hand, your thumb points in the positive direction of the current, and your fingers curl in the north direction of the magnetic field. 

Left-hand and right-hand rule for a magnetic field due to a current in a straight wire. (Image credit: Fouad A. Saad Shutterstock)

If you bend the wire into a loop, the magnetic field lines will bend with it, forming a toroid, or doughnut shape. In this case, your thumb points in
the north direction of the magnetic field coming out of the center of the loop, while your fingers will point in the positive direction of the current in
the loop. 

In a current-carrying circular loop, (a) the right-hand rule gives the direction of the magnetic field inside and outside the loop. (b) More detailed
mapping of the field, which is similar to that of a bar magnet. (Image credit: OpenStax)

If we run a current through a wire loop in a magnetic field, the interaction of these magnetic fields will exert a twisting force, or torque, on the loop
causing it to rotate, according to the Rochester Institute of Technology. However, it will only rotate so far until the magnetic fields are aligned. If we
want the loop to continue rotating, we have to reverse the direction of the current, which will reverse the direction of the magnetic field from the
loop. The loop will then rotate 180 degrees until its field is aligned in the other direction. This is the basis for the electric motor. 
Conversely, if we rotate a wire loop in a magnetic field, the field will induce an electric current in the wire. The direction of the current will reverse
every half turn, producing an alternating current. This is the basis for the electric generator. It should be noted here that it is not the motion of the
wire but rather the opening and closing of the loop with respect to the direction of the field that induces the current. When the loop is face-on to
the field, the maximum amount of flux passes through the loop. However, when the loop is turned edge-on to the field, no flux lines pass through
the loop. It is this change in the amount of flux passing through the loop that induces the current.
Another experiment we can perform is to form a wire into a loop and connect the ends to a sensitive current meter, or galvanometer. If we then
push a bar magnet through the loop, the needle in the galvanometer will move, indicating an induced current. However, once we stop the motion
of the magnet, the current returns to zero. The field from the magnet will only induce a current when it is increasing or decreasing. If we pull the
magnet back out, it will again induce a current in the wire, but this time it will be in the opposite direction. 

Magnet in a wire loop connected to a galvanometer. (Image credit: Fouad A. Saad Shutterstock)

If we were to put a light bulb in the circuit, it would dissipate electrical energy in the form of light and heat, and we would feel resistance to the
motion of the magnet as we moved it in and out of the loop. In order to move the magnet, we have to do work that is equivalent to the energy
being used by the light bulb. 

In yet another experiment, we might construct two wire loops, connect the ends of one to a battery with a switch, and connect the ends of the
other loop to a galvanometer. If we place the two loops close to each other in a face-to-face orientation, and we turn on the power to the first
loop, the galvanometer connected to the second loop will indicate an induced current and then quickly return to zero. 
What is happening here is that the current in the first loop produces a magnetic field, which in turn induces a current in the second loop, but only
for an instant when the magnetic field is changing. When you turn off the switch, the meter will deflect momentarily in the opposite direction. This
is further indication that it is the change in the intensity of the magnetic field, and not its strength or motion that induces the current. 

The explanation for this is that a magnetic field causes electrons in a conductor to move. This motion is what we know as electric current.
Eventually, though, the electrons reach a point where they are in equilibrium with the field, at which point they will stop moving. Then when the
field is removed or turned off, the electrons will flow back to their original location, producing a current in the opposite direction. 

Unlike a gravitational or electric field, a magnetic dipole field is a more complex 3-dimensional structure that varies in strength and direction
according to the location where it is measured, so it requires calculus to describe it fully. However, we can describe a simplified case of a uniform
magnetic field — for example, a very small section of a very large field — as ΦB = BA, where ΦB is the absolute value of the magnetic flux, B is the
strength of the field, and A is a defined area through which the field passes. Conversely, in this case the strength of a magnetic field is the flux per
unit area, or B = ΦB/A. 

Faraday’s Law
Now that we have a basic understanding of the magnetic field, we are ready to define Faraday’s Law of Induction. It states that the induced voltage
in a circuit is proportional to the rate of change over time of the magnetic flux through that circuit. In other words, the faster the magnetic field
changes, the greater will be the voltage in the circuit. The direction of the change in the magnetic field determines the direction of the current. 

We can increase the voltage by increasing the number of loops in the circuit. The induced voltage in a coil with two loops will be twice that with
one loop, and with three loops it will be triple. This is why real motors and generators typically have large numbers of coils. 

In theory, motors and generators are the same. If you turn a motor, it will generate electricity, and applying voltage to a generator, it will cause it
to turn. However, most real motors and generators are optimized for only one function. 

Transformers
Another important application of Faraday’s Law of Induction is the transformer, invented by Nikola Tesla. In this device, alternating current, which
changes direction many times per second, is sent through a coil wrapped around a magnetic core. This produces a changing magnetic field in the
core, which in turn induces a current in second coil wrapped around a different part of the same magnetic core. 

Transformer diagram 

The ratio of the number of turns in the coils determines the ratio of the voltage between the input and output current. For instance, if we take a
transformer with 100 turns on the input side and 50 turns on the output side, and we input an alternating current at 220 volts, the output will be
110 volts. According to Hyperphysics, a transformer cannot increase power, which is the product of voltage and current, so if the voltage is raised,
the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa. In our example, an input of 220 volts at 10 amps, or 2,200 watts, would produce an output of
110 volts at 20 amps, again, 2,200 watts. In practice, transformers are never perfectly efficient, but a well-designed transformer typically has a
power loss of only a few percent, according to the University of Texas.
Transformers make possible the electric grid we depend on for our industrial and technological society. Cross-country transmission lines operate at
hundreds of thousands of volts in order to transmit more power within the current-carrying limits of the wires. This voltage is stepped down
repeatedly using transformers at distribution substations until it reaches your house, where it is finally stepped down to 220 and 110 volts that can
run your electric stove and computer. 

https://www.livescience.com/53509-faradays-law-induction.html

Effects of Electromagnetic Waves

Light is made up of electromagnetic waves When you feel the warmth of the sun you are feeling energy through electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic waves are a disturbance that transfers energy through a field. That field is an area where they could be a push or pull on a object

2 How EM waves form EM waves occur when electrically charged particles move. Electromagnetic waves have properties of wavelength and
frequency

3 Sources of EM Waves The Sun’s high temperature allows it to give off countless electromagnetic waves Stars also give off EM Waves, but they are
so far away we don’t feel them. There are a large number of EM waves from technology that we have such as Microwaves, radio waves, radar, cell
phones.
4 Electromagnetic Waves can travel in a vacuum.
Energy that moves in the form of electromagnetic waves is called radiation. An EM wave can travel without a material medium, and does not lose
energy, and can travel forever

5 Converting Energy from one form to another

Electromagnetic energy can be converted into many different forms. How EM waves interact with a medium depends on the type of wave and the
type of the material

6 Converting Energy from one form to another

For example a microwave oven uses a type of EM wave called microwaves. Microwaves pass through the air with very little interaction. However
they reflect off the oven’s fans and sides. When microwaves encounter water, they convert that energy to thermal energy.

7 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The range of all EM frequencies is known as the electromagnetic spectrum. The spectrum is set up on the left are the frequencies with the longest
wavelength and the lowest frequencies such as radio waves and microwaves. On the right are the shorter wavelengths and highest frequencies
such as x rays and gamma rays

8 Light comes from the Sun and other natural sources

Most of the visible light waves in the environment come from the sun. The Sun’s high temperature produces light of every wavelength .Other
sources produce visible light such as stars, lightning, and fire.

9 Important terms to know for Electromagnetic Waves

Radiation

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Radio waves

Visible

Light

Infrared Light

Ultraviolet Light

X rays

Gamma Rays

Absorption

Scattering

Transmission