Biology 9

Breathing
- oxygen diffuses in the bloodstream
Respiration
- sugar with oxygen is converted into energy
for the cell’s use

Respiratory system
- a series of organs responsible for taking in
oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide

The lower respiratory system

1. Larynx
a. “Voice box”
b. Contains the epiglottis and vocal
chords
c. Epiglottis
i. Flap-like tissue that closes
the trachea when swallowing
d. Vocal chords
i. Vibrate when air passes, thus
producing sound
2. Trachea
a. “Windpipe”
b. Made up of cartilage
c. Lined with cilia and mucus to
The upper respiratory system further filter the air
1. Nose 3. Bronchi tubes
a. Lined with hair that filters dust from a. Made up of primary and secondary
air tubes
2. Nasal cavity b. Branch into bronchioles that
a. Lined with cilia and mucus to connect to the alveolar ducts
further filter the air c. Primary bronchi >> secondary
b. Where air is warmed and moistened bronchi >> bronchioles >> alveolar
3. Pharynx ducts >> alveoli (air sacs)
a. Passageway for both food and air
b. Splits into the trachea (leading to the
lungs) and esophagus (leading to the Breathing mechanism
stomach) 1. Inspiration (active process)
 i. Referred to as the
“cardiovascular system”
b. Heart and network of blood vessels Structures of the heart
c. Blood is confined and do not leave
the vessels
d. Circulates at higher pressure

Parts of the cardiovascular system

1. Heart
a. Muscular organ
b. Drives blood through blood vessels
c. Ensures one-way blood flow
d. Regulate blood supply
e. Between the lungs
2. Blood vessels

Heart walls
1. Endocardium
a. Lines the interior of the heart
2. Myocardium
a. Thickest cardiac muscle layer
3. Epicardium
a. Thin outermost layer
a. Network of small tubes (arteries, 4. Pericardium
veins, capillaries)
b. Delivers oxygen and nutrients
c. Structure:
i. Lumen - central blood filled
space of a vessel
ii. Tunica intima - single thin
layer of endothelium that
lines the lumen to decrease
friction
iii. Tunica media - middle coat;
smooth muscle and elastic
tissue that controls the
diameter of the blood vessel
iv. Tunica externa - outermost
tunic of fibrous connective
tissue to support and protect
3. Blood
 b. Collects blood from capillaries
5. Veins
a. Carries deoxygenated blood
b. Low pressure
c. Has valves

Blood
- Connective tissue
- Life-maintaining fluid
- Circulates through heart, blood vessels,
brain and the rest of the body
- Function
● Transportation
● Regulation
● Protection

Bone marrow

1. Artery
a. Away from the heart
b. Carries oxygenated blood
c. Do have valves (except semilunar)
d. Systemic - delivers blood to the rest - Where blood cells are made
of the body - “Myeloid tissue”
e. Aorta - main systemic artery - Red, soft, semisolid, gelatinous tissue
f. Pulmonary artery - carries blood
containing carbon dioxide from the Hematopoiesis
heart to the lungs - Production and development of new cells in
2. Arterioles the bone marrow
a. Small branch
b. Leads to the capillaries Blood components
c. Vital role in microcirculation
3. Capillaries
a. Smallest blood vessel
b. Transport blood from arteries to
veins
c. Gas exchange
i. Absorption of carbon dioxide
and other waste products
Plasma
4. Venules
a. Very small branches of veins

1. Pulmonary circuit
a. Lesser circulation
b. Blood movement between the heart
and lungs
c. Dispose carbon dioxide in blood and
get fresh supply of oxygen
2. Systemic circuit
a. Greater circulation
b. Movement of oxygenated blood from
heart and deoxygenated blood from
the body
Diseases in the circulatory system
1. Atherosclerosis
a. Narrowing of the artery
b. Deposition of fats, cholesterol, and
calcium in the innermost layer of
endothelium of the artery
c. Build-up and subsequent hardening
of the arteries restricts the flow of
blood
d. Symptoms: pain leg, shortness of
breath, chest pain, fatigue
2. Aneurysm
a. Widening of the artery
b. Because of the constant pressure of
the circulating blood within the
artery, the weakened part of the
arterial wall becomes enlarged
c. Symptoms: chest pain, back pain,
hoarseness, cough
3. Cardiomyopathy
a. Enlarged heart with stretching of
the ventricles and atrium
b. Due to a decrease in the pumping
power of the heart
c. Due to an impairment in the filling
of the cardiac chambers
 1. 5-Carbon sugar deoxyribose
2. Phosphate
3. Nitrogen base

Nitrogenous Bases

- Most found in the nucleus, some found in

the mitochondrion
- Each chromosome is a very long molecule of
tightly coiled DNA - Purines:
- Double helix ● Adenine, Guanine
- “Twisted ladder” - Pyrimidines:
- Deoxyribonucleic acid ● Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil
- Role: transfer of genetic material from - Base pairs:
parent to offspring
- Found in the nucleus >> chromosomes
- “Blueprint”

Genes

- “Strings of DNA”
● Thymine & adenine
- Contains instructions for making protein
● Cytosine & guanine

Nucleotides

Incomplete dominance and co-dominance

Co-dominance

- Subunits of DNA
- Building blocks of DNA
- Made of 3 important things:
- “Co” means together
ABO blood group - Certain blood clotting factors are not
- Controlled by three alleles produced
- I ,I ,i
A B
- Excessive bleeding
- Remember - Caused by gene mutation
1. A and B are co-dominant: - More common in men that in women
AA or I I = type A
A A

BB or IB IB = type B Color blindness

AB or IAIB = type AB - Color vision deficiency
2. A and B are dominant over O: - Decreased ability to see color or differences
AO or I i = type A
A
in color
BO or I i = type B
B

OO or ii = type O
Diseases in the respiratory system
1. Asthma
Sex-linked inheritance
Thomas Hunt-Morgan
- Discovered sex-linked traits of inheritance
- Experimented on the inheritance of eye
colors of fruit flies

a. Chronic disease of the airways that

Sex chromosomes
makes breathing difficult
b. Inflammation of the air passages;
temporary narrowing of the airways
c. No cure but symptoms may be
lessened
2. Emphysema

Sex-linked genes
- Females can be heterozygous or
homozygous
- Males only have one copy: hemizygous

X-linked recessive inheritance

a. Gradual damage of lung tissue,
- Recessive allele on the x-chromosome can
specifically thinning and destruction
lead to a trait disorder
of the alveoli
- Males are more affected than females
b. Major cause: smoking
- Examples: hemophilia, color blindness,
c. Not curable
duchenne muscular dystrophy
3. Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis

Hemophilia
- Blood disorder
 a. Exchange of gases at a cellular level
b. Oxygen molecules diffuse into
capillaries, binding with hemoglobin
c. Hemoglobin diffuses into cells for
cellular respiration
3. Cellular respiration
a. Takes place in the mitochondria
b. Each cell release carbon dioxide
c. The carbon dioxide is picked up by
the blood and returned to the alveoli
a. Contraction of diaphragm (moves
d. The carbon dioxide is released
downward)
outside the body and into the air
b. Chest cavity is pulled upward and
forward, increasing in volume
c. Air fills the lungs by rushing into
Circulatory system
the branching airways
- Referred to as the “transport system”
- Function:
2. Expiration (passive event)
● Maintain homeostasis
● Carries metabolic waste (carbon
dioxide and salt) and oxygen

2 types of circulatory system

a. Diaphragm relaxes
2. Open type
b. Chest cavity contracts
a. Invertebrates
c. Pressure increases, lungs get smaller
i. Crustaceans, grasshoppers,
d. Air is forced out of lungs
spiders
b. Requires less energy for pumping
blood
Process of respiration
c. Direct contact with the animal’s
1. External respiration
tissues
a. Gases from the environment
d. Low blood pressure
b. Enters the alveoli and blood
e. Takes more time for oxygen to reach
c. Oxygen diffuses in the capillary
the cells
walls
3. Closed type
d. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of
a. Vertebrates
alveoli and into the air
2. Internal respiration
 ● One-way valves
1. Tricuspid valve
a. Atrioventricular valve
b. Regulates flow between right atrium
and right ventricle
2. Pulmonary valve
a. Semilunar valve
b. Controls blood flow from right
ventricle to pulmonary arteries
3. Bicuspid/mitral valve
a. Atrioventricular valve
b. Oxygenated blood from lungs pass
from left atrium to left ventricle
4. Aortic valve
Vena cava
a. Semilunar valve
1. Superior vena cava
b. Oxygenated blood from left ventricle
a. Deoxygenated blood from the upper
to aorta going to the rest of the body
body to the heart
2. Inferior vena cava
Septum
a. Deoxygenated blood from the lower
- Thick wall of muscle
body to the heart
- Separates the right and left side of the heart
Right side of the heart
● Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
through the pulmonary circuit
1. Right atrium
Blood vessels
a. Receives deoxygenated blood from
the body
2. Right ventricle
a. Receives deoxygenated blood as the
right atrium contracts

Left side of the heart

● Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
pumped to the body through systemic
circuit
1. Left atrium
a. Receives oxygenated blood from the
lungs through the pulmonary vein
2. Left ventricle
a. Receives oxygenated blood as the
left atrium contracts

Valves of the heart

 ○ Monocytes

Granulocytes
1. Neutrophils
a. Majority of total white blood cells
b. First on the scene of inflammation
- Liquid component
2. Eosinophils
- Mostly water, electrolytes, and proteins
a. Less than 3% of white blood cells
b. Active during allergic reaction
Red blood cells
c. Parasitic infection
3. Basophils
a. 1% or less of total white blood cells
b. Allergic response
c. Anticoagulant: heparin

- Erythrocytes Agranulocytes
- Transport oxygen to the body 1. Lymphocytes
- Deliver carbon dioxide to the lungs a. Memory cells
- Biconcave b. Most common next to neutrophils
- No nucleus c. Immune response
- Contains hemoglobin 2. Monocytes
● Hemoglobin has iron a. Largest white blood cell
● Protein b. Phagocytic macrophage
- Important for blood typing c. Sometimes has pseudopods

White blood cells Platelets

- Thrombocytes
- Blood clotting
- Smallest cell type

Fibrin

- Leukocytes
- Immunity cells
- Nucleated
- Highly differentiated
- Classification by structure:
- Protein involved in blood clotting
● Granulocytes
○ Neutrophils
○ Eosinophils
Circulatory circuit
○ Basophils
d. Leads to fluid retention and
● Agranulocytes
eventually heart failure
○ Lymphocytes
4. Myocardial infarction/heart attack 6. Congenital heart disease

a. One or more coronary arteries

become blocked
b. Prolonged lack of oxygen supply in
the artery could lead to the death in
a section (myocardium) of the heart
muscle
5. Transient ischemic attack
a. One or more abnormalities in the
heart when born
b. Needs care throughout life
c. Symptoms: abnormal heart rhythms
(arrhythmias), bluish tint to the skin,
lips and fingernails (cyanosis),
swelling of body tissue or organ
(edema)

Chromosomes
- Long strands of genetic info located in the
nuclei of cells
- Most visible during cell division

Homologous Chromosomes
- Chromosome pairs
a. Clot blocks the blood supply on the
brain
Human Chromosomes
b. Blockage is brief, usually no
- 46 chromosomes in humans
permanent damage
- 23 pairs of chromosomes
c. Build-up of cholesterol-containing
fatty deposits called plaques in an
DNA
artery or one of its branches that
supplies oxygen and nutrients to the
brain
d. Symptoms: paralysis on face, leg or
arm, slurred or garbled speech,
blindness in one or both eyes, loss of
- Both alleles are dominant
balance or coordination
- Both phenotypes are present
 - Phenotypes are represented by two different - Stimulates the immune system to produce
letters antibodies
- Surface of RBC
Incomplete

- To blend in
- When neither allele is dominant
- The two alleles blend together to create a
new, blended phenotype
Rh group
- Phenotypes represented by only one letter
(ex: AA, Aa, aa)

- Rhesus monkey
- Presence of Rh antigens
- Rh-positive and Rh-negative

The ABO blood group

Antibodies

- Immunoglobulin
- Y-shaped molecules
- Help fight against foreign substances
- Found in blood (plasma)

Antigen Multiple alleles

- Genetically determined proteins - Many variations of a gene
- Gene exists in three or more forms

6. Tuberculosis
a. “Allergic alveolitis”
b. Lungs become inflamed as an
allergic reaction resulting from
exposure to dust of animal and
vegetable origin
c. Three kinds: acute, subacute,
chronic
4. Lung Cancer
a. Infection that inflames the air sacs
in one or both lungs; air sacs may fill
with fluid or pus
b. May be caused by bacteria, fungi or
virus
a. Disease caused by a bacteria called
mycobacterium tuberculosis
b. Usually attack the lungs, but can
also damage other parts of the body
c. Spreads through the air (cough,
sneeze, talk)
d. Developed because of the emergence
of HIV

a. Cancer in the lungs caused by an

abnormality of a cell
b. Smoking causes the majority of the
lung cancers
c. Number one cause of cancer deaths
in both men & women
d. Two types: small cell lung cancers,
non-small cell lung cancers
5. Pneumonia