17 Alysia Rose Folloso 

11 – St. Barbara 
 
Article # 1: Cultural Beliefs on Disease Causation in the Philippines: Challenge and
Implications in Genetic Counseling 

The paper entitled Cultural Beliefs on Disease Causation in the Philippines: Challenge
and Implications in Genetic Counseling explains the seven common Filipino cultural beliefs,
namely namamana, lihi, sumpa, gaba, pasma, namaligno, and kalooban ng Diyos, and its
implications on the genetic counseling in the Philippines. Namana is the Filipino term for
receiving a trait or disease from a parent. Lihi, like namamana, is an idea used to illustrate the
origin of particular characteristics of children. On the other hand, pasma, as they say, is exposure
illness. Meanwhile, curses in Filipino culture refers to sumpa and gaba. A human being
administers the hex in sumpa; while a divine being delivers the oath in gaba. Namaligno is a
concept that the interference of supernational beings induces diseases. Kalooban ng Diyos means
God's will; it is also associated with the phrase "mercy of God."  To end, the authors of the paper
compared culture to a double-sided coin; culture can be regarded as the root of our rich diversity,
but it can also be viewed as a hurdle towards better healthcare due to the variation in viewpoints.
The interplay between culture and health is essential to note since it affects an individual's
worldview and decision-making process. Rendering culturally sensitive and suitable elements
when giving counseling is vital to converse in a language that is coherent to the intended
patients. This paper also emphasized the need for health care providers to be open-minded and
involved in other cultures. Lastly, the authors remarked that some patients resort to these beliefs
as a coping mechanism; external forces might be easier for patients to admit, rather than internal
explanations. 

The first article, "Cultural Beliefs on Disease Causation in the Philippines: Challenge and
Implications in Genetic Counseling," is related to the week 2 lesson, particularly nonmaterial
culture. Nonmaterial cultures are intangible resources and components of society that shape the
patterns of behavior and function of its members (Atienza et al., 2016). Being a great example of
how nonmaterial culture influences societies, this article sparked my interest.
 As a Filipino, I am familiar with terms like "namamana," "lihi," "sumpa," and so on. I
found it interesting to stumble upon an article that examines the interaction of the medical field
with the cultural beliefs I grew up with. Moreover, as a Filipino and STEM student, it left an
impression on me. This article is relevant to me as a STEM student and as a Filipino who wants
to pursue medicine in the future. As a student taking Biology classes, I'll learn some concepts
that will disprove several of these notions. However, I cannot outright say that their beliefs are
erroneous. I have to articulate my words, sentences carefully to be able to converse with the
other person clearly, and courteously. In the context of being Filipino, these beliefs are practiced
by the majority in the Philippines. As mentioned by Abad et al., some Filipinos adopt these
cultural beliefs as a coping mechanism. With this in mind, I realized that some resort to these
beliefs to accept difficult news or diagnosis easier. By overcoming these cultural barriers, I can
engage in open dialogues with different people having different traditions or beliefs. 

In conclusion, after reading this article, I can say that culture is like a double-edged
sword. Culture improves our quality of life; nevertheless, cultural differences can lead to
miscommunication, unintentional discrimination, and so on. The drawbacks of culture, however,
can be easily negated by engaging with other cultures. Thus, it is by welcoming and accepting
different cultures that we can be able to interact and converse to individuals or communities with
different cultures. 
 
Article # 2: Understanding Breast Ironing: A Study of the Methods, Motivations, and
Outcomes of Breast Flattening Practices in Cameroon 

“Understanding Breast Ironing: A Study of the Methods, Motivations, and Outcomes of

Breast Flattening Practices in Cameroon” is an article written by Rebecca Tapscott (2012) that
analyzes the breast flattening of girls in Cameroon. The report offers a summary of findings done
in Cameroon by GIZ in 2005. Girls between the ages of eight to twelve years old undergo a
practice of massaging, pounding, or pressing the breast flat called breast ironing or breast
flattening. The mother, older sister, aunt, or grandmother of the girl often performs the practice;
however, in rare cases, a nurse, caretaker, or the girl herself may perform it. An object, such as
stone, a wooden pestle, broom, or belt, is heated and then applied in a pressing, pounding, or
massaging motion. Some side effects experienced from this practice is undermining of breast
growth, burning, inflammation, abscesses, trouble breastfeeding, scarring, breast cancer, and
emotional distress. This practice is prompt by the notion of dissuading unwanted sexual gestures
from men who may regard breasts as a sign of sexual development; however, this practice
also stems from limited sex education, a lack of access to contraceptives, illegality of abortion,
and gender inequality between males and females. In addition, this practice may have developed
as a coping device for females to enjoy their childhood while aided by the illusion that a teenager
is not yet sexually mature.  In regards to this, in Cameroon, GIZ and RENATA are currently
fighting against breast flattening. Moreover, government and non-governmental agencies around
the globe are advocating against breast ironing as such is a violation of women's and children's
rights. 
 
This article sparked my interest since this was one of the topics I taught last year when I
was a student-teacher. During that time, I taught human rights violations of women, and one of
the practices discussed was breast ironing or breast flattening. The first thing that came to my
mind then was how cruel these practices were; however, I reconsidered my opinions after
discovering cultural relativism.

During the third week of online classes, one of the concepts presented was Franz Boa's
theory of cultural relativism. Cultural relativism asserts that no culture's ethics are better than any
other; therefore, no culture is right or wrong (Donaldson, 2016). For this reason, I pondered on
the universality of human rights. The mystery of human rights as universal or culturally relative
has been a major subject of debate (Masood, 2019). So, regarding breast flattening and cultural
relativism, are we invalidating this practice in Cameroon because this is in contradiction to our
own culture and traditions? Am I using my own standards to evaluate a different culture even
though both cultures have different standpoints?

These questions and realizations of mine, mentioned a while ago, applied to me as a

STEM student and a Filipino citizen. Along the way, I will experience unfamiliar and unknown
traditions, practices, and beliefs in school and in the community. By fairly examining these
foreign cultures, I will be able to ascertain them in an unbiased manner.
 To summarize, the theory of cultural relativism will help me discern the importance of
impartial judgments. When judging an unfamiliar or different culture, using the standards of
one’s own culture would just lead to inaccurate and prejudiced opinions. However, with that
said, I believe that the theory of cultural relativism is irrelevant to human rights. I believe that
human rights are universal and that inhuman traditions should be discontinued. As noted by
Tapscott, breast ironing stems from gender inequality, limited sex education, and so on. Hence,
as more developed countries, let us extend a helping hand to the victims of these cruel practices.
Through the use of social media applications and other platforms, let us inform the people
around the world about the inhuman traditions performed. 
 
Article # 3: Combating healthcare corruption and fraud with improved global health
governance 

Mackey and Liang's (2012) research analyzes the dynamics between corruption and fraud
in health care. To address this issue, the authors suggested a global health governance framework
to acquaint readers with global health dishonesty and its implications. Corruption in the medical
field includes bribery of health experts and public officials, immoral research, alteration or
embezzlement of medicines and medical equipment, swindling or overbilling for health services,
and absenteeism. A severe threat to the medical field, corruption leads to monetary loss and
unpropitious health outcomes. Health fraud can also critically imperil the quality and reach of
services, resulting in price inflation for health services. Moreover, corruption in the health field
hinders countries from meeting the Millennium Development Goals. In a global prospect,
corruption in the health field may give rise to a globalized drug supply chain, immigration of
health workers, substandard global health security, and other illicit acts. To end, the authors
acknowledged global health corruption as an ongoing threat to global health development.
Corruption denies citizens the fundamental right to receive a high standard of health. Local and
international institutions must unite together to secure health equity across the globe. 

Seeing the relevancy of the article’s title to the current problems our country is facing, the
research conducted by Mackey and Liang (2012) greatly caught my attention.  As said by
Baticulo, a journalist at CNN, the Philippines was not ready for the pandemic. Hospitals are
understaffed and lack the needed equipment. Also, embezzlement and fraud are presently
existing in Philippine Health Insurance Corp., as reported by Gotinga, a journalist
at Rappler (Gotinga, 2012). Taking that into account, I think it is only fitting to include an article
that is currently relevant to the issues we are facing in the present.

Political science is one of the lessons taught during the first week of classes. Political
science focuses on the fundamental values of equality, freedom, and justice (Atienza et al.,
2016). With this in mind, I believe that the article "Combating Healthcare Corruption and Fraud
with Improved Global Health Governance" is an example of the interplay between politics and
health. As pointed out by Mackey and Liang, corruption in the medical field leads to several
drawbacks and consequences. 

As a student taking up STEM, I am affected by this. Resources that could have been
allotted for researches and studies are embezzled for personal gain. While, as a Filipino citizen,
the people close to me may experience casualties or diseases. However, because of the
corruption in the medical field, the country's healthcare is untrustworthy and incompetent. Also,
health is one of the most important factors a person has to keep in check. With
Filipinos having little to none access to high-quality healthcare in times of sickness,
their productivity greatly drops. A decline in productivity will, in turn, affect the GDP of the
Philippines.

To conclude, the country must address the ongoing corruption in the medical field. As
said in the article, corruption denies the Filipinos of one of their fundamental human rights- the
enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health. The Philippine government must craft
strategic policies to approach, mitigate, and resolve corruption. This action is not only for
economic benefits but because it is their responsibility to be of service to the Filipinos as public
servants. 
 
 
 
 
Bibliographies:  
 
Abad, P., Tan, M., Baluyot, M., Villa, A., Talapian, G., Reyes, M., Suarez, R., Sur, A., Aldemita,
V., Padilla, C., & Laurino, M. (2014). Cultural beliefs on disease causation in the
Philippines: challenge and implications in genetic counseling. Retrieved September 21,
2020, from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12687-014-0193-1 
Atienza, M., Franco, J., Lusterio, R., & Arugay, A. (2016). Chapter 2 Understanding Culture and
Society. Understanding culture, science, and politics (pp. 15-23). 839 EDSA, Quezon
City: C & E Publishing. 
Baticulon, R. (2020). Opinion: The Philippine health care system was never ready for a
pandemic. Retrieved September 23, 2020, from
https://cnnphilippines.com/life/culture/2020/3/20/healthcare-pandemic-opinion.html 
Donaldson, T. (2016). Values in Tension: Ethics Away from Home. Retrieved September 22,
2020, from https://hbr.org/1996/09/values-in-tension-ethics-away-from-home 
Gotinga, J. (2020). Gov't task force also uncovers alleged rampant corruption in PhilHealth.
Retrieved September 23, 2020, from https://rappler.com/nation/executive-probe-also-
uncovers-alleged-rampant-corruption-philhealth 
Mackey, T. & Liang, B. (2012). Combating healthcare corruption and fraud with improved
global health governance. Retrieved September 22, 2020 from
https://bmcinthealthhumrights.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-698X-12-23 
Masood, H. (2019). Universalism and cultural relativism in international human rights
discourse. Retrieved September 22, 2020, from
https://www.statecraft.co.in/article/universalism-and-cultural-relativism-in-international-
human-rights-discourse 
Paul, J. (n.d.). Cultural relativism vs. universalism. Retrieved September 22, 2020, from
https://www.globalpolicy.org/home/163-general/29441.html 
Tapscott, R. (2012). Understanding breast "ironing": A study of the methods, motivations, and
outcomes of breast flattening practices in Cameroon. Retrieved September 21, 2020, from
https://fic.tufts.edu/assets/Understanding-breast-flattening.pdf