F214 Communication and Homeostasis

Communication

(a) outline the need for communication systems within multicellular organisms, with reference to
the need to respond to changes in the internal and external environment and to coordinate the
activities of different organs

All living things need to maintain a certain limited set of conditions inside their cells. This is because
the cellular activities rely on the action of enzymes, which are sensitive to changes in things such as
temperature and pH. Cells produce waste products which may alter these factors.

Changes in the environment – both internal and external – must be monitored and the organism
must change its behaviour or physiology to reduce the stress. The environmental change is a
stimulus and the way in which the organism changes is its response.

Multicellular organisms have differently specialised cells which make up tissues, which make up
organs, and perform different functions. A communication system that covers the whole body is
therefore needed that allows rapid and specific communication between cells for both short-term
and long-term responses.

(b) state that cells need to communicate with each other by a process called cell signalling

(c) state that neuronal and hormonal systems are examples of cell signalling

(d) define the terms negative feedback, positive feedback and homeostasis

Negative feedback is a process in which any change in a parameter brings about the reversal of that
change so that the parameter is kept fairly constant.

Positive feedback is a process in which any change in a parameter brings about an increase in that
change.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of the internal environment in a constant state, within narrow
limits, despite external changes.

(e) explain the principles of homeostasis in terms of receptors, effectors and negative feedback

Stimulus  receptor  communication pathway (cell signalling)  effector  response

Sensory receptors monitor conditions. If they detect a change they will be stimulated to send a
message. A communication system such as the nervous system or the hormonal system acts by
signalling between cells. It is used to transmit a message from the receptor cells to the effector cells.
The message may or may not pass through a coordination centre such as the brain.

Effector cells bring about a response that reverses the change detected by the receptor cells.

(f) describe the physiological and behavioural responses that maintain a constant core body
temperature in ectotherms and endotherms, with reference to peripheral temperature receptors,
the hypothalamus and effectors in skin and muscles

An ectotherm is an organism that relies on external sources of heat to regulate its body
temperature.
Advantages:

 Less food used in respiration, so a greater proportion of energy used for growth
 Don’t need to find as much food and can last longer without eating

Disadvantages:

 They are less active in the cold, so need to warm up in the morning – greater risk of
predation
 They may not be capable of activity during winter, so they need to have sufficient stores of
energy to survive over winter without eating

An endotherm is an organism that can use internal sources of heat, such as heat generated from
metabolism in the liver, to maintain its body temperature.

Advantages:

 Actively possible when external temperatures are cool, such as at night or in winter
 Can inhabit colder parts of the planet

Disadvantages:

 A significant part of the energy intake is used to maintain body temperature

 More food required
 Less of the energy is available for growth

The thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus monitors blood temperature and detects and
changes in the core body temperature. Also, the peripheral thermoreceptors can be stimulated by a
change in external temperature to send impulses to the hypothalamus. The brain can then initiate
behavioural or physiological changes to reverse the temperature change (negative feedback).

Behavioural changes:

 Exposes body to sun – enables more heat to be absorbed.

 Orientate body away from or towards the sun (e.g. locusts face the sun side-on) – exposes
more/less surface area.
 Hide in burrow – reduces heat absorption.
 Alter body shape – exposes more or less surface area to the sun.
 Increase breathing movements (panting) – evaporates more water, losing heat for latent
heat of vaporisation.
 Move about to generate heat in muscles (endotherms only).

Physiological changes (mostly endotherms):

 Smooth muscle surrounding arterioles leading to capillaries in skin relax to allow

vasodilation. This allows more blood into the capillaries near the skin surface so more heat is
lost by radiation/conduction.
 Conversely the smooth muscles can contract, causing vasoconstriction. This reduces blood
flow to the skin, so less heat is lost by radiation/conduction.
 Involuntary spontaneous contractions of skeletal muscles (shivering) generates heat from
increased respiration.
 Adrenaline/thyroxine can be released to cause an increase in metabolism in liver cells to
generate heat.
  Pili erector muscles can raise hair to trap a layer of insulating air to prevent heat loss by
conduction. Conversely they could make the hairs lie flat to prevent this.
 Sweat glands in skin secrete sweat. Water in sweat evaporates, using heat from blood to
supply latent heat of vaporisation, hence cooling the organism.

Nerves

(a) outline the roles of sensory receptors in mammals in converting different forms of energy into
nerve impulses

Sensory receptors are specialised cells that can detect changes in our surroundings. They are energy
transducers that convert one form of energy into another. Each type of inducer is adapted to detect
changes in a particular form of energy (stimulus). Whatever the stimulus, the sensory receptors
convert the energy into a form of electrical energy called a nerve impulse.

Examples of receptors include rods and cones, olfactory cells in the nasal cavity, taste buds, sound
receptors and muscle spindles.

(b) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure and functions of sensory and motor neurones

The axon carries the impulses away from the cell body.

Sensory neurones carry the action potential from a sensory receptor to the central nervous system
(CNS).

Motor neurones carry an action potential from the CNS to an effector such as a muscle or gland.

Relay neurones connect sensory and motor neurones.

Both neurones have many mitochondria, ribosomes, dendrites and ion pumps/channels. Many are
very long with a myelin sheath.

Motor Neurone Sensory Neurone

Cell body in CNS Cell body not in CNS (it’s in the PNS)
Cell body at the end Cell body in the middle
Dendrites connect to cell body Dendrites don’t connect to cell body
Longer axon Shorter axon
No dendron Dendron present
Ends at motor end plate Starts at sensory receptor

(c) describe and explain how the resting potential is established and maintain

The resting potential is the potential difference or voltage across the neurone cell membrane while
the neurone is at rest. It is about -60mV inside the cell compared with the outside.
Sodium/potassium pumps use ATP to actively pump 3 Na + ions out of the cell for every 2 K+ ions that
are pumped in. The plasma membrane is more permeable to K + ions than to Na+ ions so more K+ ions
diffuse back out (down the concentration gradient) than Na + ions diffuse back in. The cell cytoplasm
also contains large numbers of organic anions. Hence, the interior of the cell is maintained at a
negative potential compared to the outside. The plasma membrane is said to be polarised.

Other cells may also maintain a resting potential that might change under certain circumstances.

(d) describe and explain how an action potential is generated

A stimulus causes some sodium ion channels to open, so Na + ions diffuse down their concentration
gradient into the cell. This causes depolarisation of the membrane. If the depolarisation is large
enough to reach the threshold potential of -50mV, nearby voltage-gated sodium ion channels will
open. This causes a large influx of Na+ ions and the depolarisation reaches +40mV, which is an action
potential. This can then be transmitted along the axon or dendron plasma membrane.

An action potential being produced depends on reaching the threshold potential. It is all or nothing.

(e) describe and explain how an action potential is transmitted in a myelinated neurone, with
reference to the roles of voltage-gated sodium ion and potassium ion channels

The action potential is transmitted by local currents. The Na + ions diffuse down their
concentration/electrochemical gradient sideways along the membrane. This causes voltage-gated
sodium ion channels in the next region of the plasma membrane to open so Na + ions diffuse in,
producing new actions potentials. This causes a wave of depolarisation to travel along the neurone.
The wave moves in one direction (forward) because parts of the membrane in the refractory period
can’t fire an action potential; sodium and potassium ion channels are closed.

The myelin sheath, made of fatty Schwann cells (that produce myelin), is an electrical insulator so
ions can’t pass through the membrane, and depolarisation is prevented. The impulse therefore
‘jumps’ from node to node (the nodes of Ranvier, gaps between the Schwann cells) where sodium
ion channels are concentrated. At these points only, the Na + ions cause voltage-gated sodium ion
channels to open to set up a new action potential. This is called saltatory conduction.

In myelinated neurones the local currents are longer, which speeds up the transmission of the action
potential.
(f) interpret graphs of the voltage changes taking place during the generation and transmission of an
action potential

1. The membrane starts in resting state – polarised with a potential difference of -60mV.
2. Na+ ion channels open and some sodium ions diffuse into the cell.
3. The membrane depolarises and the potential difference reaches the threshold value of
-50mV.
4. Voltage-gated sodium ion channels open and many Na + ions diffuse in, depolarising the
membrane further.
5. The potential difference across the plasma membrane reaches +40mV.
6. The sodium ion channels close and the potassium ion channels open.
7. K+ ions diffuse out of the cell, increasing negativity inside the cell. This is repolarisation.
8. The potential difference overshoots slightly, making the cell hyperpolarised.
9. The original potential difference is restored by sodium/potassium pumps so that the cell
returns to its resting state.

(g) outline the significance of the frequency of impulse transmission

An action potential is an all or nothing response. The action potential does not vary in size or
intensity. When a stimulus is at a higher intensity the sensory receptor will produce more generator
potentials. This will cause more frequent action potentials in the sensory neurone. When they arrive
at the synapse they will cause more vesicles to be released. In turn, this creates a higher frequency
of action potentials in the postsynaptic neurone. Our brain can determine the intensity of the
stimulus from the frequency of the signals arriving. A higher frequency of signals is interpreted as a
more intense stimulus.
(h) compare and contrast the structure and function of myelinated and non-myelinated neurones

Myelinated neurones are electrically insulated by a myelin sheath, which consists of Schwann cells
which produce the fatty substance myelin. They are wrapped around the neurone, so the sheath
consists of layers of membrane and cytoplasm. Every 1-3mm there are gaps called the nodes of
Ranvier, about 2-3mm long. Non-myelinated neurones are enshrouded in a loosely wrapped
Schwann cell.

Action potential transmission is quicker in myelinated neurones as saltatory conduction occurs

whereas it occurs in waves in the non-myelinated; the local currents are longer in myelinated
neurones.

Myelinated neurones carry signals: sensory neurone  CNS  effector. They carry signals over long
distances, and enables a more rapid response to a stimulus.

Non-myelinated neurones are shorter and are involved in functions such as breathing or digestive
system, so speed isn’t as important.

(i) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of a cholinergic synapse

There are also voltage-gated calcium ion channels (Ca 2+) in the presynaptic membrane.
(j) outline the role of neurotransmitters in the transmission of action potentials

An action potential arrives at the synaptic knob, which causes voltage-gated calcium ion channels to
open. Calcium ions diffuse down their concentration gradient into the synaptic knob, and cause
synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitter substance (acetylcholine) to move to and fuse with
the presynaptic membrane. Acetylcholine is released by exocytosis and diffuses across the synaptic
cleft.

The acetylcholine molecules bind to the receptor sites on the sodium ion channels in the
postsynaptic membrane. The sodium ion channels open and Na + diffuses across the membrane into
the neurone. A generator potential is created. If enough generator potentials combine then it will
reach the threshold potential, and a new action potential is created in the postsynaptic neurone.

Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme found in the synaptic cleft. It hydrolyses the acetylcholine to

ethanoic acid (acetate) and choline. This stops the transmission of signals so that the synapse does
not continue to produce action potentials in the postsynaptic neurone. The ethanoic acid and
choline are recycled. They re-enter the synaptic knob by diffusion and are recombined using ATP
from respiration in the mitochondria. The recycled acetylcholine is stored in synaptic vesicles for
future use.

(k) outline the roles of synapses in the nervous system

The main role is to connect two neurones together so a signal can be passed on.

Several presynaptic neurones might converge to one postsynaptic neurone. This would allow signals
from different parts of the nervous system to create the same response. It is useful for warning of
danger from multiple stimuli.

One presynaptic neurone might diverge to several postsynaptic neurones. This would allow one
signal to be transmitted to several parts of the nervous system. It is useful in a reflex arc – a signal
goes to an effector and another informs the brain.

It ensures that signals are transmitted in the correct direction – only the presynaptic knob contains
the neurotransmitter and only the postsynaptic membrane has the specific receptors to set up a new
action potential.

It filters out low-level signals. Several vesicles of neurotransmitter must be released to make a new
action potential.

Low level signals can be amplified by summation. If the low-level signal is persistent it will generate
several successive action potentials in the postsynaptic membrane. The release of many vesicles of
neurotransmitter over a short period of time will enable the postsynaptic generator potentials to
combine together to produce an action potential (temporal summation). It can also occur when
several presynaptic neurones each release small numbers of vesicles into one synapse (spatial
summation).

Acclimatisation – after repeated stimulation a synapse may run out of vesicles containing the
neurotransmitter substance. The synapse is said to be fatigued. This means the nervous system no
longer responds to the stimulus. It helps to avoid overstimulation of the effector, which could
damage it.

The creation of specific pathways within the nervous system is thought to be the basis of conscious
thought and memory.
Hormones

(a) define the terms endocrine gland, exocrine gland, hormone and target tissue

An endocrine gland is a gland that secretes hormones directly into the blood.

An exocrine gland is a gland that secretes substances into a duct that carries the substance to where
it is used.

Hormones are molecules that are released by endocrine glands directly into the blood. They act as
chemical messengers, carrying a signal from the endocrine gland to a specific target organ or tissue.

The target cells are those that possess a specific receptor on their plasma membrane. The shape of
the receptor is complementary to the shape of the hormone molecule. Many similar cells together
form a tissue.

(b) explain the meaning of the terms first messenger and second messenger, with reference to
adrenaline and cyclic AMP (cAMP)

The first messenger is the hormone that transmits the signal around the body.

The second messenger is cAMP, which transmits a signal inside the cell.

There are two types of hormones: protein/peptide/amino acid derivative, and steroid hormones.
Only steroid hormones can pass through the plasma membrane as they are lipid-soluble. Adrenaline
is an amino acid derivative. The adrenaline receptor on the cell surface membrane has a shape
complementary to the shape of the adrenaline molecule. The receptor is associated with an enzyme
on the inner surface of the cell surface membrane, called adenyl cyclase.

Adrenaline (the first messenger) travels in the blood and binds to its specific, complementary shaped
receptor on the cell surface membrane. This activates the enzyme adenyl cyclase. The adenyl cyclase
converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP). cAMP is the second messenger. cAMP activates a cascade of
enzyme-controlled reactions, first activating protein kinase, finally activating glycogen
phosphorylase, to hydrolyse glycogen.

(c) describe the functions of the adrenal glands

The adrenal medulla is found in the centre of the gland. The cells in the medulla manufacture and
release the adrenaline hormone in response to stress such as pain or shock. The effects of
adrenaline are widespread:

 Relax smooth muscle in the bronchioles

 Increase stroke volume of the heart
 Increase heart rate
 Cause general vasoconstriction to raise blood pressure
 Stimulate conversion of glycogen to glucose
 Dilate the pupils
 Increase mental awareness
 Inhibit the action of the gut
 Cause body hair to erect

Most cells have adrenaline receptors.

The adrenal cortex uses cholesterol to produce certain steroid hormones. These have a variety of
roles in the body:

 The mineralocorticoids help to control the concentrations of sodium and potassium in the
blood.
 The glucocorticoids help to control the metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins in the
liver.

Adrenal glands are found just above the kidneys.

(d) describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the histology of the pancreas, and outline its
role as an endocrine and exocrine gland
The pancreas is a small organ lying below the stomach. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions.
The majority of the cells secrete digestive enzymes, which is the exocrine function. The cells are in
small groups surrounding a tubule which joins to other tubules to make up the pancreatic duct. The
release of the enzymes is triggered by nervous/hormonal stimulation and they flow into the small
intestine/duodenum. The fluid contains the enzymes amylase, trypsinogen, and lipase, as well as
sodium hydrogencarbonate (pH 8) to neutralise the acidic substances of the stomach.

In the islets of Langerhans, the alpha-cells secrete glucagon, and the beta-cells secrete insulin. The
islets are well supplied with blood capillaries and these hormones are secreted directly into the
blood. This is the endocrine function of the pancreas.

(e) explain how blood glucose concentration is regulated, with reference to insulin, glucagon and the
liver

The normal blood concentration of glucose is 90mg 100cm -3.

A low blood glucose concentration is detected by the alpha-cells, which secrete the hormone
glucagon in response. Its target cells are hepatocytes which have the specific receptor for glucagon
on their plasma membranes. Glucagon binds to the complementary shaped receptors and has these
effects:

 There is an increased conversion of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis) by hydrolysis, which

is catalysed by glycogen phosphorylase (activated by glycogen phosphorylase kinase).
 Triglycerides are converted to fatty acids, and there is an increased use of fatty acids as a
substrate in respiration instead of glucose.
 Glucose is produced by conversion from amino acids and lipids (gluconeogenesis).
 Glucose leaves cells by facilitated diffusion through glucose channels.

Glucagon also reduces insulin secretion. The overall effect of these changes is to increase the blood
glucose concentration. Negative feedback then reduces the secretion of glucagon, to prevent the
blood concentration rising too high.

A high blood glucose concentration is detected by the beta-cells, which secrete insulin in response.
Its target cells include hepatocytes, muscle cells and other effectors. Insulin binds to the
complementary shaped receptors and the effects include:

 More glucose transport proteins are placed in the plasma membrane, so there is an
increased uptake of glucose into the target cell through the proteins.
 Glucose is converted to glycogen for storage (glycogenesis).
 More glucose in converted to lipids.
 There is an increased use of glucose as a respiratory substrate, instead of fatty acids.

The increased entry of glucose, through the specific channels, reduces blood glucose concentration.
These are cellular effects, caused by adenyl cyclase converting AMP to cAMP (the second
messenger) which activates protein kinase etc.
(f) outline how insulin secretion is controlled, with reference to potassium channels and calcium
channels in beta cells

1. The plasma membranes of the beta-cells have potassium and calcium ion channels.
2. K+ ion channels are normally open, so K+ ions diffuse out, thus producing a resting potential
of -70mV.
3. When glucose concentrations outside the cell are high, glucose diffuses into the cell.
4. The glucose enters the glycolysis pathway and is used in metabolism to produce ATP.
5. The extra ATP causes the potassium ion channels to close.
6. K+ can no longer diffuse out, so the potential difference across the plasma membrane is less
negative.
7. The change in potential difference opens the voltage-gated calcium ion channels to open, so
Ca2+ ions diffuse in.
8. Calcium ions make the vesicles containing insulin to move to and fuse with the cell surface
membrane, releasing insulin by exocytosis.

(g) compare and contrast the causes of Type 1 (insulin-dependent) and Type 2 (non-insulin-
dependent) diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which blood glucose concentrations cannot be controlled effectively.
Hyperglycaemia is when the blood glucose concentration is too high, hypoglycaemia is when it is too
low.

Type 1 diabetes is insulin-dependent, and is juvenile-onset. It is the result of an autoimmune

response, where the body’s own immune system attacks and destroys the beta-cells. It could also
result from a viral attack. The body cannot produce insulin and cannot store excess glucose as
glycogen.

Type 2 diabetes in non-insulin-dependent as the body can still produce insulin. However, the specific
receptors lose their ability to respond to insulin over time. The factors for earlier onset are an older
age, obesity, a diet high in sugars, being of Asian or Afro-Caribbean origin, or family history
(genetics).
(h) discuss the use of insulin produced by genetically modified bacteria, and the potential use of
stem cells, to treat diabetes mellitus

Insulin used to be extracted from the pancreas of animals. More recently, insulin has been produced
by genetically engineered bacteria. It is an exact copy of human insulin, so it is faster acting and
more effective. There is also less chance of developing a tolerance to it, rejection due to an immune
response, or infection. It is also cheaper, and the manufacturing process is more adaptable to
demand as there is a plentiful, dependable supply. Some people are less likely to have ethical
objections to using the insulin produced by bacteria as it is not cruel to pigs. Also, there are no
religious objections and can be used by vegetarians.

Research has shown that it may be possible to treat type 1 diabetes using stem cells. These are not
yet differentiated and can be induced to develop into a variety of cell types. Scientists have found
precursor cells in the pancreas of adult mice, which can develop into many cell types. If similar cells
can be found in the human pancreas they could be used to produce new beta-cells. This would be
better than insulin injections because it has the potential to cure type 1 diabetes and has a long-term
effect (no need for repeated treatments).

(i) outline the hormonal and nervous mechanisms involved in the control of heart rate in humans

The heart muscle is myogenic (can initiate its own contractions). The heart is supplied by nerves
from the cardiovascular centre in the medulla oblongata. These connect to the sinoatrial node (SAN)
which controls the frequency of the waves of excitation. Impulses sent down the accelerator
(sympathetic) nerve increase the heart rate. Impulses sent down the vagus (parasympathetic) nerve
decrease the heart rate. Receptors send impulses to the cardiovascular centre via sensory neurones
to have the desired effect:

 Movement of limbs is detected by stretch receptors in muscles. This increases heart rate to
receive more oxygen.
 Excess CO2 from exercise reduces the pH of the blood. This is detected by chemoreceptors in
the carotid arteries, the aorta and the brain. This increases heart rate to remove CO 2 more
quickly from the lungs.
 Blood pressure is monitored by stretch receptors (baroreceptors) in the walls on the carotid
sinus. This is a small swelling in the carotid artery. If blood pressure is too high, the heart
rate is decreased.

Adrenaline is released in response to stress, shock, anticipation or excitement. The presence of

adrenaline in the blood increases heart rate, to help prepare the body for activity.